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Handbook of Research
on Equity in Computer
Science in P-16 Education
Jared Keengwe
University of North Dakota, USA
Yune Tran
Montclair State University, USA
A volume in the Advances in Early Childhood and

K-12 Education (AECKE) Book Series
Published in the United States of America by
IGI Global
Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
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Hershey PA, USA 17033
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Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
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Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Keengwe, Jared, 1973- editor. | Tran, Yune, 1979- editor.

Title: Handbook of research on equity in computer science in P-16 education
/ Jared Keengwe, Yune Tran.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference , [2021] |
Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book
highlights the issues, perspectives, and challenges faced in P-16
environments (i.e. gender and racial imbalances of students in CS
classes; population of growing CS teachers who are predominantly white
and male; what and who are the high-school gate keepers of CS courses;
teacher preparation or lack of faculty expertise; professional
development programs; and college admission criteria for CS programs)
while exploring the challenges and policies that are created to limit
access, and thus, reinforce systems of power and privilege”-- Provided
by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020021611 (print) | LCCN 2020021612 (ebook) | ISBN
9781799847397 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799847403 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Computer science--Study and teaching--Social
aspects--United States. | Minorities--Education--United States. |
Educational equalization--United States. | Multicultural
education--United States. | Technical education teachers--Training
of--United States. | Digital divide--United States.
Classification: LCC QA76.27 .H3544 2021 (print) | LCC QA76.27 (ebook) |
DDC 004.071--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020021611
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020021612
This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Early Childhood and K-12 Education (AECKE) (ISSN:
2329-5929; eISSN: 2329-5937)
British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com.

Advances in Early Childhood
and K-12 Education (AECKE)
Book Series
Jared Keengwe
ISSN:2329-5929
EISSN:2329-5937
Mission
Early childhood and K-12 education is always evolving as new methods and tools are developed through
which to shape the minds of today’s youth. Globally, educational approaches vary allowing for new
discussions on the best methods to not only educate, but also measure and analyze the learning process
as well as an individual’s intellectual development. New research in these fields is necessary to improve
the current state of education and ensure that future generations are presented with quality learning op-
portunities.
The Advances in Early Childhood and K-12 Education (AECKE) series aims to present the lat-
est research on trends, pedagogies, tools, and methodologies regarding all facets of early childhood and
K-12 education.
Coverage
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posal for a volume in this series, please contact our
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The Advances in Early Childhood and K-12 Education (AECKE) Book Series (ISSN 2329-5929) is published by IGI Global, 701 E.
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The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.
Titles in this Series
For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit:
https://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-early-childhood-education/76699
Transformative Pedagogical Perspectives on Home Language Use in Classrooms

Janice E. Jules (The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados) and Korah L. Belgrave (The
University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados)
Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 282pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799840756) • US $185.00
Designing Culturally Competent Programming for PK-20 Classrooms

Katherine Sprott (Lamar University, USA) Johnny R. O’Connor Jr. (Lamar University, USA) and Clementine
Msengi (Lamar University, USA)
Computer-Based Mathematics Education and the Use of MatCos Software in Primary and Secondary Schools
Francesco Aldo Costabile (University of Calabria, Italy) Mariavittoria Altomare (Instituto Comprensivo Borticello
(CZ) Ilaria Alpi, Italy) and Gianluca Tricoli (University of Calabria, Italy)
Multifaceted Strategies for Social-Emotional Learning and Whole Learner Education

Carissa McCray (The Harley-Jackson Foundation, USA)
International Perspectives on Modern Developments in Early Childhood Education

Cristina A. Huertas-Abril (University of Córdoba, Spain) and María Elena Gómez-Parra (University of Córdoba,
Spain)
Handbook of Research on Tools for Teaching Computational Thinking in P-12 Education

Michail Kalogiannakis (University of Crete, Greece) and Stamatios Papadakis (University of Crete, Greece)
Applying Flow Theory to Strings Education in P-12 and Community Schools Emerging Research and
Opportunities
Taichi Akutsu (Okayama Prefectural University, Japan & Seisa University, Japan)
701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA

Tel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661
E-Mail: cust@igi-global.com • www.igi-global.com
Editorial Advisory Board
Joachim Agamba, Idaho State University, USA
Douglas Agyei, University of Cape Coast, Ghana
Fatuma Chege, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Susan Elwood, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, USA
Frederick K. Iraki, United States International University-Africa, Kenya
Ken Kungu, Clayton State University, USA
Lydia Kyei-Blankson, Illinois State University, USA
Esther Ntuli, Idaho State University, USA
Arnold Nyarambi, East Tennessee State University, USA
Patient Rambe, Central University of Technology, South Africa
Jerono Rotich, North Carolina A&T State University, USA
Peggy Semingson, The University of Texas at Arlington, USA
Maureen Short, North Carolina Central University, USA
Patrick Wachira, Cleveland State University, USA
List of Contributors
Alshaya, Khalifa / University of North Dakota, USA ....................................................................... 185

Araka, Eric / Technical University of Kenya, Kenya ........................................................................ 278
Awoyemi, Richard Oluwadolapo / Adeyemi Federal College of Education, Nigeria ...................... 165
Awoyemi, Robert Akinade / Adeyemi Federal College of Education, Nigeria................................. 165
Beck, Pamela / University of North Dakota, USA ............................................................................ 185
Eguchi, Amy / University of California, San Diego, USA .................................................................. 44
Fedorko-Bartos, Kristi-Mari / University of Calgary, Canada ...................................................... 148
Floyd, Steven Paul / Western University, Canada ............................................................................... 31
Fuhrmann, Laura L. / Independent Researcher, USA ........................................................................ 14
Gitonga, Rhoda / Kenyatta University, Kenya.................................................................................. 278
Glass, Wykeshia W. / North Carolina Central University, USA ....................................................... 105
Hagiwara, Sumi / Montclair State University, USA ........................................................................... 70
Hickman, Desiree G. / Sam Houston State University, USA ............................................................. 105
Hur, Jung Won / Auburn University, USA .......................................................................................... 88
Incikabi, Lutfi / Kastamonu University, Turkey ............................................................................... 219
Incikabi, Semahat / Kastamonu University, Turkey ......................................................................... 219
Kamunya, Samuel Muthee / South Eastern Kenyan University, Kenya ........................................... 201
Lee, Michael J. / New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA................................................................... 1
Liu, Yang / University of Calgary, Canada ...................................................................................... 123
Lock, Jennifer / University of Calgary, Canada .............................................................................. 148
Maina, Elizaphan / Kenyatta University, Kenya .............................................................................. 278
Maina, Elizaphan Muuro / Kenyatta University, Kenya .................................................................. 201
Miriti, Evans Kirimi / University of Nairobi, Kenya ........................................................................ 201
Oboko, Robert / University of Nairobi, Kenya ................................................................................. 278
Oboko, Robert Obwocha / University of Nairobi, Kenya ......................................................... 201, 248
Ochukut, Selina Atwani / University of Nairobi, Kenya ................................................................... 248
Reaves, Calvin M. / North Carolina Central University, USA .......................................................... 105
Rodriguez, Neledith Janis / Montclair State University, USA ............................................................ 70
Serin, Mehmet Koray / Kastamonu University, Turkey .................................................................... 219
Turner, Kristal Louise / University of Calgary, Canada .................................................................. 148
Vemula, Srikanth / University of the Incarnate Word, USA ............................................................ 265
Wallace, Andrea M. / Independent Researcher, USA ......................................................................... 14
Wise, Kathy / University of Calgary, Canada .................................................................................. 148
Table of Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xvi
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................. xx
Chapter 1
Providing Near-Peer Mentorship to Increase Underrepresented Minority Youth Participation in
Computing............................................................................................................................................... 1
Michael J. Lee, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA
Chapter 2
The Snowball Effect: A Perspective on the Challenges to Computer Science Education in K-12 ....... 14
Laura L. Fuhrmann, Independent Researcher, USA
Andrea M. Wallace, Independent Researcher, USA
Chapter 3
Female Enrolment in High School Computer Science Courses ........................................................... 31
Steven Paul Floyd, Western University, Canada
Chapter 4
Educational Robotics for Creating Effective Computer Science Learning for All ............................... 44
Amy Eguchi, University of California, San Diego, USA
Chapter 5
English Learners (EL) and Computer Science (CS) Learning: Equity Issues ...................................... 70
Sumi Hagiwara, Montclair State University, USA
Neledith Janis Rodriguez, Montclair State University, USA
Chapter 6
Minority Students in Computer Science: Barriers to Access and Strategies to Promote Participation 88
Jung Won Hur, Auburn University, USA

Chapter 7
Teacher Preparation in Computer Science Pre-Service and Inservice Programs ............................... 105
Wykeshia W. Glass, North Carolina Central University, USA
Desiree G. Hickman, Sam Houston State University, USA
Calvin M. Reaves, North Carolina Central University, USA
Chapter 8
Teacher-Designed Games: A New Era in Education? ........................................................................ 123
Yang Liu, University of Calgary, Canada
Chapter 9
Role of Mentorship and Reflection in Leading Learning Through Making: A Pilot Project ............. 148
Jennifer Lock, University of Calgary, Canada
Kristi-Mari Fedorko-Bartos, University of Calgary, Canada
Kristal Louise Turner, University of Calgary, Canada
Kathy Wise, University of Calgary, Canada
Chapter 10
Behavioral Innovations in Computer Science and Computational Thinking in P-16 Education ........ 165
Richard Oluwadolapo Awoyemi, Adeyemi Federal College of Education, Nigeria
Robert Akinade Awoyemi, Adeyemi Federal College of Education, Nigeria
Chapter 11
The Perceived Appropriateness of Digital Games From ELL Teachers ............................................. 185
Khalifa Alshaya, University of North Dakota, USA
Pamela Beck, University of North Dakota, USA
Chapter 12
A Systematic Review of Gamification Within E-Learning................................................................. 201
Samuel Muthee Kamunya, South Eastern Kenyan University, Kenya
Robert Obwocha Oboko, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Elizaphan Muuro Maina, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Evans Kirimi Miriti, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Chapter 13
Flipping the Mathematics Instruction: A Critical Overview of Recent Trends in Application .......... 219
Lutfi Incikabi, Kastamonu University, Turkey
Mehmet Koray Serin, Kastamonu University, Turkey
Semahat Incikabi, Kastamonu University, Turkey
Chapter 14
Strategies for Managing Cognitive Load and Enhancing Motivation in E-Learning ......................... 248
Selina Atwani Ochukut, University of Nairobi, Kenya

Chapter 15
Leveraging VR/AR/MR and AI as Innovative Educational Practices for “iGeneration” Students..... 265
Srikanth Vemula, University of the Incarnate Word, USA
Chapter 16
A Conceptual Educational Data Mining Model for Supporting Self-Regulated Learning in Online
Learning Environments ....................................................................................................................... 278
Eric Araka, Technical University of Kenya, Kenya
Robert Oboko, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Elizaphan Maina, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Rhoda Gitonga, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 293
About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 345
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 351

Detailed Table of Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xvi
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................. xx
Chapter 1
Providing Near-Peer Mentorship to Increase Underrepresented Minority Youth Participation in
Computing............................................................................................................................................... 1
Michael J. Lee, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA
Literature shows that mentors and role-models directly affect young students’ self-efficacy and motivation
to pursue specific academic fields and careers. To explore this further, this chapter describes a free,
9-Saturday programming camp for middle school students with near-peer mentors (first year, college
student instructors) and local guest speakers. This camp served 28 underrepresented minority students
(17 boys and 11 girls; grades 5-7) from a low-income, urban area. In a pre-camp survey, the middle
school students predominately reported not having any role-models or mentors in computing. However,
when asked again on the final camp day, these same students indicated developing strong connections
with their near-peer mentors and even saw these older students and guest speakers, as role-models. These
results highlight the need for young, underrepresented minority students to have more opportunities
to interact with potential mentors and role-models, and the importance of providing resources to help
develop and nurture these connections.
Chapter 2
The Snowball Effect: A Perspective on the Challenges to Computer Science Education in K-12 ....... 14
Laura L. Fuhrmann, Independent Researcher, USA
Andrea M. Wallace, Independent Researcher, USA
Recognizing the persistent problem of the underrepresentation of women in computer science, this chapter
examines the barriers existing in the kindergarten through Grade 12 educational environment. It explores
the vicious cycle that exists in the education field, as the change agents are predominantly women. Much
of the research from the past decade reiterates the issue but substantive changes to reduce the gender gap
have not occurred at rates that keep pace with the evolving digital society. This chapter offers practical
solutions to (1) distinguish between computer science, instructional technology, and digital literacy in
the K-12 educational setting; (2) propose ways to promote opportunities in these environments, for all
students, with a focus on the underrepresented female population; (3) formulate strategies for educational
leaders to incorporate computer science knowledge including computational thinking skills into teacher
preparation programs and professional development to support those never exposed.

Chapter 3
Female Enrolment in High School Computer Science Courses ........................................................... 31
Steven Paul Floyd, Western University, Canada
Jane Margolis and Allan Fisher’s book Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women in Computing presented computer
education as a clubhouse for boys that was resulting in women and girls being left out of the computer
science (CS) loop. This research reveals that now, almost 20 years later, a number of doors, walls, and
windows still inhibit certain students from equal access and participation to the computing clubhouse
and provides data from Ontario, Canada indicating that females make up only 26%, 21%, and 15.7% of
student enrolled in the Grade 10, Grade 11, and Grade 12 high school courses, respectively. Considering
the number of initiatives and money related to expanding CS education, including a revision of high
school CS curriculum in Ontario and $60 million of additional CanCodes money provided by the federal
government, a better understanding of the underrepresentation of females in high school CS is critical.
Chapter 4
Educational Robotics for Creating Effective Computer Science Learning for All ............................... 44
Amy Eguchi, University of California, San Diego, USA
President Obama’s initiative, “computer science for all,” has been a rallying slogan for promoting computer
science in K-12 education. Although the participation of people of color in computer science (CS) has
increased in the past several years, it is still drastically low and does not reflect the real picture of our
society. This chapter explores how educational robotics as a learning tool can inspire underrepresented
minorities including females and students of color to become interested in CS. Supported by Papert’s
constructionism theory, educational robotics effectively facilitates students’ learning of various concepts
in CS and STEM. Educational robotics is a learning tool which inspires students’ interest in learning. It
provides a learning environment that promotes students’ learning of various CS concepts and computational
thinking skills. Although robots naturally spark students’ interests, to make it most effective, teachers
are required effortfully to create learning opportunities that are authentic and meaningful for individual
students.
Chapter 5
English Learners (EL) and Computer Science (CS) Learning: Equity Issues ...................................... 70
Sumi Hagiwara, Montclair State University, USA
Neledith Janis Rodriguez, Montclair State University, USA
The national call to increase student participation in CS is widely adopted, but there is limited research
that examines English learners (EL) on the agenda for K-12 CS education. This chapter contributes
to the literature by analyzing the landscape of EL in computer science and highlighting the linguistic
challenges that EL students experience in CS. By understanding significant themes that emerge from
these challenges, we conclude with recommendations on how to support EL and future research and
strategies for creating a more equitable playing field in CS education for English learners.

