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Engineering Materials
Songtao Li
Zhengwang Zhu
Dongyan Liu
Yu Dong
Hierarchically Porous
Bio-Carbon Based
Composites for High
Electromagnetic
Shielding
Performance
This series provides topical information on innovative, structural and functional
materials and composites with applications in optical, electrical, mechanical, civil,
aeronautical, medical, bio- and nano-engineering. The individual volumes are
complete, comprehensive monographs covering the structure, properties, manufac-
turing process and applications of these materials. This multidisciplinary series is
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Indexed at Compendex (2021)
More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/4288

Songtao Li · Zhengwang Zhu · Dongyan Liu ·
Yu Dong
Hierarchically Porous
Bio-Carbon Based
Composites for High
Electromagnetic Shielding
Performance
Songtao Li Zhengwang Zhu
Shi-changxu Innovation Center for Shi-changxu Innovation Center for
Advanced Materials, Institute of Metal Advanced Materials, Institute of Metal
Research Research
Chinese Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Sciences
Shenyang, China Shenyang, China
Dongyan Liu Yu Dong

Shi-changxu Innovation Center for School of Civil and Mechanical
Advanced Materials, Institute of Metal Engineering
Research Curtin University
Chinese Academy of Sciences Perth, WA, Australia
Shenyang, China
ISSN 1612-1317 ISSN 1868-1212 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-19-1068-5 ISBN 978-981-19-1069-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1069-2
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Preface
With the rapid development of technological innovation, people enjoy the conve-
nience gained by electronic products, but we have to realize that high-energy elec-
tromagnetic waves used in electronic products may cause potential damage to preci-
sion equipment and even endanger human health. Therefore, it is urgent to develop
high-efficiency electromagnetic shielding materials. Traditionally, metal materials
with high conductivity are usually used as electromagnetic shielding materials due
to their good mechanical properties and high shielding performance. However, a
strong reflectivity of metal materials to electromagnetic wave may cause secondary
electromagnetic pollution of surrounding devices. At the same time, metal materials
have some serious defects such as poor corrosion resistance, difficult processing and
high density, which limit rapid applications and the development of metal materials
as electromagnetic shielding materials. Therefore, polymer/carbon composites have
drawn great attention as a substitute for metals as electromagnetic shielding materials,
which have typical advantages of adjustable shielding performance, corrosion resis-
tance, easy processing and low density. At present, most conductive carbon materials
are derived from mineral resources or obtained through chemical synthesis. More-
over, carbon materials in various industries have become increasingly demanding, as
exemplified by batteries, supercapacitors, catalysis, wastewater treatment, electronic
devices, heat insulation and flame retardants. The excessive use of fossil energy and
artificial chemical materials as the raw carbon-based materials undoubtedly imposes
enormously negative effect on the environment. Therefore, renewable, ecofriendly
and inexpensive carbon materials derived from biomaterials are employed to replace
or partially replace the original ones in order to alleviate the damage to our ecological
environment. The widespread applications of bio-carbon materials to manufacture
efficient and multifunctional electromagnetic shielding composites are anticipated
to be a future development trend.
This book covers the overall idea of using natural loofah as a porous carbon
raw material to prepare high-efficiency electromagnetic shielding composites. The
frequencies of electromagnetic waves for all investigations belong to the X-band
in range of 8.2–12.4 GHz, which are often used in radar, satellite communications,
military service and wireless computer networks. The development and applications
v
vi Preface
of carbonized loofah fibers and carbonized loofah sponge are systematically elabo-
rated, and their physical properties summarized and tested can be a very useful guid-
ance to practical and commercial applications of loofah. Two methods of modifying
carbonized loofah are interpreted in detail via electroless plating and chemical vapor
deposition (CVD) in order to achieve good electrical conductivity and mechanical
properties. A novel three-dimensional structure design concept of “big nets nested
small nets” has been proposed to fabricate functional composite materials based on
carbonized loofah fibers, nickel-plated carbonized loofah fibers, CVD carbon-coated
carbonized loofah sponge, graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), silicon carbide,
MXene, and polyetheretherketone (PEEK). The internal relationship between mate-
rial structure and overall performances including mechanical properties, electrical
conductivity, electromagnetic shielding performance and thermal performance has
been holistically evaluated. Most importantly, good synergistic effect of carbonized
loofah and other functional fillers warrants its important role as a cheap, ecofriendly,
sustainable, renewable and non-toxic substitute for active shielding fillers.
In this book, Chap. 1 shows a detailed literature review on the development of
electromagnetic shielding composites including the performance mechanism, prepa-
ration methods and material types, especially with respect to the description of mate-
rial structures and shielding fillers. This chapter focuses on the cutting-edge applica-
tion of biomaterials in the field of electromagnetic shielding. Chapter 2 describes the
feasibility of carbonized loofah fibers as effective fillers for electromagnetic shielding
composites. The preparation process and physical properties of carbonized loofah
fibers are systematically investigated. PEEK is used as the polymer matrix, while
carbonized loofah fibers and graphene work as corresponding fillers to manufacture
an electromagnetic shielding composite. This chapter reveals the combined effect
of carbonized loofah fibers and graphene on their electrical conductivity, mechan-
ical properties, electromagnetic shielding performance and thermal properties. It
uses most contents from our published research article Li S et al (2018) Synergistic
effect of graphene nanoplate and carbonized loofah fiber on the electromagnetic
shielding effectiveness of PEEK-based composites. Carbon 143:154–161. Chapter 3
introduces the preparation of nickel@carbonized loofah fiber/CNT/PEEK electro-
magnetic shielding composites via electroless nickel plating and hot press. This
chapter focuses on the electromagnetic shielding mechanism of prepared composite
materials and the differences with respect to the effects of metallic nickel, CNTs and
carbonized loofah fibers on the shielding performance of composites. This chapter
mentions most contents from our published research article Li S et al (2019) Super-
compression-resistant multiwalled carbon nanotube/nickel-coated carbonized loofah
fiber/polyether ether ketone composite with excellent electromagnetic shielding
performance. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 7:13970–13980. Chapter 4 presents the effec-
tive application of carbonized loofah sponge with a three-dimensional network struc-
ture for electromagnetic shielding. A new strategy that uses phenolic resin to three-
dimensionally shaped natural loofah sponge solves a typical problem that bioma-
terials are too brittle and difficult for reprocessing after carbonization. The unique
relationship between electromagnetic shielding performance, electrical conductivity
and thickness of silicon carbide@carbonized loofah sponge composites is revealed
Preface vii
under different compression deformation levels of composites. This chapter uses