Chapter 6
Minority Students in Computer Science: Barriers to Access and Strategies to Promote Participation 88
Jung Won Hur, Auburn University, USA
Over the past decade, a number of collaborative efforts to expand computer science (CS) education in U.S.
K-12 schools have been made (e.g., CS 10K and CSforAll). Despite various efforts, minority students,
such as African Americans and Hispanics, still face unique barriers to accessing CS courses, resulting in
the underrepresentation of minorities in the field of CS. This chapter reviews factors affecting minority
students’ interest in and access to CS learning and identified barriers, such as a lack of CS courses offered
in schools, students’ lack of self-efficacy in CS, and a lack of role model who can encourage minority
students to study CS in college. The chapter also introduces the culturally responsive teaching (CRT)
framework, followed by a discussion on how teachers can incorporate CRT strategies to create culturally
responsive computing learning environments where minority students’ engagement and success in CS
are promoted.
Chapter 7
Teacher Preparation in Computer Science Pre-Service and Inservice Programs ............................... 105
Wykeshia W. Glass, North Carolina Central University, USA
Desiree G. Hickman, Sam Houston State University, USA
Calvin M. Reaves, North Carolina Central University, USA
In order to create an effective 21st century classroom that engages and meets the needs of students,
teachers must be knowledgeable of what motivates students to learn and how technology plays a critical
role in his/her instruction. Due to the limited exposure of computer science education in the mainstream
P-16 curriculum, only a small portion of students from public schools go on to careers in technology.
The purpose of this chapter was to examine how teacher preparation programs and districts can better
prepare pre-service and inservice teachers with experiences and professional development opportunities
to equip them with the tools to effectively and efficiently teach in P-16 classroom settings. As a result, not
only school districts but colleges of education must begin to develop and plan for the uses of computer
related technologies for its educators.
Chapter 8
Teacher-Designed Games: A New Era in Education? ........................................................................ 123
Yang Liu, University of Calgary, Canada
Video games play an important role in education; however, the idea of teachers as designers of digital
classroom games to support student learning has not been widely embraced. The purpose of this study was
to gain a deeper understanding of why and how teachers used and designed games in teaching differently
with various gaming background. This mixed-method case study involved a group of teachers who used
and/or designed games for students. The four unique case groups were grounded in three regions and
four school districts in Alberta, Canada. First and second cycle data coding and analyses were used to
answer 1) what factors influenced the types of games teachers used and designed in teaching and 2) what
factors influenced how and why teachers integrated game-based learning in teaching.

Chapter 9
Role of Mentorship and Reflection in Leading Learning Through Making: A Pilot Project ............. 148
Jennifer Lock, University of Calgary, Canada
Kristi-Mari Fedorko-Bartos, University of Calgary, Canada
Kristal Louise Turner, University of Calgary, Canada
Kathy Wise, University of Calgary, Canada
There is a growing trend of learning through making in P-16 education in both formal and informal
learning environments. In the informal learning environments, who provides support and mentorship
for learning through making? In this chapter, the authors report on a maker mentor pilot project using a
self-study methodology. This initiative was designed to develop knowledge and skills using a mentoring
approach to support learning through making with pre-service and in-service teachers, and to model
reflective practice. Using a reflective process, they share insights into the work of maker mentors, what
worked well, as well as recommendations to enhance this mentoring initiative. They conclude with three
implications for practice in support of the role of maker mentors.
Chapter 10
Behavioral Innovations in Computer Science and Computational Thinking in P-16 Education ........ 165
Richard Oluwadolapo Awoyemi, Adeyemi Federal College of Education, Nigeria
Robert Akinade Awoyemi, Adeyemi Federal College of Education, Nigeria
This chapter is based on the behavioral innovations of students and teachers in P-16 education with regards
to computer science (CS) and computational thinking (CT). Beyond racial and gender bias, the behavior
of students and teachers towards new ideas has been noted to have a substantial effect on accessing
of CS and CT. When students and teachers are presented with new ideas, a series of complex mental
processes are always carried out in order to reinforce their acceptance or disregard of such ideas. With
deep insights into concepts such as technological pedagogical content knowledge framework (TPACK),
computer-mediated classroom, computer-oriented teachers, and computer-oriented students, this chapter
will further anticipate the equity of computer science in P-16 education.
Chapter 11
The Perceived Appropriateness of Digital Games From ELL Teachers ............................................. 185
Khalifa Alshaya, University of North Dakota, USA
Pamela Beck, University of North Dakota, USA
The integration of digital games into learning aligns with society’s needs in the 21st century. Although
research shows that digital games have numerous benefits for students, such as psychological and language
improvements, some teachers are skeptical of using digital games for classroom activities, due to their
perceived negative impact. In this study, six ELL teachers in the upper Midwest of the United States
were interviewed to examine their perceived appropriateness of digital games in teaching and learning.
Findings indicate that the majority of the ELL teachers interviewed perceived serious games in a positive
light, while they unanimously agreed that violent digital games could have a negative impact on a child’s
psychological, emotional, and social life. The teachers highlighted the rate at which children play those
games, their violent nature, appropriateness, cyber bulling implication, and the need for an oversight
from parents and teachers as reasons why.

Chapter 12
A Systematic Review of Gamification Within E-Learning................................................................. 201
Samuel Muthee Kamunya, South Eastern Kenyan University, Kenya
Elizaphan Muuro Maina, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Evans Kirimi Miriti, University of Nairobi, Kenya
The focus of this study was to review and evaluate the effectiveness of gamification within e-learning
platforms. The study deployed systematic literature review methodology to evaluate how effective
gamification has been used within e-learning platforms. The study used the Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Approach (PRISMA), starting with 366 articles, shifting to a
final 34 articles for consideration. It was established that gamification positively influences and enhances
learning within the e-learning platform. Therefore, the study recommends policy makers, designers,
and implementers of e-learning platforms to consider incorporating gamification elements in order to
increase user motivation and engagement for enhanced learning.
Chapter 13
Flipping the Mathematics Instruction: A Critical Overview of Recent Trends in Application .......... 219
Lutfi Incikabi, Kastamonu University, Turkey
Mehmet Koray Serin, Kastamonu University, Turkey
Semahat Incikabi, Kastamonu University, Turkey
The flipped classroom is a rotational model in which students move between teacher-faced practices in the
classroom during the standard school day and out-of-school teaching they receive online for the related
concepts. In recent years, with the proliferation of technology-supported education, flipped classroom
practices have been used more in mathematics classrooms, and gained the attention of mathematics
education researchers. This attention also triggered the studies examining the trends of flipped classroom
practices on mathematics education. This chapter introduces the theoretical underpinnings of the flipped
classroom and provides a recent literature review of the studies on flipped classrooms in mathematics
education from various dimensions. Accordingly, several results obtained from the analyses as well as
potential issues for future research are proposed in this book chapter.
Chapter 14
Strategies for Managing Cognitive Load and Enhancing Motivation in E-Learning ......................... 248
Selina Atwani Ochukut, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Cognitive load and motivation are two factors that have been established as mediators of learning. It has
been established that learners who experience low cognitive loads and are highly motivated to succeed
in learning. Since e-learning is becoming a very popular means of delivering learning, there needs to be
established strategies to ensure that learners learn. This study sought to look at the various means that have
been used in e-learning studies to manage cognitive load and enhance motivation through the analysis of
literature. Use of metaphorical interfaces, hypertext, sequencing, and fading of learning content, use of
transient information, and adaptation of the problem-solving support were the strategies that have been
used in e-learning studies to manage cognitive load. Motivation has been enhanced through the use of
motivational messages and adaptive navigational support and pedagogical agents.

Chapter 15
Leveraging VR/AR/MR and AI as Innovative Educational Practices for “iGeneration” Students..... 265
Srikanth Vemula, University of the Incarnate Word, USA
The use of virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), mixed reality (MR), immersive experiences, and
artificial intelligence technologies are more focused on innovative education technologies. Studies show
that the use of these innovative technologies helps to improve the quality of education. It is essential to
promote these new innovative techniques, which show an immense prominence in the improvement of
education technologies. So, this chapter shows how these innovative technologies combined with games
are a more effective way of transforming our education from a good old traditional way of teaching and
learning to a tech savvy way of teaching. Since the students are not the same, and there has been a lot
of evolution over the years, it is important for everyone in the education sector to rethink the methods
of teaching and learning and the use of incorporating new education technologies to enhance learning.
Chapter 16
A Conceptual Educational Data Mining Model for Supporting Self-Regulated Learning in Online
Learning Environments ....................................................................................................................... 278
Eric Araka, Technical University of Kenya, Kenya
Robert Oboko, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Elizaphan Maina, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Rhoda Gitonga, Kenyatta University, Kenya
Self-regulated learning is attracting tremendous researches from various communities such as information
communication technology. Recent studies have greatly contributed to the domain knowledge that the
use self-regulatory skills enhance academic performance. Despite these developments in SRL, our
understanding on the tools and instruments to measure SRL in online learning environments is limited
as the use of traditional tools developed for face-to-face classroom settings are still used to measure
SRL on e-learning systems. Modern learning management systems (LMS) allow storage of datasets on
student activities. Subsequently, it is now possible to use Educational Data Mining to extract learner
patterns which can be used to support SRL. This chapter discusses the current tools for measuring and
promoting SRL on e-learning platforms and a conceptual model grounded on educational data mining
for implementation as a solution to promoting SRL strategies.
Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 293
About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 345
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 351

xvi
Preface
The growing trend for high-quality computer science (CS) in school curricula has drawn attention in
U.S. classrooms. With an increasingly information-based and global society, CS education coupled with
computational thinking (CT) has become an integral part of an experience for all students, given that
these foundational concepts and skills intersect cross-disciplinarily with a set of mental competencies
that are relevant in their daily lives and work.
The need for computer science skills and competencies which every child should acquire poses a
number of questions including whether and how schools of education are preparing teachers to teach
these concepts. Additionally, while many agree that these concepts should be taught in schools, there
are systematic inequities that exist to prevent students from accessing related CS or CT skills.
Initiatives to incorporate computer science concepts in the curriculum have varied, with some expos-
ing students to these concepts through hour of code type activities similar to those of Code.org, to full
computer science courses. One reason for the growing interest in CS integration has been as a result of
easily available visual programming languages in which students need only to drag and snap command
blocks in place to code instructions to perform a certain task instead of using the traditional program-
ming languages which would require students as well as teachers to learn complicated programming
syntax. Visual programming languages are therefore more user-friendly thus making it easier to engage
in coding activities to acquiring computer science skills.
Therefore, Handbook of Research on Equity in Computer Science in P-16 Education highlights the
issues, perspectives, and challenges faced in P-16 environments (i.e. gender and racial imbalances of
students in CS classes; population of growing CS teachers who are predominantly white and male; what
and who are the high-school gate keepers of CS courses; teacher preparation or lack of faculty expertise;
professional development programs; and college admission criteria for CS programs).
CHAPTER SYNOPSIS
In Chapter 1 the authors discuss how they ran a free, 9-Saturday programming camp for middle school
underrepresented minority students (17 boys and 11 girls; grades 5-7) from a low-income, urban area
with near-peer mentors (first year, college student instructors) and local guest speakers. The students
indicated developing strong connections with their near-peer mentors and even saw these older students
and guest speakers, as role-models. These results highlight the need for young, underrepresented mi-
nority students to have more opportunities to interact with potential mentors and role-models, and the
importance of providing resources to help develop and nurture these connections.
Preface
Chapter 2 offers practical solutions to: (1) distinguish between computer science, instructional tech-
nology, and digital literacy in the K-12 educational setting; (2) propose ways to promote opportunities
in these environments, for all students, with a focus on the underrepresented female population; (3)
formulate strategies for educational leaders to incorporate computer science knowledge including com-
putational thinking skills into teacher preparation programs and professional development to support
those never exposed.
Chapter 3 provides data from Ontario, Canada indicating that females make up only 26%, 21% and
15.7% of student enrolled in the grade 10, grade 11 and grade 12 high school course respectively. Con-
sidering the number of initiatives and money related to expanding CS education, including a revision
of high school CS curriculum in Ontario and $60 million of additional CanCodes money provided by
the federal government, a better understanding of the underrepresentation of females in high school CS
is critical.
Chapter 4 explores how educational robotics as a learning tool can inspire underrepresented mi-
norities including females and students of color to become interested in computer science. Supported
by Papert’s theory of constructionism, educational robotics effectively facilitates students’ learning of
various concepts in computer science and STEM.
Chapter 5 contributes to the literature by analyzing the landscape of EL in computer science by high-
lighting the linguistic challenges that EL students experience in CS. By understanding significant themes
that emerge from these challenges, we conclude with recommendations on how to support EL and future
research and strategies for creating a more equitable playing field in CS education for English learners.
Chapter 6 reviews factors affecting minority students’ interest in and access to CS learning and
identified barriers, such as a lack of CS courses offered in schools, students’ lack of self-efficacy in CS,
and a lack of role model who can encourage minority students to study CS in college. The chapter also
introduces the culturally responsive teaching (CRT) framework, followed by a discussion on how teachers
can incorporate CRT strategies to create culturally responsive computing learning environments where
minority students’ engagement and success in CS are promoted.
Chapter 7 examines how teacher preparation programs and districts can better prepare pre-service and
in-service teachers with experiences and professional development opportunities to equip them with the
tools to effectively and efficiently teach in P-16 classroom settings. As a result, not only school districts
but colleges of education must begin to develop and plan for the uses of computer related technologies
for its educators.
Chapter 8 draws from a method case study involving a group of teachers who used and/or designed
games for students. The four unique case groups were grounded in three regions and four school districts
in Alberta, Canada. The purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding why and how teachers
used and designed games in teaching differently with various gaming background.
Chapter 9 reports on a maker mentor pilot project using a self-study methodology. This initiative
was designed to develop knowledge and skills using a mentoring approach to support learning through
making with pre-service and in-service teachers, and to model reflective practice. Using a reflective
process, the authors share insights into the work of maker mentors, what worked well, recommendations
to enhance this mentoring initiative, and conclude with three implications for practice in support of the
role of maker mentors.
xvii
Preface
Chapter 10 is based on the behavioral innovations of students and teachers in P-16 education with
regards to computer science (CS) and computational thinking (CT). Beyond racial and gender bias, the
behavior of students and teachers towards new ideas has been noted to have a substantial effect on ac-
cessing of CS and CT. With deep insights into concepts such as, Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge Framework (TPACK), Computer-Mediated Classroom, Computer-Oriented Teachers and
Computer-Oriented Students, this chapter will further anticipate the equity of computer science in P-16
education.
Chapter 11 is based on a study to examine ELL teachers perceived appropriateness of digital games
in teaching and learning. Findings indicate that the majority of the ELL teachers interviewed perceived
serious games in a positive light, while they unanimously agreed that violent digital games could have a
negative impact on a child’s psychological, emotional, and social life. The teachers highlighted the rate
at which children play those games, their violent nature, appropriateness, cyber bulling implication, and
the need for an oversight from parents and teachers as reasons why.
Chapter 12 deployed systematic literature review methodology to evaluate how effective gamification
has been used within e-learning platforms. It was established that gamification positively influences
and enhances learning within the e-learning platform. Therefore, the study recommends policy makers,
designers and implementers of e-learning platforms to consider incorporating gamification elements in
order to increase user motivation and engagement for enhanced learning.
Chapter 13 introduces the theoretical underpinnings of the flipped classroom and provides a recent
literature review of the studies on flipped classrooms in mathematics education from various dimensions.
Accordingly, several results obtained from the analyses as well as potential issues for future research
are proposed in this book chapter.
Chapter 14 sought to look at the various means that have been used in e-learning studies to manage
cognitive load and enhance motivation through the analysis of literature. Use of metaphorical interfaces,
hypertext, sequencing, and fading of learning content, use of transient information, and adaptation of
the problem -solving support were the strategies that have been used in e-learning studies to manage
cognitive load. Motivation has been enhanced through the use of motivational messages and adaptive
navigational support and pedagogical agents.
Chapter 15 chapter shows how various innovative technologies combined with games are a more
effective way of transforming our education from a good old traditional way of teaching and learning
to a tech savvy way of teaching. Since the students are not the same, and there has been a lot of evolu-
tion over the years, it is therefore important for everyone in the education sector to rethink the methods
of teaching and learning and the use of incorporating new education technologies to enhance learning.
Chapter 16 discusses the current tools for measuring and promoting SRL on e-learning platforms
and a conceptual model grounded on Educational Data Mining for implementation as a solution to
promoting SRL strategies.
The hope is that each of the scholarly works presented will help forward the agenda and discussion
on the significance and the need to engage everyone involved in P-16 education and promote students’
grasp with CS concepts that will ensure their success in college and career.
xviii
Preface
This handbook is intended for academicians, professionals, and researchers in education. The hand-
book will benefit teacher educators, K-12 teachers, high school counselors, college faculty within CS
department, school administrators, teacher education faculty, preservice and in-service teachers, directors
of teaching and learning centers, curriculum and instructional designers, policy makers, and researchers
interested in creating CS/CT integration as well as addressing equity within the content.
Jared Keengwe
Yune Tran
Montclair State University, USA
xix
xx
Acknowledgment
We would like to acknowledge the considerable time and effort put forth by all the chapter contributors.
Thank you for your valuable contributions and hard work. Specifically, thank you for your gracious and
timely responses to the reviewers’ comments and for your commitment to submit high quality revised
chapters.
We would also like to thank our families for their continued patience and support during our writing
journey.
We are very grateful to the Editorial Advisory Board (EAB) team. Your incredibly quick turnaround
time in providing invaluable feedback and detailed review notes on the chapters submitted is greatly
appreciated.
Finally, thanks to the wonderful staff at IGI Global who participated in the overall development and
timely completion of this project. Hopefully, we provided you with an end product that you are proud
to share with our global readers.
1
Chapter 1
Providing Near-Peer Mentorship
to Increase Underrepresented
Minority Youth Participation
in Computing
Michael J. Lee
New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA
ABSTRACT
Literature shows that mentors and role-models directly affect young students’ self-efficacy and motiva-
tion to pursue specific academic fields and careers. To explore this further, this chapter describes a free,
9-Saturday programming camp for middle school students with near-peer mentors (first year, college
student instructors) and local guest speakers. This camp served 28 underrepresented minority students
(17 boys and 11 girls; grades 5-7) from a low-income, urban area. In a pre-camp survey, the middle
school students predominately reported not having any role-models or mentors in computing. However,
when asked again on the final camp day, these same students indicated developing strong connections
with their near-peer mentors and even saw these older students and guest speakers, as role-models. These
results highlight the need for young, underrepresented minority students to have more opportunities
to interact with potential mentors and role-models, and the importance of providing resources to help
develop and nurture these connections.
INTRODUCTION
Computing jobs continue to be among the fastest growing career areas with high demand all over the world
(Carnevale, Smith, & Melton, 2011; Department of Labor Statistics, 2018). However, recent statistics
indicate that youth—especially those from underrepresented and underserved minority groups—are not
pursuing related educational opportunities or careers (Department of Labor Statistics, 2018). This is a
major issue, as inadequate representation in the workforce can potentially lead to severe inequities and
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4739-7.ch001
Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Providing Near-Peer Mentorship to Increase Underrepresented Minority Youth Participation in Computing
bias in software design and use (Patterson, 2005). Therefore, we must explore new ways to both engage
a wider audience and sustain their engagement with learning computing skills to better deal with the
lack of diversity and low numbers of those pursuing computing related education and careers.
The study described in this chapter reports on research addressing inequities in computing education
for low-income, underrepresented and underserved minority, middle school students, their lack of mentors
and role-models in computing, and how a coding intervention (i.e., a programming/coding camp) with
university student instructors can affect this. For this study, we surveyed middle school students before
and after they participated in programming activities which included with an educational programming
game, website design curriculum, and block programming curriculum. We specifically focused on middle
school students, as literature has shown that this is the time when youth begin to form strong, lasting
ideas about their academic interests and future careers (Denner, 2011; Eccles & Harold, 1993; Hill &
Wang, 2015). The goal of this undertaking was to provide underrepresented and underserved minority,
middle school students with a positive, introductory programming experience along with similarly-aged
instructors, for them to develop constructive mentee-mentor relationships, and to document evidence
that these types of programs yield benefits beyond learning how to code.
BACKGROUND
Middle School Students
Developmental and educational research has shown that youth begin to form ideas about future edu-
cational interests and career aspirations during their formative years in middle school (Denner, 2011;
Eccles & Harold, 1993; Hill & Wang, 2015). As such, many more efforts are now focusing on exposing
and teaching students Computer Science (CS) at a younger age in both school curricula and afterschool
programs. Many of these efforts begin by using programming environments that are user-friendly and
have the potential to lower the cognitive threshold for novice programmers, such as Alice (e.g., (Kelleher
& Pausch, 2007a; Kerr, Chou, Ellis, & Kelleher, 2013)), Scratch (e.g., (Maloney, Peppler, Kafai, Resn-
ick, & Rusk, 2008)), Gidget (Lee & Ko, 2015), and others (Grover, Pea, & Cooper, 2016). Reports on
the outcomes of these efforts show that young, novice programmers are engaged and effectively learn
basic programming skills and concepts (e.g., (Kurland & Pea, 1985; Lee & Ko, 2015; Maloney et al.,
2008)) and support computational thinking (Wing, 2008). For example, Kelleher, Pausch, & Kiesler
(2007b) found that Alice kept middle school girls engaged with programming, even during break times.
Meerbaum-Salant, Armoni, & Ben-Ari. (2013) reported that their middle school students learned most
of the targeted CS concepts using Scratch, and Lee & Ko (2015) found similar results with the Gidget
programming game, where users exhibited significant learning gains for targeted CS concepts. This
study extends these past works, specifically examining how utilizing some of these tools in a coding
camp with similarly-aged instructors might affect underrepresented and underserved minority middle
school students’ views about access to computing mentors and role-models, and their ideas for future
academic interests and/or careers.
2
Near-Peer Mentors and Role-Models
Mentors and role-models have long been known to play an important role in motivating and/or inspiring
others (Gibson & Cordova, 1999). Research has shown that that someone who sees or visualizes another
person that is similar to oneself being successful increases their own belief that they also possess the
capabilities to become proficient in comparable activities (Bandura & Walters, 1977). However, the op-
posite can occur if someone sees the other person to be different or have dissimilarities in experience,
which can lead to their own belief that the other person’s skills are beyond their reach and therefore
become reluctant to pursue those activities (Bandura, 1977). Based on these observations, youth are
likely to identify with and emulate those that they consider are similar to themselves (by any measure,
e.g., hometown, ethnicity, upbringing, religion, language) (Bandura & Walters, 1977). Denner (2011)
and D’Souza et al. (2008) found that role-models are an important motivator for middle school girls’ and
high school students’ interest in computing, respectively, and that female role-models can also help other
females with STEM retention (Drury, Siy, & Cheryan, 2011). Clarke-Midura et al. (2018) found that
middle school students relate particularly well to near-peer mentors—mentors that were only a few years
older than the students and not necessarily the most skilled with a topic (in this case, CS)—increasing the
younger students’ self-efficacy and interest in CS. Unfortunately, many female and underrepresented and
underserved minority students may not have role-models or mentors in computing that they can relate
to directly (Strayhorn, Long III, Kitchen, Williams, & Stenz, 2013). Based on these observations, our
aim for this study was to learn more about underrepresented and underserved minority middle school
students’ access to role-models and/or mentors, and how providing these resources in a coding camp
might affect their pursuit of computing-related education and careers.
METHODOLOGY
We ran a free, 9-Saturday programming camp for middle school students. This took place in Newark,
New Jersey, a large, metropolitan city in the Northeastern US. We partnered with the Urban League of
Essex County—a local non-profit organization that focuses on increasing upward mobility for its lo-
cal community—and Sussex Avenue Renew School—a local K-8 public school—to help with running
the study. The ethnic composition of the population of Newark is “majority-minority,” composed of
47% African American/Black, 39.2% Hispanic/Latino, 8.8% Caucasian/White, 2% Asian, 3% others
(DataUSA, 2020).
Sussex Avenue Renew School provided access to their facilities, equipment, and staff for the Saturday
activities. Facility access included one large classroom (with desks, chairs, whiteboard, projector, etc.),
the cafeteria, restrooms, and playground. Equipment and supplies included district-provided Chrome-
book laptops, wireless internet connections, and activity folders (with lesson printouts) for each student.
School-provided staff included a security guard, janitor, and three middle school teachers (one male and
two female technology and mathematics teachers, all from Sussex Avenue Renew School).
Our university contributed 11 first-year undergraduate student instructors (henceforth called men-
tors) and their transportation, while the Urban League of Essex County provided food (breakfast and
lunch), and miscellaneous supplies (e.g., end-of-camp certificates, camp-branded t-shirts). The latter
also recruited all of the guest speakers (described in more detail, below).
3
Participants and Instructors
Sussex Avenue Renew School’s principal recruited students by recommendations from the 6th and 7th
grade teachers at her school, who made announcements about the Saturday camp in their classes and
handed out informational fliers for their students to take home to their parents. We did not specifically
recruit for underrepresented minorities, as the school’s demographic makeup reflects the community it
serves, composed of 52% Hispanic/Latino, 47% African American/Black, and 1% others; 82% of these
students are low-income—eligible for free or reduced-price lunch (Newark Public Schools, 2019).
Each Saturday was split into two major parts – a morning session and an afternoon session. The 11
undergraduate mentors (4 females and 1 male in the morning session; 1 female and 5 males in the after-
noon session) ran all the events and taught the middle school students, while the middle school teachers
were responsible for classroom support (e.g., to help keep the children on task) and did not provide any
computing-related instruction. The mentors all took a university-provided shuttle to and from Sussex
Avenue Renew School, and all of the middle school students were dropped off and picked up by their
respective parents/guardians. The morning session and afternoon session mentors mainly interacted for
a short time (if at all) during lunch, when their shift-change occurred.
Procedure
Each of our nine Saturdays consisted of a seven-hour day including breakfast, a morning programming
activity for approximately 3 hours, lunch (with or without a guest speaker), and an afternoon program-
ming activity for approximately 3 hours. Breakfasts were scheduled for the first 15 minutes of the day,
and lunches were scheduled for 45 minutes in the middle of the day. As the very first activity on the first
day of the camps, the middle school students (henceforth called campers) filled out a pre-test question-
naire. On the ninth, final Saturday, the campers filled out a post-test questionnaire as their last activity.
Each of the questionnaires took approximately 20 minutes to complete. We also had a debriefing session
for the last 10 minutes of each Saturday for the campers to reflect on what they learned, report on what
they liked and disliked about the day, and to give us any general feedback or comments.
Morning Sessions
Research has shown that a person’s first experience with code is important for self-efficacy, confidence,
and sense of belonging (Bosch, D’Mello, & Mills, 2013; Ko, 2009), which can have lasting effects on
their motivation towards learning more STEM topics (Master, Cheryan, Moscatelli, & Meltzoff, 2017).
Therefore, we chose two different activities for the morning sessions, specifically focused on giving
participants positive experiences with coding. On the first day, students played Gidget (Lee & Ko, 2015)
(www.helpgidget.org)—a free, online, educational programming game where players solve debugging
puzzles using a Python-like, imperative programming language—which has been shown to be engaging
for a wide range of programming novices and a good introduction to (text-based) programming for after-
school programs (Jernigan et al., 2017; Lee, 2019a). Campers completed as many levels as they could
during the first day and we allowed them to continue playing the game from home and during any free
time on subsequent camp days. For all other days, we had the campers progress through code.org’s CS
Discoveries curriculum, which was designed for use by middle school students. This curriculum focuses
on teaching students about website design using HTML and CSS, best practices for posting on the inter-
4
net, and ultimately for them to create a personal website. We intentionally had campers work on projects
relating to themselves, as research has shown that working towards meaningful goals positively affects
engagement in learning contexts (Bowman, 1982), especially for females, minorities, and youth (both
males and females) (Freeman & Aspray, 1999; Margolis & Fisher, 2002; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005).
Afternoon Sessions
Our afternoon sessions consisted of learning the block programming language, Scratch, using Harvard
University’s Creative Computing for Scratch curriculum (Brennan, Chung, & Hawson, 2011). Scratch
has been used extensively to engage youth with block programming through animation authoring and
storytelling (Maloney et al., 2008; Meerbaum-Salant et al., 2013). Block programming has been found
to be help novices keep on task, make more efficient use of their time (Price & Barnes, 2015), and show
measurable learning outcomes (Xu, Ritzhaupt, Tian, & Umapathy, 2019). This curriculum focused on
teaching students introductory programming concepts and to ultimately create a personal music video
(again, for campers to work on personally meaningful projects to increase engagement (Bowman, 1982)).
On the last Saturday, the afternoon session was open to guests, where family members (e.g., parents)
could come and see what the campers had learned and created over the 9-weeks, and also watch the
campers receive certificates of completion during the closing ceremony.
Guest Speakers
To help our campers see professionals that they could better relate and aspire to, we had a guest speaker
came to talk about their computing-related job for 30 minutes after lunch every even week (i.e., Weeks
2, 4, 6, and 8). All selected speakers were required to have grown up, live(d), and work in the local
metropolitan area. We had a total of four speakers, all African American/Black professionals (three
males and one female) who worked in mobile app development (particularly games), computer security
consultation, disaster response consultation, or research, respectively. The guests spoke about their
background, education, and career(s), giving examples of their day-to-day responsibilities (and in the
case of the app developer and disaster response consultant, demoed their tools/products for the campers
to try out). After the guest speakers finished their presentations and demos, campers asked them ques-
tions for 10-15 minutes.
Pre- and Post- Test Questionnaires
All of the campers completed a pre-test questionnaire on the first day of the camp, before introductions
and starting any other activities. They also completed a post-test questionnaire as their final activity on
the last day of the camp. Both questionnaires were identical (except for the exception listed below), and
campers were told that all questions were optional (i.e., they could skip questions). The questionnaire(s)
consisted of three yes/no questions asking the campers if they wanted to go to college, and whether they
would attend more classes at school or outside of school to learn more about programming. Next, we
asked them the following questions about mentorship and role-models:
1. Do you know of anyone famous related to computing? If so, who?

2. Do you have a role-model or role-models related to computing? If so, who?
5
3. Do you know anyone personally who has a computing related job? If so, who?
4. Have you ever had a mentor for anything related to computing? If so, who?
We asked additional questions only for the pre-test, because we did not expect the campers’ responses
to change during the camp. This also helped ensure we had data on all the campers, even if they dropped
out during the camp (which fortunately did not happen). We collected demographic information (i.e., grade
level, ethnicity, gender, and eligibility for free/reduced lunch), and asked four yes/no questions examin-
ing if they: had prior programming experience, owned a smartphone, and had access to a computer and/
or internet at home (since the availability of computing resources has been reported to be significantly
related to household income and inversely affected by minority status (Kafai, Peppler, & Chiu, 2007)).
Weekly Debriefings
To better understand the camp from our participants’ perspective, we held a debriefing session with
all of the mentors and campers for the last 10 minutes of each Saturday. We asked for general feedback
about the day, including what they found most enjoyable and least enjoyable, and what they learned. To
encourage discussion, we had our mentors each share at least one thing during each debrief. We also oc-
casionally asked follow-up questions stemming from the discussion. For example, we asked each camper
to go around and share what they wanted to be (i.e., job/career) when they grew up, and why (we asked
this question on the first Saturday and the last Saturday of the camp). We audio-recorded these sessions
and transcribed them on the same day. We also took hand-written notes during the debrief sessions to
keep track of the speakers for transcription.
RESULTS
It took the middle school students approximately 25 minutes and 20 minutes to complete the pre- and
post- test questionnaires, respectively. We had a total of 28 campers (n=28) participate in our program
(10-13 years old), with all of them completing both the pre- and post- tests. The camp included 17 boys
and 11 girls (one 5th grader, twelve 6th graders and fifteen 7th graders). All of the campers were under-
represented minorities in STEM, identifying as either African American/Black (13 campers) or Hispanic/
Latino (15 campers), and all were eligible for free or reduced cost lunch.
All of our 11 mentors were first-year college students (5 females and 6 males; aged 18-19 years old)
from our university, majoring in various fields including computer science, informatics, biology, and his-
tory. They also identified with a wide range of ethnicities, including South Asian (3 students), Caucasian/
White (2 students), Pacific-Islander (2 students), Hispanic/Latino (3 students), and Middle-Eastern (1
student). We specifically chose first-year college students as mentors because we wanted them to be as
close in age to the campers as possible to encourage near-peer mentorship relationships (Clarke-Midura
et al., 2018). Without any prompting, the morning session and afternoon session mentors each selected
a (female) lead instructor within their groups.
For our analyses, we use nonparametric Chi-Squared likelihood ratio tests with α=0.01 confidence—as
our data was nominal and not normally distributed—to compare participants’ responses. We report our
statistically significant results but recognize that our sample size is small and therefore acknowledge that
the resulting findings may not be widely generalizable. For all of the campers’ responses to the ques-
6
tions, we ran comparisons between demographics (grade level, ethnicity, or gender) and questionnaire
(pre-test vs. post-test). We chose to use grade level instead of age, as there were overlaps in age across
grade levels (e.g., a sixth grader could be 11 or 12 years old). Finally, unless indicated otherwise, there
were no significant differences in responses by demographics within or between the pre-test or post-test
for the results described below.
Questionnaire Results
Both the pre- and post- test questionnaires had all 28 campers indicate that they wanted to attend college.
Similarly, both the pre- and post- test questionnaires had all campers indicate that they were willing to
take more computing-related courses at school if available. Since all of these questions had the same
response across campers for both the pre- and post- test questionnaires, there were no significant dif-
ferences between responses by demographics (grade level, ethnicity, or gender) within or between the
pre-test or post-test questions.
For the pre-test, two campers (both African American/Black, female students) indicated in that they
were not willing to take computing-related courses outside of school. However, these responses flipped
in the post-test, with both of these campers indicating they would take computing-related courses outside
of school (i.e., all campers indicated in the post-test that they would take a computing-related course
outside of school). Because of this minor variation in the pre-test, we did not find any significant dif-
ferences between responses by demographics (grade level, ethnicity, or gender) within or between the
pre-test or post-test questions.
Mentorship and Role-Model Results
In the pre-test for the first question, Do you know of anyone famous related to computing? If so, who?,
21 of 28 campers (75%) responded ‘no’ or left it blank. The 7 campers (25%) who provided a response
wrote Steve Jobs (4 students), Bill Gates (2 students), or both Steve Jobs and Bill Gates (1 student).
Both Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are Caucasian/White males that are known for their founding of Apple
and Microsoft, respectively. Campers’ responses did not change significantly in the post-test, with 11
students (39.3%) writing Elon Musk (2 students), Steve Jobs (3 students), Bill Gates (2 students), or any
combination of these names (4 students). Elon Musk is also a Caucasian/White male who is known for
founding various technology-related companies such as Paypal, SpaceX, and Tesla.
Next, in the pre-test for the second question, Do you have a role-model or role-models related to
computing? If so, who?, 26 of 28 students (92.9%) responded ‘no’ or left it blank. The two campers (one
African American/Black male and one Hispanic/Latino male) who indicated that they had a role-model
related to computing wrote about close relatives (a cousin or an older brother) who worked as game
developers. There was a major shift in the responses for the post-test, with 23 campers (82.14%) indicat-
ing in the latter test that they had a role-model—which was a statistically significant change between the
pre- and post- tests (χ2(1,N=56)=44.083, p<.01). The campers indicated a guest speaker (11 students),
a near-peer mentor (9 students), or a combination of members of these two groups (3 students; e.g., one
guest speaker and one near-peer mentor, or two near-peer mentors), as their role-model(s).
The results for our third question was similar, Do you know anyone personally who has a computing
related job? If so, who?. In the pre-test, 26 of 28 campers (92.9%) said ‘no’ or left it blank. The same
two campers from the previous question wrote about the same two relatives with a computing related
7
job. Again, there was a major shift in the responses for the post-test, with all 28 students in the post-test
indicating that they knew someone with a computing related job—which represents a statistically sig-
nificant change between the pre- and post- tests (χ2 (1,N=56)=62.937, p<.01). In the post-test, campers
indicated a relative (2 students), a guest speaker (25 students), or a near-peer mentor (1 student), as
someone they knew personally with a computing related job.
In the pre-test for the fourth question, Have you ever had a mentor for anything related to computing?
If so, who?, 24 of 28 students (85.7%) said ‘no’ or left it blank. The same two students from the previ-
ous two questions mentioned their relatives as people who mentored them, and two additional students
(two Hispanic/Latina females) mentioned one of their middle school teachers as a mentor (both students
indicated the same female, middle school, mathematics teacher who attended the coding camp). There
was a major change in the responses for the post-test with all students in the latter test indicating that they
had a computing mentor—which was a statistically significant change between the pre- and post- tests
(χ2 (1,N=56)=53.519, p<.01). Here, students indicated a teacher (1 student), a guest speaker (1
student), a near-peer instructor (23 students), or any combination of these categories (3 students), as
someone that mentored them in computing.
Future Job/Career Results
For our debriefing question, What do you want to be when you grow up, and why?, we heard a wide
variety of answers on the first Saturday, which included: “I don’t know” (1 student), a wedding planner
(1 student), a game developer (i.e., a game programmer) (4 students), a YouTuber (2 students), a film
producer (1 student), a professional athlete (3 students), a musician (i.e., professional beatboxer) (1 stu-
dent), baker (1 student), a scientist or engineer (4 students), an armed forces personnel (i.e., soldier or
pilot) (2 students), a law enforcement officer (2 students), a lawyer (1 student), a physician (2 students),
or a teacher (3 students). When we asked the same question again on the last Saturday (9 weeks later),
we had the exact same responses excluding one person—the camper (Hispanic/Latina female) who
initially said, “I don’t know” changed her answer to “software engineer.” Although the coding camp
ultimately did not change campers’ minds about job/career aspirations (which was not the intention of
the camp), without prompting, nearly all of the campers (23 students) mentioned something about how
coding might be useful within their preferred professions.
Pre-Test Only Results
Examining the responses to our pre-test only questions, we found that 21 of 28 campers (75%) reported
that they had their own, personal smartphone. Moreover, 22 of 28 campers (78.6%) indicated that they
had a computer/laptop at home. These same 22 campers also reported that they had access to the Internet
at home. The 6 of 28 campers (21.4%) who stated that they did not have a computer/laptop at home also
did not have Internet access at home. These same 6 students were also the same campers who did not
have a smartphone (excluding one camper, who indicated that he had a smartphone, but no computer/
laptop or Internet at home). Finally, 7 of the 28 campers (25%) reported that they had some previous
programming experience (all with block programming using Scratch).
8
DISCUSSION
We found that all of our middle students were eager to learn how to code, and by the end of the camp,
everyone reported that they would be willing to take additional computing-related courses both at and
outside of school if available. These students also all indicated they wanted to go to college and had a
wide range of career aspirations. This confirms others’ findings that middle school students start mak-
ing decisions about their future careers during this time in their lives (Denner, 2011; Eccles & Harold,
1993; Hill & Wang, 2015), and that they have a wide range of career interests including STEM-related
jobs, regardless of gender (Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari, & Tai, 2012). Moreover, we found that these career
interests were quite strong, with nobody changing their answer between the start and end of the camp
about what they wanted to be in the future (except for the one student who did not initially know what
she wanted to be but later, proudly proclaimed she would become a software engineer), but the majority
of them stated how they could use their newfound programming skills in these intended careers. These
results highlight the importance of providing these types of coding opportunities for students, as keeping
these young, eager students early is key for their later academic motivation in high school and college
(Martin, 2009; Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari, & Tai, 2012).
Prior to participating in our coding camp, nearly all of our minority middle school students initially
reported that they did not have any mentors or role-models in computing. Additionally, before partak-
ing in the camp, the majority of these students (26 of 28) did not know anyone who had a computing
related job, and most (21 of 28 students) could not name any famous people related to computing (and
for the few that did, all the celebrities they mentioned were White/Caucasian males, which may not be
particularly meaningful for minority students seeing themselves in these leadership positions (Bandura
& Walters, 1977)). These are serious issues, as youth (especially girls and underrepresented minorities)
are at a major disadvantage in pursuing education/careers in computing not knowing anyone with com-
puting related jobs, and not having role-models or mentors that they can look up to, relate to, or talk to
(Fisher & Griggs, 1995; Quimby & De Santis, 2006).
However, we also found that a 9-Saturday coding camp—emphasizing instruction by near-peer men-
tors and including guest speakers from the local metropolitan area who the students could better relate
and identify with (Bandura & Walters, 1977)—significantly increased all students reporting of having
mentors and role-models by the final day of the camp. Helping youth, especially minority youth, identify
these types of individuals early in their academic experience is essential in keeping them engaged with
topics such as computer science (Denner, 2011; Eccles & Harold, 1993; Hill & Wang, 2015) and may
ultimately contribute to increasing diversity and representation in computing and other STEM careers
(Patterson, 2005). These findings have important implications, demonstrating that relatively short inter-
ventions such as after-school programs with near-peer mentors can provide powerful and lasting positive
outcomes on underrepresented and underserved minority youth.
Limitations and Future Work
We have several limitations to our study. First, our middle school students were selected as a convenience
sample, recruited by recommendation from the school principal, which may have introduced a selection
bias. However, we believe that our sample is representative of the community we aim to serve, as our
students were all underrepresented and underserved minorities in computing, and the students’ demo-
9
graphics were comparable to the demographic breakdowns reported of Sussex Avenue Renew School
and the other K-12 schools in the same school district (Newark Public Schools, 2019).
Next, while we had a near 50:50 split between African American/Black and Hispanic/Latino middle
school students in our coding camp, the mentors represented a wide range of ethnicities but only 3 out of
11 of these near-peer mentors were Hispanic/Latino, and we did not have any African American/Black
mentors. On the other hand, all of our guest speakers were African American/Black. Even though we
did not have an exact overlap between middle school students and mentor/speaker demographics, we
still found that our younger students overwhelmingly reported that they viewed these college students
as computing mentors and the guest speakers and role-models, suggesting a good fit between mentors/
role-models and mentees. Based on our observations, we are confident that our results can generalize to
other similar contexts focusing on increasing engagement and providing mentorship for minority youth
since we had such strong effects.
Finally, we only collected data from the middle school students, and only from their perspective.
Collecting more qualitative data (in addition to our semi-structured focus groups), could give us a richer
picture of both the middle school and college student mentors’ views and feelings about the nature of
their mentor-mentee relationships, and what it means to them. In future camps, we plan to collect this
type of data from both middle school and college students’ perspectives.
CONCLUSION
Our programming camp served 28 underrepresented and underserved minority students (17 boys and 11
girls; grades 5-7) from a low-income, urban area in the Northeastern U.S. Initially in a pre-camp survey,
nearly all of our middle school students reported that they did not have any role-models or mentors in
computing. However, when asked again at the end of the camp, these same students indicated that they
developed strong connections with their near-peer mentors and even saw these older students and guest
speakers as role-models. Moreover, participating in the programming camp did not change the middle
school students’ career aspirations. Instead however, all of the students revealed new insights that they
had about applying programming into their intended career choices. These results highlight the need
for more opportunities for these young, underrepresented and underserved minority students to interact
with potential mentors and role-models, and the importance of providing resources to help develop and
nurture these relationships and connections.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank Sussex Avenue Renew School, Newark Public Schools, and the Urban League of Essex County
for their contributions and participation. This work was supported in part by the National Science Founda-
tion (NSF) under grants DRL-1837489 and IIS-1657160. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recom-
mendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF or other parties.
10
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Campers: The middle school students (5th-7th graders; aged 10-13 years) who took part in our 9-Sat-
urday coding camp.
Minorities: Used to describe racial, ethnic, and underserved populations or communities.
Near Peer Mentors: The first-year college students (aged 18-19 years) who were instructors in our
9-Saturday coding camp.
Role Models: Those individuals that our students could look up to. In our 9-Saturday coding camp,
this included the guest speakers who came to share information about their careers.
Underrepresented Groups: Used to describe groups or communities that make up a smaller per-
centage than a larger subgroup within a population.
Underserved Groups: Used to describe populations or communities with too few primary care
providers, high poverty, and/or high elderly population.
YouTuber: A person who produces, films, edits, and/or (most typically) appears in online videos,
namely on the website YouTube. This definition may extend to people on other similar online video
sharing websites such as TikTok.
13
14
Chapter 2
The Snowball Effect:
A Perspective on the Challenges to
Computer Science Education in K-12
Laura L. Fuhrmann
Independent Researcher, USA
Andrea M. Wallace
Independent Researcher, USA
ABSTRACT
Recognizing the persistent problem of the underrepresentation of women in computer science, this chapter
examines the barriers existing in the kindergarten through Grade 12 educational environment. It explores
the vicious cycle that exists in the education field, as the change agents are predominantly women. Much
of the research from the past decade reiterates the issue but substantive changes to reduce the gender gap
have not occurred at rates that keep pace with the evolving digital society. This chapter offers practical
solutions to (1) distinguish between computer science, instructional technology, and digital literacy in
the K-12 educational setting; (2) propose ways to promote opportunities in these environments, for all
students, with a focus on the underrepresented female population; (3) formulate strategies for educational
leaders to incorporate computer science knowledge including computational thinking skills into teacher
preparation programs and professional development to support those never exposed.
INTRODUCTION
Technologies have been transformational in society and throughout most of the world. The use of digi-
tal technologies, in all facets of society, are ever changing and continually advancing. Education in the
kindergarten through grade 12 (K-12) environment has not been spared by the profound impact of digital
transformations. Transformations that have influenced and altered the professional practice of educators
with phrases such as integrating educational technology, integrating technology into the curriculum, or
digital teaching and learning. These words are often heard at faculty meetings, during post-observation
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4739-7.ch002
Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Snowball Effect
conferences, professional development days, in professional course offerings and in collegial conversa-
tions. Technology has seeped into education as it has with everyday life resulting in easier access, and
thereby reducing any previous gender gap in technology usage (Abbiss, 2008). However, a reduction
of the gender gap in terms of women choosing to study computer science has failed to materialize and
ultimately the problem of female underrepresentation in the computer science field endures.
Literature addressing the shortage of female participation in electing to pursue degrees and careers
in computer science dates back over a decade, which is an eternity in the ever-advancing digital age.
Substantive action needs to be taken in K-12 educational settings. It is in this environment where expo-
sure to computer science education currently lacks and commonly where the decision to pursue a degree
or a career in the field is made (Wang & Degol, 2017). Unfortunately, it is evident that the majority of
educators do not view computer science as a top priority (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2015a). Moreover,
they appear to be unclear about the body of knowledge that constitutes computer science and how that
knowledge differs from general use of digital and computing technologies (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc.,
2016b).
Without addressing, analyzing and reshaping the dynamics of the state of computer science with the
mission of confronting the seemingly perpetual deficiency of gender diversity in K-12 education, there
will be a shortfall of women in the computer science field. The goal is to foster experiences that will
support and encourage young women to consider a degree in computer science and grow a fresh crop
of females ultimately choosing a career in the field. Considering the discussion has been ongoing for
numerous years, there is a great urgency to train, inform and enlighten educational professionals, both
in-service and pre-service, regarding computer science. Furthermore, many of the change agents are the
exact demographic that are poorly represented, yet are grossly overlooked as part of the target audience
that can contribute to the potential growth of the field.
This chapter offers practical suggestions for K-12 educators to reduce the gender gap and provide
ways to (a) distinguish between computer science & digital literacy as a means to removing the bar-
rier to computational thinking skills thereby promoting the study of computer science; (b) create and
promote opportunities in a K-12 educational environments for all students with a focus on underrepre-
sented populations; and (c) propose strategies for educational leaders to incorporate computer science
knowledge and effective approaches to develop computational thinking skills into teacher preparation
programs and in-service professional development. By instituting the recommendations suggested herein,
it is hoped that real progress can be effectuated to cultivate the growth of female participation as well
as other marginalized groups in the computer science field.
DEFINING TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION
Abstraction is an important term in the study of computer science, as well as a key descriptor in char-
acterizing one of the barriers that exists for underrepresented groups in educational environments. Just
as students struggle to understand abstraction as a generalization in computer terms, the administrators
of many K-12 environments only know the study of computer science in terms of the abstract. At the
core of the problem, there exists an ambiguity surrounding what computer science is and what form it
should take in the K-12 educational system.
Frequently, computer science is erroneously confused with integrating digital tools and media into
curriculum and teaching, such as word processing, creation of slide presentations or searching the internet,
15
The Snowball Effect
as being activities of computer science (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2015b). Often administrators and
educators tend to confuse the use of software applications as being a part of computer science. A survey
jointly conducted by Google and Gallup in 2015 provides a clear example of this confusion. Adminis-
trators were asked if their schools offered computer science content and 61% of principals responded
affirmatively citing a course in computer graphics as opposed to the 10% that correctly cited developing
software as a computer science offering (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2015a). The survey further recorded
the principals’ perceptions of what they deem to be computer science. Their answers exemplify the
severe misinterpretation of the computer science field. While software development is clearly within
the scope of computer science, a course in computer graphics seems to imply image manipulation and
drawing using software applications. College Board (2017) describes their course Advanced Placement
(AP) Computer Science Principles as helping students gain an understanding of computing technolo-
gies and advancing the application of computational thinking skills. Designing computer graphics is
not mentioned in the curricular content while designing and developing software explicitly is (College
Board, 2017). This is not to diminish the acquisition of sophisticated software application techniques
using such complex image manipulation software in terms of digital literacy, but it does not embody a
computer science education.
Erroneously believing that use of digital applications constitutes an education in computer science
severely perpetuates misunderstandings, as there is no clear and coherent division from digital literacy.
For example, 57% of school principals believe that creating websites is deemed as offering computer
science study (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2015b). What is not clear is how the web design courses are
implemented. Are they referring to coding or the use of a software application? Designing websites
using hypertext markup language (HTML), cascading style sheets (CSS) and JavaScript are all areas
of computer science, however using a drop and drag graphical interface application is not. The report
does not definitively specify the website creation methodologies employed in the courses. The surveyed
principals may or may not be referring to courses that use software or cloud based applications with drag
and drop interfaces. Therefore, it is unclear if the course offerings are truly computer science. The inac-
curacies and ambiguities are symptomatic of a lack of professional preparation specific to the computer
science field within universities, colleges, K-12 school districts and other institutions that are designed
to prepare future educators and support K-12 educational environments.
The professionals that have the power to effect direct change often overlook or do not understand
the need to address the impediments that result in a failure to fully grasp the understanding of what is
needed to support and expand computer science content and courses. If computer science cannot clearly
be defined and comprehended then changes addressing the fundamental problem are failing to make
productive steps. The goal should be to integrate computer science in education just as much as the use
of educational technology and digital literacy. The inaction and inattention of educators constitutes a
complacency in trying to remove existing barriers that hamper entry of marginalized populations into
the computer science field thereby prolonging the problem. Defining computer science so that it is no
longer misconceived and is clearly understood by administrators, guidance counselors, teachers and
other educational leaders, is paramount in resolving the gender gap.
By demystifying the field, opportunities to better educate students are created which broaden the reach
and attract a more diverse population. To effect change in K-12 educational environments to be more
inclusive of computer science, it is imperative to begin by defining the three distinct areas of educational
technology, digital literacy and computer science in terms that are better understood by educators. This
failure to systematically address the varying disciplines presented by the rise in digital devices has had
16
The Snowball Effect
a direct influence on the gender issues persisting in computer science (Abbiss, 2008). Defining these
separate areas will enable educators to understand what each means, design instruction and construct
inclusive climates that increase the accessibility in learning computer science. Simple steps that could
potentially spur more female participation in computer science courses and subsequently a career in the
field.
Educational Technology
Educational or instructional technology is the use of digital tools and media in the professional practice
of teaching. It includes the use of technology in standards based instructional design, content delivery
and assessment. About a decade ago, the entry of technology companies into the educational marketplace
resulted in the ubiquitous nature of digital devices in classrooms allowing new ways to facilitate teaching
and learning (Peluso, 2012). This has resulted in the accelerated pace in which digital technologies have
become commonplace in education as it is outside of the school building walls.
Today, it is common for educators to use digital tools for daily tasks and delivering integrated les-
sons due to computing advancements. Integrating digital devices, tools and media into teaching and
learning, across curricula, is at the heart of educational technology. Education/Instructional technol-
ogy has fundamentally transformed education and much of the professional development is focused on
helping educational professionals reap the benefits by developing best practices for the effective use of
and integration of technology tools. As a result, some K-12 educational settings have seen a need for
specific personnel to support this growing area and have created new positions such as Instructional
or Educational Technology Supervisors, Educational or Instructional Technology Teacher Coaches,
Instructional Technologists and Technology Specialists.The main focus and emphasis of these positions
are placed on supporting faculty and staff on the effective use of technology tools for both professional
use and curriculum integration.
Educational or instructional technologies integrated into the curriculum do nothing to foster, promote
or recruit underrepresented groups to participate in computer science courses nor pursue as a career
choice. What educational or instructional technology does provide is exposure to technology tools and
how they can be properly and effectively used by faculty and students, to support curriculum and con-
tribute to authentic learning experiences in the K-12 education setting.
Digital Literacy
Digital literacy or computer education seeks to ensure individuals obtain skills, knowledge and abilities
to effectively use digital computing technologies and participate as citizens in the global digital soci-
ety. Digital literacy refers to the responsible, ethical and productive use of digital tools and media to
effectively participate in a technologically dominated world. Students today are expected to be skilled
in the use of technology use with the presumption that an educated individual can use a computer or
would otherwise be considered illiterate in a digital society (Sarsani, 2007). Digital literacy skills are
not specific to one curriculum area and should be incorporated and applied on an interdisciplinary basis
throughout K-12 curricula.
This new literacy component, that supports learner use of computers and digital devices, is not often
clearly articulated or differentiated from instructional technology and/or computer science. Increased
and emerging technologies drive the continued evolution of how technology fits into teaching and learn-
17
The Snowball Effect
ing, and the degree to which they are integrated in the classroom depends on the digital literacy of the
classroom teachers (Greene, 2018). As the integration of educational technology continues in earnest,
students make use of a variety of benefits that digital technologies provide them both from classroom
teachers and out of the classroom. Students can transfer their knowledge of acquired skills making prag-
matic use of the variety of digital technologies. Digital literacy topics are broad and include tasks like
word processing, browsing the internet, graphic design and digital citizenship (Greene, 2018). Digital
literacy should not be confused with computer science education. This education is analogous to driver’s
education, where one shows how to responsibly and safely use computing devices in much the same way
the other shows how to responsibly and safely drive a car. Digital literacy is a goal for student learning
in most K-12 schools and are not specific to one curriculum area and should be incorporated and applied
on an interdisciplinary basis throughout K-12 curricula.
Digital education is not computer science. Sarsani (2006) describes it as having the cognitive ability
to use technology to engage and enhance student learning as a result of computer education not to be
incorrectly represented as the field of computer science. However, one cannot diminish the role of digital
literacy in the possibilities of inspiring some students to pursue the field of computer science. Ensuring
student competencies in using digital technologies strengthens the likelihood of a future study in computer
science (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2016a). Research reveals that strong feelings of self-efficacy, with
respect to computing technologies, leads to positive attitudes in learners about computer science (Jan,
2018). Negative attitudes and a lack of self-efficacy, due to insufficient exposure to computer science,
tend to be problematic for female groups (Abbiss, 2008; Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2016a; Wang &
Degol, 2017). Age appropriate digital literacy skills provide K-12 students with continuous opportunities
to properly use technology and be responsible digital citizens.
Computer Science
Computer Science is its own branch of knowledge and it helps students to develop important problem
solving and analytical abilities known as computational thinking. Currently, there is no universally
agreed upon definition of computer science in K-12 environments. The lack of a true definition leads
to the problems of distinguishing it from educational technology and digital literacy education. Unlike
educational technology and digital literacy, computer science, in general, involves the study of computing
technologies including but not limited to networking, programming, software development, web tech-
nologies, data structures, encryption and hardware systems. This leads to an amalgamation of topics that
entangles computer science with educational or instructional technology and digital literacy education
to the uninformed or the simple idea that computer science is synonymous with programming (i.e. using
a special coding language to write instructions for computers to execute). Comparing computer science
to digital literacy or educational technology is like comparing the study of automotive engineering to a
course in driver’s education.
Computer science makes possible the educational technologies used in teaching and the use of digi-
tal media and tools in learning (Abbiss, 2008). Without the field of computer science, digital tools and
media would not exist. Computer science is a separate discipline (i.e. academic subject) that changes
computer users to creators, inventors and designers of computational artifacts (Angeli et al., 2016).
Computer science should be thought of as a broader field of study on how technologies exist and operate
with computational thinking skills and abilities, at its core.
18
The Snowball Effect
At present, less than a third of school leaders view computer science as a top priority and see a low
demand for these types of courses while over two thirds of parents recognize the value of study in the
subject matter (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2016b). Those statistics are alarming considering that the
true aim of education is to prepare students for college and careers enabling them to successfully par-
ticipate in our global society. Not only does the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, 2019)
estimate an increased demand in computer science and information technology occupations, but also
the ubiquitous nature of technology impacts every part of the labor market. There is enormous cause for
concern that educational change agents, primarily female, are not convinced that expanding computer
science in K-12 is important.
The Importance of Clearing up the Confusion
With the pervasiveness of technology tools, improved access and the daily use of digital devices, some
form of technology education has certainly found its way into K-12 classrooms. The modern classroom
requires teachers to effectively integrate educational technology into their curriculum. Digital literacy
education is becoming more common, though the curriculum content varies, and are viewed as a neces-
sity in preparing today’s learners for a digital world. However, the integration of educational technology
and promotion of digital literacy are often mistakenly thought of as a computer science.
As a result, general lack of support, due to poor or non-existing knowledge, will continue to present
barriers in the K-12 educational arena. This lack of support is unlikely to change as long as computer
science is erroneously thought to be a part of educational technology and/or digital literacy. If teachers,
principals and superintendents are unfamiliar with computer science, then they are unable to effectively
promote, teach or advocate for a subject matter they may not fully understand or have any experience with.
Distinguishing among educational technology, digital literacy and computer science will deliver a true
comprehension about the body of knowledge that comprises computer science. This change in perception
is necessary so that the disciplines are separated before any action to specifically address the disparity
of females in the computer science domain can be undertaken. Despite years of advocacy initiatives, the
increase in women in the field of computer science has not grown proportionately with the rapid increase
in technology. There is no gender gap discussed in terms of educational technology and digital literacy
as girls in school use technology. It is not an issue of whether or not females use technology and digital
devices but how and why they use it (Abbiss, 2008). With the almost universal use of digital devices by
both boys and girls, the difference in use may be contributing to the gender gap problem.
THE CONTINUED SHORTAGE OF WOMEN
The Current State of Computer Science in K-12
Currently, there are many missed opportunities in K-12 educational settings to provide exposure and
academic experiences for female students with regard to computer science and activities that foster
computational thinking. Underrepresented and underserved student groups develop an interest in seeking
careers in the field when provided with and encouraged to seek computer science learning opportunities
throughout their educational experiences (Du & Wimmer, 2019; Wang & Degol, 2017). Initiatives to
promote computer science have made available a wealth of resources at little or no cost to schools. All
19
The Snowball Effect
that is required of educators is an investment in time and effort, joined with an interest in advancing
computational thinking skills in their students.
In recent years, a well-known initiative that presents computer science to students during the Com-
puter Science Education Week was created by Code.org entitled The Hour of Code (Du & Wimmer,
2019). This initiative is a simple one where students participate in age appropriate, interactive coding
activities isolated to a one-hour event. Research has shown that it does provide exposure to computer
science positively affecting female self-confidence with their own coding abilities (Du & Wimmer,
2019). Females tend to be more tentative and possess lower levels of confidence with regard to computer
science and information technology even though cognitive ability is not a factor (Wang & Degol, 2017).
However, the Hour of Code experience does not significantly increase girls’ interest in taking a future
programming course (Du & Wimmer, 2019). There appears to be a need for comprehensive follow up in
the form of subsequent lessons once the one hour of participation is complete. Without continuing par-
ticipation, computer science is reduced to disposable classroom time or forced classroom time featuring
activities students perform independently for a short period. Such self-directed learning without a teacher’s
thoughtful, instructional design and content delivery is particularly unappealing to girls (Abbiss, 2011).
Females prefer pedagogical methodologies that include guided discovery as a means to experimentation
(Wang & Degol, 2017). The educational experiences of girls may reinforce gender impediments during
the very important developmental period occurring in childhood (Wang & Degol, 2017).
The gaps for both females and underrepresented groups could start to close by exposing students to
a variety of aspects within computer science in elementary school and scaffold an explicitly designed
curriculum throughout middle school. Traditional school librarians are morphing into new roles, in-
creasingly referred to as media specialists. Media specialists not only share their love of books and
reading but many have become champions of technology. They support curriculum integration with
digital media, teach digital literacies and technology tools. However, the educational technology and
the digital education taught by media specialists does not include the comprehensive and explicit teach-
ing of computer science. Despite the instances of an age appropriate curriculum that introduces coding
and other computer science activities in the K-8 educational settings, the premise of weekly, scheduled
classes is a missed opportunity.
Age appropriate opportunities designed to support the field are needed throughout K-12 levels.
Often, few computer science courses are offered and mainly at the 9-12 grades, as electives. There is a
great need to train, inform and enlighten educational professionals about the field of computer science.
Consistent instruction throughout the K-8 levels that flow into dedicated high school computer science
courses help attract students to the field and assist in the possible removal of the existing barriers for
females and other inadequately represented groups.
Currently, the most widely known courses in K-12 educational settings would be College Board’s
Advanced Placement (AP) Computer Science A and AP Computer Science Principles. Computer science
courses in these environments are directed at academically advanced students, thus limiting universal
accessibility. Additionally, the majority of students participating in the 2019 AP tests were male with
only 24% female participation in the AP Computer Science A exam and 33% female participation in
Computer Science Principles exam (Code.org, n.d.). Expanding access and offering diverse computer
science courses at the secondary level would potentially increase participation for a wider audience,
including women.
20
The Snowball Effect
The Snowball Effect
Just as a snowball grows larger when rolling down a snowy hill, the lack of women in computer science
presents itself as a problem trapped in a vicious cycle with no clear solution ahead. The cause being that
the majority of the change agents and gatekeepers in the K-12 environment are women. Presently, the
structure of computer science in K-12 environments attracts a disproportionate amount of male students
who are interested in and encouraged to pursue computer science courses, clubs and ultimately careers
while the gender gap in the field continues to widen (Cheryan et al., 2017).
Many of the change agents are the exact demographic that continue to be underrepresented and are
grossly overlooked as part of the target audience to support the growth of the field and to take action to
address the gender gap issue. It appears that the existing gender barrier is affecting personal perceptions
and misconceptions held by teachers, guidance counselors and principals thus conceivably continuing
the shortage of females in computer science courses. A majority of students that learn computer sci-
ence do so inside the classroom (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2016b). Those classroom experiences play
an important part of students’ decision to pursue computer science opportunities in the future (Abbiss,
2011). According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2015-2016, 77% of public school
teachers were female, of which 88% are at the elementary school level (McFarland et al., 2019). Female
educators are underexposed to computer science, causing an apparent disinterest in the subject, which
reinforces the inadequacies of the present educational system. Therefore, an inherent weakness or bar-
rier to promoting computer science exists with females who make up the majority of the educators who
have the ability to effect change.
It appears that female teachers and educators are projecting an unconscious bias from lack of expe-
rience and knowledge of computer science. If the teacher is not a proponent of computer science, the
teacher sends a message dissuading students, especially girls, from considering computer science. This
bias hampers efforts to encourage women to study the computer science field just as initiatives to promote
women in Science, Engineering, Technology, Arts and Mathematics (STEM/STEAM) fields continue
with minimal success in the technology arena (Wang & Degol, 2017). Therefore, it is no surprise to find
that the field remains male dominated, as male students are more likely to receive teacher encouragement
and support than female students (Google Inc. & Gallup Inc., 2016a).
Elementary educators, primarily female, tend to hold degrees in Elementary Education and are not
usually a curriculum specialist in one subject area. Mathematics, often associated with computer science,
is not a common course of study for elementary teachers, therefore not a strength. The potential to expose
students to age appropriate computer science is being lost in the formative K-8 years. The focus needs
to be on educating the K-8 instructors by providing opportunities to expose them and their students to
computer science, not just technology and digital literacy tools, as early as possible.
Educating all K-12 educators regarding computer science and computational thinking is an integral
part of removing the existing barriers. One proven strategy to attract girls to the field of computer science
is to increase the number and visibility of female role models (Milgram, 2011). However, this exposure
to female role models rarely occurs in most K-12 educational settings due to the demographics of the
educators. Not surprisingly, the shortage of women teaching computer science directly corresponds
to that of the field, in general, reaffirming the current barriers (Cheryan et al., 2017). Enhancing the
knowledge base or comfort level of educators would empower them to effectively teach about the field,
even at the primary levels.
21
The Snowball Effect
RECOMMENDATIONS TO EFFECT CHANGE
Establish a Framework to Reflect on Technology Use
Establish a framework to reflect on teaching technology in classroom settings to allow educators to

differentiate educational technology, digital literacy & computer science disciplines. As schools are
presented with new and varied digital tools, media and methodologies, it is necessary to determine
whether any given application of that technology is an element of computer science, a component of
digital literacy and/or an approach best integrated as an educational technology tool to support cur-
riculum and standards. Educators need to reflect on the different disciplines afforded by the increasing
technologies in the digital world.
With the expanding supply of technologies in education, teacher reflection specific to computing
technologies will better serve learners, especially those poorly represented. Such contemplations are
already a necessary part of professional practice. Reflection, specific to the expansion of technology, in
teaching and learning should be crafted. This would help determine where a particular digital methodol-
ogy belongs in the computer science education universe.
Technology standards for all three disciplines have been formulated by the International Society for
Technology in Education (ISTE) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA). These standards
can be used to classify technology use and aid in the design of computer science experiences to reach a
wider audience. Examples as follows:
• Does the activity relate to concept or sub concept in computer science as set forth in the K-12
Computer Science Standards (CSTA, 2017) shown in Figure 1 or related to computational think-
ing skills as set forth in ISTE standards (2016a) for computational thinking competencies?
• Is the activity performed by having students properly use digital devices, software applications
and/or media related to digital literacy as set forth in ISTE standards (2016b) for students?
• Is the activity helping the teacher improve their professional practice by using educational tech-
nology as set forth in ISTE standards (2016c) for educators?
With an acknowledgement of each as a separate discipline, educational professionals can evaluate

technology, engage in curriculum planning and instructional integration that better serves all learners
including marginalized groups by giving educators the ability to design experiences specific to computer
science. Recurrent themes, in research devoted to the computer science gender imbalance, point to a lack
of interest based on a girls’ confidence in being able to succeed with the subject matter despite evidence
to the contrary (Abbiss, 2008; Abbiss, 2011; Banerjee & Santa Maria, 2012; Cheryan et al., 2017; Du &
Wimmer, 2019; Wang & Degol, 2017). Females, when choosing a career path, subconsciously need a
few important facets, one being confidence, to see pathways where they can be effective and ultimately
successful.
Digital literacy helps encourage interest in computer science courses, opportunities and careers
(Jan, 2018). Educators effectively use technology tools to teach and encourage learners to expand their
abilities and harness productive uses of technology and resources both within the school building walls
and outside during their daily lives. This helps build confidence in digital literacy skills in females thus
increasing self-efficacy. Coupled with the proper identification of computer science activities, educators
are better able to craft targeted learner experiences specifically directed at building girls’ confidence
22
The Snowball Effect
Figure 1. Concepts of Computer Science for teacher reflection when using technologies in education.
Source: Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA) K-12 Computer Science Standards, Revised 2017
and cultivating interest. Ultimately, a new crop of female students will be better prepared to make an
educated choice about pursuing computer science degrees and careers.
Require Computer Science Coursework in Teacher Preparation
Prospective K-12 Education Candidates should be required to complete a minimum of six credit hours
in computer science. Professional development and teacher preparation programs need to be modified to
support a computer science knowledge base to change educator perceptions about the role of computer
science in K-12 curricula. Today, many colleges and universities offer undergraduate courses and gradu-
ate studies specializing in educational technology. Higher education clearly sees the merit and the need
for such degree programs to support the ever-evolving educational landscape. In discussing technology
integration in elementary educator preparation programs, the research focuses on educator coursework
addressing the relevant and suitable use of digital tools in teaching and learning not technology as a dif-
ferent and distinct discipline in terms of computer science (Rose et al., 2017). The changing landscape
now needs a further shift in pre-service educator programs that require computer science skills so they
can effectively and properly be introduced to students in an age appropriate manner.
Part of the snowball effect, educators without knowledge in computer science, become a barrier to
growing the female population (Lasen, 2010). Further, many of these female educators suffer from the
same feelings of inadequacy and much apprehension that the female population at large feels (Rich et
al., 2019). Colleges and universities could help foster the confidence by requiring prospective K-12
education degree candidates to study computer science. Those students seeking careers and licensing
23
The Snowball Effect
in education would need to complete a minimum of six credit hours in computer science. Exposure to
computer science in academic settings would have a positive impact on fostering awareness and under-
standing about the computer science field.
This focus would reduce existing challenges and promote opportunities for females and heterogeneous
populations of learners. The courses would help to differentiate between the discipline of computer sci-
ence versus educational technology and digital literacy. Computer related occupations are growing at
a faster rate compared to the average according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2019). For example,
the BLS (2019) expects the number of computer and information research scientist jobs to increase 16%
through 2028. Further, the Occupational Outlook Handbook forecasts 13% growth in web developer
jobs alone, over the next 10 years. With there being no signs of a slowdown in the rate at which new
technologies emerge, it has become increasingly important for educators to possess knowledge in an area
that will influence the students they serve. K-12 educational institutions should provide students with
opportunities to support future careers, as well as college and career readiness curriculum standards.
The college course requirement could ultimately be a budget saver for K-12 educational settings.
Administrators routinely express concerns over the amount of expenditures required to extensively train
faculty to deliver a computer science education in the primary and secondary levels (Google & Gallup,
2015). Teacher preparation programs requiring six credit hours in the subject matter would help to al-
leviate the perceived concerns about budgeting for professional development yet successfully meet the
needs of the educational setting and ultimately provide students with the computer science exposure
needed to foster interest.
Most importantly, it will increase the visibility of women, as role models, with knowledge in the com-
puter science field and change culture from within by reducing the gender disparity that exists in K-12
educational settings. Female educators would possess the requisite skills and conceptual understandings
to effectively support age appropriate computer science experiences. Increased female role models has
proven a useful strategy in the promotion of computer science to women and girls (Google Inc., 2014).
It will also reduce stereotypes and any biases that those female educators may hold (Banerjee & Santa
Maria, 2012). The chances of increasing female interest at the earliest levels has the potential to expand
female participation markedly (Du & Wimmer, 2019).
Educators could make computer science come alive with a clear understanding of the subject matter.
Female educators challenge stereotypes and have the potential to be great role models that influence
young girls with their knowledge and an understanding of computer science (Cheryan et al., 2017).
Elementary education teachers support classrooms with a variety of subjects, every day. Revisiting the
Hour of Code experience explored by Du & Wimmer (2019), using a web-based platform to deliver
computer science education is potentially just as bad as a traditional lecture. Students participating in an
online computer science activity, with little to no instruction, is not student centered learning but instead
student abandoned learning (Freeman et al., 2014). With a majority of K-8 educators being female,
requiring six credits in computer science courses positions the educator with basic content knowledge
and the ability to promote computer science (Banerjee & Santa Maria, 2012).
Computer Science as a New Tool to Aid Struggling Students
Use computer science courses and/or instruction to provide remediation for students struggling in math
and science. Computer science is an academic subject focused on problem solving. Students who have
difficulty in school may benefit from the computational thinking skills afforded by computer science
24
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
— Il visite ses terres… Ou bien : Il chasse…
A Paris, il est au Cercle.
Pourtant, tous les vendredis, il s’ennuie consciencieusement en
famille et au milieu des invités de sa femme ; une manière comme
une autre de faire maigre !…
Il n’y a pas à s’illusionner, vendredi, nous ferons comme lui. Si
seulement les Chambert pouvaient venir !
Oh ! c’est que je les connais, les soirées de Mme de Charmoy !
Dans le salon, riche, correct et banal, les messieurs sont bien
tranquilles, trop tranquilles : ils jouent au whist.
Parfois, une voix s’élève :
— Vous venez de faire un mauvais coup… Vous avez joué
carreau… C’est le roi que vous auriez dû abattre…
Et puis, ils rentrent dans le silence ; et, de nouveau, l’on dirait des
automates perfectionnés qui se meuvent paisiblement dans la
lumière rose des abat-jour.
Les dames sont assises autour de la table, travaillant, — ou
tenant leur ouvrage, — en général, à de grandes tapisseries moyen
âge aux couleurs passées, ou bien à des nappes d’autel destinées à
une église de village.
Elles causent, comme elles travaillent, sans paraître s’intéresser
beaucoup à ce qu’elles font. Elles parlent avec la même indifférence
paisible et souriante : de toilettes, de littérature, d’art, de sermons,
de politique. Et les propos s’échangent, toujours sur la même note
endormante, douce comme une demi-teinte, qui vous donne l’envie
de dire une grosse hérésie afin d’obliger tout ce monde nonchalant à
s’indigner un peu.
Tout à coup, une dame demande, avec un sourire qui révèle
indiscrètement combien cela lui est égal, « si l’une de ces
demoiselles serait assez aimable pour faire un peu de musique »…
Louise et Claire, en jeunes filles bien élevées, vont s’asseoir au
piano et jouent, avec conscience, une ouverture quelconque.
Un soir où je dînais chez Mme de Charmoy, elles ont entrepris
celle de Poète et Paysan, qui a marché assez mal, car Louise, sans
que l’on puisse savoir pour quoi, a été prise soudain d’une émotion
terrible…
Elle avait bien tort de se troubler ; personne n’écoutait… C’est
seulement quand le piano s’est tu que tous les invités, n’entendant
plus de bruit, se sont aperçus qu’on venait de leur jouer le morceau
demandé.
Ils ont alors dit de confiance : « Très bien !… Charmant !!
Vraiment, elles font des progrès extraordinaires ! Une mesure !…
Une sûreté de toucher !… » etc.
Mme de Charmoy rayonnait ; son mari avait l’air moqueur ; Claire
et Louise, qui ne sont pas trop sottes, ne savaient que penser…
Un des joueurs s’est écrié tout à coup :
— Il y avait un bien joli passage… la, la la… Par malheur, il se
trouvait que ces la… la… la appartenaient à la Mascotte et non à
l’ouverture de Poète et Paysan.
Un demi-sourire discret a passé sur quelques lèvres ; mais
personne ne s’est autrement ému de l’enthousiasme de ce
connaisseur.
On m’a demandé de chanter, ce qui m’a réveillée et eux aussi ;
mais pour un instant !…
Je n’avais pas fini depuis cinq minutes, que l’engourdissement
général revenait à son niveau, la conversation reprenait son « train
de sénateur ». Et elle a continué à se traîner ainsi piteusement,
entrecoupée par des silences pendant lesquels chacun cherchait —
ou ne cherchait pas — ce qu’il pourrait bien dire.
Et pourtant, ces dames qui causaient ainsi sont des femmes
passant pour intelligentes ; qui lisent, qui reçoivent, qui suivent des
cours avec leurs filles. Ah ! pauvres nous !…
Heureusement, vendredi maman sera là ! et elle a le génie de la
conversation. Avec elle, je ne sais comment le miracle se fait, tout le
monde a de l’esprit. Aussi ses mardis sont-ils très courus. Et c’est
une bonne note d’y être reçu !…
Je ne comprends pas pourquoi M. Chambert n’y vient pas…
Quoique maman ne me l’ait pas dit, je vois bien qu’il lui plaît…
Il va chez Mme de Charmoy, chez Mme de Simiane… Et avec
nous, il se montre d’une réserve !… Quand je serais si heureuse de
lui faire les honneurs de notre « home » !
S’il pouvait donc être vendredi chez les de Charmoy !
28 février.
Il y était ! Et maman savait que nous devions l’y rencontrer, et elle

ne m’en avait pas parlé !…
Aussi, j’ai passé une soirée délicieuse.
Tous les Chambert, excepté l’aide de camp, étaient présents, M.
Raoul et sa femme, notre M. Chambert et le vieux père savant.
C’est un grand vieillard maigre, avec un profil découpé comme
celui d’une médaille ; des cheveux blancs qui découvrent un front
large, lumineux ; et des yeux tout à la fois vifs et profonds pareils à
ceux de M. Michel…
Ce bon vieux monsieur a été très aimable pour moi. Il avait salué
maman et causait avec elle. Tandis que j’embrassais Jeanne et
Suzanne, que je serrais la main de Thérèse, je l’entends dire à
papa :
— Je serais très heureux de connaître mademoiselle votre fille,
car je la connais beaucoup de réputation.
Je pense tout de suite que M. Chambert lui a raconté la scène du
cours et je me sens devenir rouge.
Papa s’avance :
— Voici ma fille, commence-t-il.
Mais M. Chambert l’interrompt.
— Du tout, du tout… C’est moi qui désire être présenté à
mademoiselle.
— Un bien grand honneur pour cette fillette, répond papa.
Et, se tournant vers moi :
— Paule, je te présente M. le docteur Chambert, qui, par ses
découvertes scientifiques…
M. Chambert ne le laisse pas achever.
— N’ajoutez rien, je vous prie. Mon titre de docteur est celui
auquel je tiens le plus… Voulez-vous, mademoiselle, me donner la
main ?
Certes oui, je voulais bien, il avait une si bonne figure !
Il tenait ma main et me regardait sans un mot… Je commençais
à être intimidée ; ses yeux ressemblaient tant à ceux de M. Michel !
Enfin il se tourne vers papa et lui dit avec un sourire :
— J’envie mon fils… et je comprends qu’il trouve beaucoup
d’attraits à ses conférences !
Là-dessus, papa demande à M. Michel :
— Cette jeune fille n’est-elle pas une élève bien distraite,
monsieur ?
Distraite ! Ah ! si j’avais pu l’être ce certain jour… Je lance,
malgré moi, à M. Chambert un regard suppliant pour qu’il ne révèle
pas mon aventure à papa.
— Mademoiselle Paule est, au contraire, une auditrice très
attentive… Ce sont toujours ses yeux qui m’avertissent du degré
d’intérêt que j’éveille dans mon public.
— Alors ils doivent vous dire que l’heure du cours passe trop
vite !
Il s’est incliné, et je me suis aperçue que je venais de lui faire un
compliment, en exprimant ma pensée toute sincère.
— Charles ! a appelé maman qui causait avec Mme Raoul ;
n’êtes-vous pas très satisfait des conférences de M. l’abbé Dubors
sur la « Bible devant la Science »…? Je disais à madame que,
depuis un mois, Paulette s’en était enthousiasmée, et, à ma grande
surprise, ne voulait plus en manquer une.
Depuis un mois ! c’est-à-dire depuis ma conversion, maman ne
s’en est pas aperçue !…
Je n’ai rien compris au premier discours sur les « origines des
Livres sacrés »… C’était trop savant.
Mais comme je voulais absolument devenir une femme sérieuse,
j’ai persévéré ; et maintenant je commence à me reconnaître assez
bien dans toute cette théologie !
Papa s’était rapproché avec le vieux M. Chambert ; et dans le
coin des parents, on s’est mis à parler sermons, puis microbes,
d’une façon si animée, que Mme de Charmoy ne devait plus
reconnaître son salon.
Nous, les jeunes filles et les jeunes gens, nous étions installés
tous ensemble à l’autre bout de la pièce. M. Michel était resté près
de moi. Jeanne, son frère, Thérèse, Louise de Charmoy, le petit de
Boynes, — que l’on trouve toujours partout, excepté dans son
régiment, — se sont lancés dans une grande discussion sur les
toilettes du bal costumé des Denans.
La conversation devenait générale, très animée. Comme
personne ne faisait attention à moi, j’ai dit à M. Chambert :
— Ce n’est pas bien généreux de votre part d’avoir raconté à
monsieur votre père ce… ce qui s’est passé au cours !… Vous savez
que j’en étais très confuse !
Il m’a jeté un regard rapide, comme pour voir si je parlais
sérieusement.
— M’en voulez-vous vraiment de l’avoir fait ?… Alors, je dois
chercher une excuse à mon indiscrétion. Je croyais avoir été le
premier coupable ; et comme mon père s’intéresse fort à votre cours,
je lui avais fait ma confession… Il y a répondu en me déclarant qu’il
trouvait…
Ici, M. Chambert s’est tout à coup arrêté avec un indéfinissable
sourire.
— Que j’étais bien mal élevée, n’est-ce pas ? ai-je demandé très
malheureuse.
— Oh ! comme vous êtes loin de la vérité ! Ma phrase est restée
inachevée, parce qu’elle prenait l’allure d’un compliment si banal,
que je n’ai pas osé vous l’offrir.
J’ai répondu trop vite comme à l’ordinaire :
— J’accepte toujours les compliments ! seulement, souvent je n’y
crois pas… Mais j’aimerais beaucoup à en recevoir un de M. le
docteur Chambert, car il ne peut jamais dire que la vérité !… Je suis
si fière qu’il ait désiré connaître papa !
Le regard brillant de M. Michel est devenu très doux.
— Mon père, en venant ici, était fort désireux de s’y rencontrer
avec M. de Marsay. Mais il souhaitait, je crois, tout autant, d’être
présenté à Mlle Paule.
Je suis devenue rouge de plaisir. M. de Boynes me regardait ; il
avait l’air impatienté de me voir ainsi causer avec M. Michel, et il a
dit à Jeanne, qui soutenait avec ardeur la cause d’une coiffure Marie
Stuart :
— Demandez à Mlle Paule ce qu’elle pense de la question.
Je ne savais pas du tout de quoi il s’agissait, mais j’ai répondu
avec enthousiasme :
— Je trouve que c’est extrêmement joli.
Jeanne, enchantée, a continué la discussion.
M. Chambert et moi, nous avons repris notre causerie ; je
m’efforçais d’être bien tranquille pour que maman ne songeât pas à
m’appeler de son côté.
Il me paraissait si étrange et si charmant de pouvoir ainsi parler
avec lui, mon maître, qui m’intimide tant au cours !
M. Chambert avait entendu maman dire que je m’intéressais à la
« Bible devant la Science » ; et cet intérêt avait l’air de lui sembler
très extraordinaire.
— Mais je suis beaucoup plus raisonnable que vous ne le
croyez ! me suis-je écriée bien vite. Et même, je lis, en ce moment,
un ouvrage très, très sérieux, un « Choix des lettres de Mme de
Sévigné ».
Un éclair de gaieté malicieuse a passé dans son regard ; et il m’a
semblé tout à coup le voir au cours, rendant compte de nos humbles
résumés littéraires, qu’il dissèque impitoyablement avec une parfaite
politesse.
— Pauvre Mme de Sévigné ! De quel ton vous parlez d’elle !… Il
semble que vous l’ayez trouvée très, très ennuyeuse !
Il avait si finement imité mon accent, que je n’ai pu m’empêcher
de rire.
— Que vous êtes moqueur ! lui ai-je dit, moitié fâchée, moitié
amusée. Assistez une fois à l’une des conférences de l’abbé
Dubors, et vous verrez si j’ai peur des sujets graves !… Tous nos
amis y viennent. Nous nous retrouvons après la messe ; c’est très
agréable !… J’aime presque autant ces sermons-là que vos cours…
pas tout à fait, pourtant ! ai-je rectifié. Je sentais bien qu’à mes yeux
les deux conférences n’avaient pas absolument le même intérêt.
Je ne sais pourquoi, au premier moment, il n’a pas paru flatté du
rapprochement. Mais cette impression n’a pas duré ; et comme il me
faisait compliment de ma sagesse, je lui ai raconté que je la lui
devais et lui ai parlé de la « Femme de devoir ».
Mon récit l’a fait rire ; mais après, il m’a dit, presque gravement :
— Vous ne devez pas lire ainsi les articles de la Revue
parisienne ; ils ne sont pas écrits pour vous !
C’était mon tour d’être un peu effarouchée ; pourtant, la première
seconde d’étonnement passée, j’ai trouvé bon de sentir qu’il
s’intéressait à moi ; et je lui ai expliqué que je ne lisais jamais rien
sans la permission de maman. C’était par hasard, cette fois-là…
Jeanne, qui avait enfin fait triompher Marie Stuart, m’a glissé à
l’oreille :
— Laisse-nous-le un peu !
— Quoi donc ?
— M. Chambert ! Tu l’as pris pour toi toute seule depuis le
commencement de la soirée !
J’avais un peu envie de me fâcher. Mais je n’en ai pas eu le
temps. Mme de Charmoy, qui n’avait plus son regard endormi, s’est
précipitée de mon côté, me demandant : « Si je serais assez aimable
pour dire une de mes délicieuses romances. »
En général j’adore chanter, surtout chez Mme de Charmoy, car
personne ne fait attention, et c’est alors comme si j’étais seule.
Mais ce bienheureux soir, tout avait changé. Les travailleuses
sortaient de leur engourdissement et ne travaillaient pas ; les joueurs
ne ressemblaient presque plus à des automates, et M. de Charmoy
paraissait aussi joyeux que lorsqu’il sort de sa maison pour aller au
Cercle…
Mais chanter devant lui, M. Michel !
Ah ! si j’avais pu, au moins pour un instant, être une grande
artiste !
Je n’avais pas la ressource de dire que je ne me rappelais rien
par cœur, puisque toutes mes amies savent que j’ai une mémoire
excellente. Aussi je me suis résignée ; j’ai accepté le bras de M. de
Charmoy, et j’ai bravement commencé une mélodie suédoise, très
originale, mon morceau favori.
Dès les premières notes, quand j’ai entendu ma voix monter
claire et vibrante, toute ma frayeur s’est envolée.
Je ne regardais pas !… Et pourtant, j’ai vu que M. Michel se
rapprochait de façon à être tout près du piano, à quelques pas de
moi… Cela m’était égal ! J’ai été croquée, un jour que je faisais ainsi
de la musique avec Suzanne : j’étais fort… passable ! Je
ressemblais à sainte Cécile, une sainte Cécile parisienne, du dix-
neuvième siècle, comme celles que fait Dubufe…
Malgré moi, je le sentais bien, je chantais pour lui seul.
Quand j’ai eu fini, tout mon auditoire a applaudi avec une chaleur
qui a dû faire frissonner les échos du salon, habitués au calme.
Maman m’a murmuré :
— Jamais tu n’as mieux chanté !
M. Michel, qui s’est trouvé juste à point pour me ramener à ma
place, m’a dit tout simplement : « Merci, mademoiselle. » Mais son
« merci » à lui m’a semblé bien meilleur que les compliments de tous
les autres.
Il ne m’a plus parlé pendant la fin de la soirée. Jeanne aura été
contente !… Il causait avec les personnes respectables de la
société ; mais, une ou deux fois, j’ai rencontré son regard qui me
suivait… Et au moment du départ, c’est lui qui nous a mises en
voiture, maman et moi.
15 mars.
J’ai mal lu ma messe, ce matin ; mais la faute en est pour

beaucoup à M. Chambert !
Je me doutais bien qu’il viendrait à l’une des conférences de
l’abbé Dubors, puisque je le lui avais demandé ! Seulement, comme
je ne l’ai aperçu qu’à la fin de la messe, pendant tout le
commencement, j’ai été très fâchée de ne pas le voir.
J’avais, cependant, bien surveillé l’entrée, qui était fort curieuse à
regarder.
Ces conférences sont pour les messieurs ; mais les dames y vont
beaucoup…, pour être à même de juger si les messieurs en
profitent !
Il y avait les habitués de l’église, souvent un peu… mûrs, avec
des calottes de velours et de gros livres sous le bras, qui allaient tout
droit à leurs chaises. Et puis les indifférents amenés par leur femme
ou par leur mère, mêlés aux croyants, ceux-là très sérieux. Et puis
les curieux, qui venaient là… pour voir !… Les mondains renseignés
— comme l’avoue Georges Landry — sur les jolies femmes que l’on
peut rencontrer à cette messe… Les parvenus, auxquels on a dit
qu’en temps de République, il est bien porté de montrer des opinions
religieuses…
Et tous se pressaient pour entrer dans la nef, s’écartant, je l’ai
bien remarqué, quand une jeune femme élégante ou une très vieille
dame voulait passer ; — les « purs » offrant même leur chaise… —
et restant impassibles quand la dame était laide ou sur le retour…
Tous pareils, les hommes ! Je suis très contente d’être jolie ; c’est
beaucoup plus commode !
Mais dans toute cette abondance de messieurs, je ne voyais pas
M. Michel. Aussi, je n’ai rien compris au sermon !
Comme la messe avançait, et que j’étais de plus en plus
désappointée, je tourne un peu la tête, et je l’aperçois… enfin ! à
demi caché par le pilier. Je me penche bien vite sur mon livre ; j’étais
certaine qu’il m’avait vue ! J’ai tâché alors de lire attentivement ma
messe… Mais je ne pouvais pas ! J’étais trop contente de le savoir
dans mon église, à quelques pas de moi !… Et je songeais toujours
à ce pauvre du premier janvier, qui s’appelait « Michel » comme lui…
Je regardais le chœur tout illuminé. J’écoutais l’Ave Maria chanté
par une voix d’enfant fraîche, cristalline. Je pensais que, dans cette
même église, je me marierais peut-être bientôt… Et, tout à coup, il
m’a semblé que si, ce jour-là, je me voyais, toute blanche sous mon
voile, agenouillée auprès de lui, M. Michel, je n’aurais plus rien à
désirer en ce monde…
Oh ! être aimée par lui !…
Mais l’orgue et la voix se sont tus, et mon rêve a disparu… Il était
trop beau !…
Je craignais que nous ne le rencontrions pas, tant il y avait de
monde à la sortie !
Alors, sans rien dire à papa, je me suis glissée dans la foule. Il a
été obligé de se dépêcher pour me rejoindre. Puis, quand j’ai été
bien sûre de ne pas manquer M. Michel, j’ai regardé d’un autre côté,
et je me suis retournée seulement lorsque papa, qui n’y avait vu que
du feu, m’a appelée :
— Paulette ! M. Chambert.
Je lui ai tendu la main à l’anglaise, comme papa… C’était la
première fois… Et je lui ai demandé :
— N’est-ce pas, monsieur, que je ne vous ai pas trompé ?… Ces
sermons ne sont-ils pas si intéressants qu’ils n’ont plus l’air d’être
des sermons ?…
— Paulette ! quelle manière de parler ! s’est écrié papa.
J’ai vite corrigé ma phrase.
— Cet abbé n’est-il pas un orateur très distingué ?
— Très distingué, en effet, m’a répondu M. Chambert avec ce
sourire jeune qui éclaire tout son visage.
Papa et lui ont descendu les marches en causant. Je marchais,
très sage à côté d’eux ; mon rêve me revenait à la pensée !
Mais les Landry, les de Vignolles, les de Charmoy, etc., nous ont
rejoints, et il m’a bien fallu revenir dans la sévère réalité.
M. de Boynes, qui, avec tout un groupe de messieurs, lorgnait la
sortie de la messe, a eu un mouvement de contrariété que j’ai saisi
au passage, quand il a aperçu M. Chambert auprès de nous.
Mon fidèle chevalier devient insupportable ; je suis bien libre
d’aimer à causer avec M. Chambert !…
Jeanne et Georges Landry m’ont arrêtée pour savoir à quelle
heure nous nous retrouverions aux courses.
Là-dessus, papa a demandé à M. Chambert s’il n’y allait pas
aussi.
J’écoutais de tout mon cœur, en faisant semblant de m’intéresser
à la description d’une robe neuve de Jeanne. Il a répondu qu’il avait
promis d’accompagner son frère et sa belle-sœur à Lamoureux.
Cette raison m’a eu tout l’air d’un prétexte ! car, enfin, M. Raoul
n’a pas besoin qu’on l’« accompagne », et Mme Raoul, étant
pourvue de son mari, pouvait bien nous laisser son beau-frère !…
22 mars.
Nous sommes en plein carême en ce moment ! Aussi, les bals se

succèdent… et mes maladresses aussi !
C’est désolant ! mais j’en fais beaucoup plus depuis que je suis
résolue à devenir une femme sérieuse.
Si maman savait ce qui m’est arrivé, hier soir, au bal, chez Mme
de Rally… Ah ! je crois bien qu’elle ne voudrait plus m’emmener
nulle part !
Une très belle réunion, beaucoup de jolies femmes et de
messieurs dans les embrasures de fenêtres et de portes. Ces
derniers ne quittaient guère leur refuge ; passé l’âge du volontariat,
plus ils sont jeunes, moins ils dansent : « C’est une règle inverse »,
comme on nous disait au cours ; de sorte que plusieurs jeunes filles
restaient à leur place.
Mme de Rally, une grande et forte femme, avec des yeux
charmants, trop de cheveux sur le front et des diamants superbes,
allait de droite et de gauche, distribuant des sourires, et demandant
aux jeunes filles, sans écouter la réponse :
— Eh bien ! mesdemoiselles… vous amusez-vous ?
Naturellement, toutes, même celles qui ne bougeaient pas, — et
pour cause, — murmuraient un : « Oui, madame ! » souriant.
Jeanne et moi, nous n’avions que faire des présentations, car
nous connaissions tous les danseurs. Pourtant, comme je revenais à
ma place, après une valse avec M. de Boynes, Georges Landry
s’approche, escorté d’un jeune homme, et me dit :
— Voulez-vous, mademoiselle, me permettre de vous présenter
mon ami, M. Philippe de Rouvres ?
J’adresse un petit salut à M. de Rouvres et je le regarde. Je vois
un visage très brun, avec des yeux très ordinaires, des cheveux très
ondulés et un sourire satisfait… Oh ! très satisfait !!!
Il m’adresse la demande de rigueur :
— Puis-je espérer, mademoiselle, que vous voudrez bien me
faire l’honneur de m’accorder une valse ?
J’examine mon carnet.
— La dixième, monsieur, si vous voulez bien.
On en était à la quatrième. Il prend un air presque froissé.
— Elle me semblera bien longue à venir. Ne pourriez-vous me
donner autre chose avant cette valse, mademoiselle ?
Je réponds avec un faux air de regret :
— J’ai tout promis, monsieur.
Ce n’était pas rigoureusement vrai ! Mais ce M. de Rouvres me
déplaisait avec ses cheveux trop ondulés et son sourire suffisant.
Il me fait un petit salut de tête bien raide, bien correct :
— Je regrette infiniment, mademoiselle. Alors, la dixième valse !
Ah ! cette dixième valse vint trop vite !… Je m’éloigne à son bras,
très décidée à ne pas commencer de conversation.
Nous nous mettons à danser ; il valsait mal, très mal. Au bout de
deux tours, j’étais édifiée sur son talent ; je l’arrête, et j’attends toute
droite comme une petite pensionnaire qu’il se décide à dire quelque
chose.
Je n’étais pas très charitable, je le sentais bien… Mais tant pis !
puisqu’il ne savait pas danser, il fallait au moins qu’il parlât.
Au bout d’une minute, il se hasarde :
— Vous aimez la valse, mademoiselle ?
J’ai sur le bout des lèvres : « Je l’adore ! mais pas avec vous ! »
En femme sérieuse — future ! — je m’arrête à un :
— Oui, monsieur, accompagné d’un petit sourire.
Il reprend :
— Il y a des jeunes filles qui restent sans danseur, parce que
certains messieurs préfèrent regarder et ne les invitent pas.
Son raisonnement était si logique que je n’avais rien à y
répondre.
Malgré moi, pourtant, il m’échappe :
— Ils ne sont pas ici pour regarder ! Les jeunes filles devraient
danser entre elles, sans plus s’inquiéter d’eux !
Il me répond avec son sourire satisfait :
— Oh ! ce ne serait plus la même chose !
Sous-entendu : « Ce leur serait beaucoup moins agréable !!! »
Il était vraiment par trop agaçant.
Je prends le ton le plus indifférent, et je commence :
— Mon Dieu ! croyez-vous ?… Moi, ce me serait tout à fait
égal !…
Mais je m’arrête brusquement, effrayée de l’air de stupeur avec
lequel il me considérait. Il paraissait suffoqué.
— Oh ! mademoiselle !… Vous dites des choses !… ah ! des
choses !… qui sont dures à entendre !…
Je m’apercevais bien maintenant que ma phrase n’était pas très
polie !… Mais elle ne me semblait pas suffisante pour le mettre dans
un tel état, quand l’idée me vient qu’il a interprété mon : « Cela m’est
égal », par :
« Tous ces jeunes gens sont si stupides, que… etc. »
Bien sûr, il devait en être ainsi, car M. de Rouvres continuait du
même ton bouleversé et vexé en même temps :
— Oh ! ne vous excusez pas, mademoiselle ! C’était un cri du
cœur. Vous n’y pouvez rien !
Il avait raison : je n’y pouvais rien.
Plus je voulais réparer mon étourderie, plus je m’embrouillais.
J’en arrivais à parler du plaisir que l’on peut éprouver quelquefois à
danser avec des chaises !…
Lui, pendant ce temps, retrouvait ses esprits ; il s’est rappelé qu’il
devait se montrer homme du monde et m’a demandé, d’un ton
devenu irréprochable, si je voulais valser de nouveau.
Je n’avais pas même le courage de dire que j’étais fatiguée…, de
trouver un prétexte. Je me suis laissé emporter au milieu du
tourbillon.
Nous avons essayé de faire quelques pas, mais les danseurs
étaient si nombreux qu’il nous a fallu arrêter…
Et je ne trouvais rien d’aimable à dire à ce M. de Rouvres pour lui
faire oublier la réponse qui l’avait tant froissé. Il ne m’inspirait pas du
tout !…
Nous étions près du petit salon où se trouvaient préparés les
accessoires du cotillon, au milieu desquels trônait un superbe cor de
chasse.
Je jetai sur eux des regards désespérés, cherchant un sujet de
conversation, quand je m’aperçois tout à coup que les yeux de M. de
Rouvres ont suivi les miens, et sont arrêtés sur le cor en question
avec une complaisance des plus marquées.
Une idée lumineuse me vient. Il fallait être un fanatique hunter
pour regarder un cor avec tant d’affection ! Et sans hésiter, je
commence d’un air aimable, histoire de trouver une entrée en
matière :
— Nous allons, je crois, tout à l’heure, pendant le cotillon,
entendre sonner un hallali… N’êtes-vous pas, monsieur, très
amateur de chasse ?
Ma phrase était pitoyable, et j’allais tout à fait à l’aventure, car
une heure plus tôt, j’ignorais même l’existence de M. de Rouvres.
Son visage s’éclaircit soudain.
— Oh ! extrêmement, mademoiselle. Oh ! extrêmement ! Chasser
est un des plus grands plaisirs de ma vie !!!
Je retiens un soupir de soulagement. Comme j’étais bien
tombée, mon Dieu !…
Je continue souriante :
— Je comprends ce goût, car j’ai vu une chasse à courre dans la
forêt de Rambouillet ; et, la curée mise en dehors, j’ai conservé un
charmant souvenir de ma journée.
Le visage de M. de Rouvres s’épanouissait de plus en plus.
— Je suis fier, mademoiselle, que vous compreniez mon
enthousiasme. Oui, chasser est un des plus grands plaisirs de ma
vie !!!
Je le savais bien, puisqu’il me l’avait déjà dit ! Mais j’étais
décidée à être bonne jusqu’au bout, et je l’écoute avec attention.
Il s’en aperçoit, et poursuit enchanté :
— Il y a dans la chasse un imprévu qui lui donne ce charme
irrésistible que les profanes ne peuvent pas comprendre. Ainsi, je
me souviens : un jour, nous étions dans un petit bois de bouleaux,
allant un peu à l’aventure. Nous n’avions guère rencontré que des
lapins…
Je répète avec intérêt :
— Ah ! des lapins ?
— Oui, des lapins… Oh ! il y en avait beaucoup cette année…
Beaucoup de faisans, aussi !…
Cela dit avec conviction, M. de Rouvres reprend, encouragé par
mon air attentif :
— Tout à coup, nous entendons un bruissement dans les fourrés.
Je regarde !… J’aperçois un chevreuil…, je tire…, l’animal tombe !…
Je l’avais atteint à l’épaule… Et mes compagnons en étaient encore
à se demander ce qui arrivait, a conclu M. de Rouvres, plein
d’enthousiasme au souvenir de son exploit.
La valse allait finir. Je pouvais être aimable sans crainte de voir
arriver après le chevreuil la biche, le cerf, les faons, toute la famille.
J’ai dit à M. de Rouvres avec mon plus gracieux sourire :
— Ce sont là, monsieur, de ces coups que les bons tireurs
rencontrent seuls !
Il s’est incliné, en grand seigneur cette fois, et m’a répondu sur
un ton qui n’était plus suffisant :
— Peut-être suis-je, en effet, d’une certaine habileté à la chasse ;
mais, en tout cas, je suis un bien mauvais valseur !… Jamais, avant
ce jour, mademoiselle, je ne l’avais ainsi regretté !…
Ce n’était vraiment pas mal tourné pour un jeune homme qui a
les cheveux si ondulés. Aussi, nous sommes revenus à ma place
bien réconciliés.
J’étais à peine assise, que Jeanne m’a chuchoté, en me
montrant M. de Rouvres qui s’éloignait :
— Tu sais, ma chère, tu lui as tourné la tête !… Il a déclaré à
Georges que tu étais la plus ravissante jeune fille qu’il ait jamais vue.
En moi-même, j’ai ajouté : « Et la plus malhonnête, sans doute ! »
Mais j’ai répondu seulement à Jeanne :
— Il danse bien mal.
— Cela ne m’étonne pas, a-t-elle riposté ; il est surtout un grand
chasseur devant l’Éternel !… (Ah ! je le savais !…) Mais tu lui
apprendras… C’est une très belle conquête que tu as faite là !
Et elle a continué, comme si elle lisait un catalogue :
— Marquis de Rouvres ! Vieille noblesse ! Fortune princière ! Plus
de père ! Une mère parfaite ! Un des plus fidèles défenseurs du trône
et de l’autel !… Revient d’Angleterre, quittant ton nouveau « roy » !…
Très en faveur auprès du prince de Galles !… Personnage à la cour
d’Angleterre…
Jeanne aurait pu aller plus longtemps encore, j’étais trop saisie
pour l’arrêter…
Il me trouvait « ravissante » ; il était défenseur « du trône et de
l’autel » ; il était l’ami du futur roi d’Angleterre… Et moi, je lui avais
laissé croire que je le trouvais un « stupide jeune homme » !…
Mon Dieu ! si maman l’apprenait ! Je la cherche des yeux, et je
l’aperçois qui causait avec une dame très distinguée, aux cheveux
gris encadrant un visage pâle.
— Mme de Rouvres, m’a murmuré Jeanne.
A ce moment, papa s’approche. Il venait… il venait m’avertir que
Mme de Rouvres désirait me connaître !… Ah ! cela tombait bien !
La présentation s’est accomplie dans toutes les règles.
— J’avais remarqué dès mon arrivée cette petite tête blonde, m’a
dit aimablement Mme de Rouvres ; et j’ai été très fière pour mon fils
qu’il ait pu obtenir une valse.
Ah ! pauvre dame !… elle ne se doutait guère combien j’avais été
peu polie avec son fils !
Sur un signe de Mme de Rouvres, il s’est approché ; et, pendant
que les mères causaient, il m’a demandé respectueusement de lui
accorder le cotillon.
Par bonheur, je l’avais déjà promis…
Eh bien, il ne l’a pas dansé ; il s’est assis derrière moi ; il m’a
offert tout ce qu’il pouvait m’offrir : fleurs, décorations…, etc.
Par exemple, il parlait un peu trop du prince de Galles !…
Comme nous partions, il a demandé à maman la permission
« d’aller lui présenter ses hommages ».
Cette demande était à mon adresse ; je l’ai bien deviné à la
manière dont il m’a dit adieu.
Ce marquis de Rouvres m’inquiète. Il a un air de prétendant.
Pourquoi me trouve-t-il ravissante ?… Et pourquoi maman a-t-
elle été si aimable avec lui ?…
2 avril.
Fini mon cher, cher cours ! Maman était venue pour la dernière
conférence.
Il me semblait que l’heure passait plus vite encore que toutes les
fois… Quand j’aurais tant voulu retenir les minutes !
M. Michel nous parlait d’une manière très élevée, si j’en jugeais
par le regard profond de Suzanne, de l’influence morale des
écrivains. Mais je ne pouvais pas bien l’écouter. Trop d’idées se
pressaient dans mon esprit.
Je songeais que lui, le premier, m’avait inspiré le désir d’être
autre chose qu’une poupée frivole, et révélé d’autres livres
intéressants que les romans. Il m’avait appris à penser un peu par
moi-même, donné cette jouissance de savoir comprendre un homme
vraiment intelligent… Et pour cela, j’aurais voulu lui dire : « Merci »
devant tout le monde, comme il avait parlé devant tout le monde !
Mais les sages convenances étaient là, impitoyables, à me
répéter que je devais rester indifférente, bien que le cœur me battît
d’émotion.
Oh ! quels mensonges elles vous font faire !
Quatre heures moins dix !… Quatre heures moins cinq !… Quatre
heures !… C’était fini.
Il s’est levé, disant quelques mots d’adieu…
Toute l’assistance sortait. J’ai embrassé Mme Divoir, que j’aime
bien depuis que je l’ai vue si tourmentée, cet hiver, de la maladie de
sa petite fille. J’avais été trop sévère pour elle. Après tout, son mari
ne méritait pas d’être beaucoup regretté !…
Quand j’ai rejoint maman, elle causait avec lui… je veux dire
avec M. Michel. Et il racontait qu’il allait partir pour le Tyrol, comptant
y passer quelques mois.
Il ne manquait plus que cela ! Avec M. de Rouvres qui est d’une
amabilité insupportable et que nous rencontrons partout, mon
malheur était complet !
La conversation a continué quelques instants.
— Paule va être bien privée de ne plus avoir vos conférences,
monsieur, a dit maman.
Je n’ai pu m’empêcher de m’écrier :
— Oh ! oui ! je suis si fâchée qu’elles soient finies !
Il m’a comme enveloppée de ce regard clair et profond que j’aime
tant à sentir sur moi.
— Me croirez-vous si je vous avoue qu’à moi aussi les séances
du lundi vont bien manquer ?… Mais nous continuerons l’année
prochaine, n’est-ce pas ?
— C’est bien loin, l’année prochaine ! ai-je répondu la gorge
serrée… Malgré moi, je pensais à cet insipide M. de Rouvres.
— En attendant, a repris maman très gracieuse, je compte
absolument sur votre visite… C’est chose convenue… Paulette,
d’ailleurs, sera contente de vous exprimer encore le plaisir qu’elle
avait à vous entendre.
Il s’est incliné.
Ma gorge n’était plus serrée, et la perspective de M. de Rouvres
me devenait tout à fait indifférente.
— Je vous remercie beaucoup, lui ai-je dit, de tout le plaisir et de
tout le bien que vous m’avez fait cet hiver !… Je suis un peu plus
sérieuse qu’au commencement de la saison… n’est-ce pas,
maman ?
Maman a fait une imperceptible petite grimace ; par bonheur, M.
Michel n’a pas vu son sourire de doute.
— Et moi, je vous remercie de toute votre attention, m’a-t-il
répondu simplement.
Maman lui a tendu la main ; moi aussi !… Et nous sommes
parties… si vite !
Il viendra enfin !!… Cela m’est égal maintenant de dîner jeudi
chez la marquise de Rouvres.
16 avril.
Il est venu… et je n’y étais pas !

Nous avions une matinée au cours de chant, et maman m’y avait
envoyée.
Mon Dieu ! j’aurais été si heureuse de le voir ici !
Pendant le dîner, maman parlait à papa de cette visite. Il paraît
que M. Michel et M. de Rouvres se sont trouvés en même temps à la
maison, tous deux se connaissant déjà.

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Handbook of Research on Equity in

Computer Science in P 16 Education

Handbook of Research on Innovations in Non Traditional

Handbook of Research on Integrating ICTs in STEAM

Computer Science Education: Perspectives on Teaching

Handbook of Research on Science Education III 1st

Computer Science in K 12 An A To Z Handbook on Teaching

Computer Security ESORICS 2021 26th European Symposium

Handbook of Research on Geospatial Science and

Handbook of Research on Education Institutions, Skills,

A volume in the Advances in Early Childhood and

Names: Keengwe, Jared, 1973- editor. | Tran, Yune, 1979- editor.

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com.

Transformative Pedagogical Perspectives on Home Language Use in Classrooms

Designing Culturally Competent Programming for PK-20 Classrooms

Multifaceted Strategies for Social-Emotional Learning and Whole Learner Education

International Perspectives on Modern Developments in Early Childhood Education

Handbook of Research on Tools for Teaching Computational Thinking in P-12 Education

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA

Alshaya, Khalifa / University of North Dakota, USA ....................................................................... 185

Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xvi

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 293

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 345

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 351

Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xvi

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 293

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 345

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 351

Middle School Students

Near-Peer Mentors and Role-Models

Participants and Instructors

Pre- and Post- Test Questionnaires

1. Do you know of anyone famous related to computing? If so, who?

Mentorship and Role-Model Results

Future Job/Career Results

Pre-Test Only Results

Limitations and Future Work

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

DEFINING TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

The Importance of Clearing up the Confusion

THE CONTINUED SHORTAGE OF WOMEN

The Current State of Computer Science in K-12

The Snowball Effect

RECOMMENDATIONS TO EFFECT CHANGE

Establish a Framework to Reflect on Technology Use

Establish a framework to reflect on teaching technology in classroom settings to allow educators to

With an acknowledgement of each as a separate discipline, educational professionals can evaluate

Require Computer Science Coursework in Teacher Preparation

Computer Science as a New Tool to Aid Struggling Students

Il y était ! Et maman savait que nous devions l’y rencontrer, et elle

J’ai mal lu ma messe, ce matin ; mais la faute en est pour

Nous sommes en plein carême en ce moment ! Aussi, les bals se

Il est venu… et je n’y étais pas !

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