most contents from our published research article Li S et al (2020) Strong and heat-
resistant SiC coated carbonized natural loofah sponge for electromagnetic inter-
ference shielding. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 8:435–444. Chapter 5 proposes the
design concept of combining CVD carbon@carbonized loofah sponge with macro-
porous skeleton and MXene aerogel with small pore microstructures. The effects
of CVD carbon layer and MXene aerogel structure on the electrical conductivity
and electromagnetic shielding performance of prepared composites are presented in
detail. Moreover, good mechanical properties and flame retardancy of composites
are evidently shown based on unique characteristics of CVD carbon@carbonized
loofah sponge and MXene aerogel towards the development of new functional mate-
rials. This chapter uses most contents from our published research article Li S et al
(2021) CVD carbon-coated carbonized loofah sponge loaded with a directionally
arrayed MXene aerogel for electromagnetic interference shielding. J Mater Chem A
9(1):358–370. Chapter 6 reviews the characteristics and advantages of carbonized
loofah and its important applications in the field of electromagnetic shielding, along
with a series of innovative ideas and specific use planning schemes for widespread
applications of carbonized loofah.
The first author Songtao Li would like to thank the Institute of Metal Research,
Chinese Academy of Sciences and the University of Science and Technology of
China for their research support to complete the relevant contents in this book. Finan-
cial support from IMR Innovation Fund (2021-PY18) and National Natural Science
Foundation of China (52102121) are also gratefully acknowledged. In particular, we
also sincerely thank Springer Nature editorial team including Loyola D’Silva, Coral
Zhou, Ashok Arumairaj, Sindhu Sundararajan, Anil Chandy and William Achauer
for their help and support for this successfully published book.
We welcome valuable comments and feedback from other researchers, scientists,
and materials engineers to improve the overall quality of this book. We also hope
that this book can provide important guidance for the expansion and applications
of related biomaterials including material preparation, material selection, material
structure design, material characterization methods and material physical properties.
Shenyang, China Songtao Li

Perth, Australia Zhengwang Zhu
Dongyan Liu
Yu Dong
Contents
1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Shielding Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Adverse Effects of Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Mechanism of Electromagnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Electromagnetic Shielding Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Conductive Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Conductive Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Applications of Biomaterials in Electromagnetic Shielding
Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2 Graphene/Carbonized Loofah Fiber/Polyetheretherketone
(PEEK) Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 Overall Design of Advanced Composite System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Materials and Experimental Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.2 Preparation of Carbonized Loofah Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.3 Preparation of Graphene/Carbonized Loofah
Fiber/PEEK Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3 Characterization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.1 Morphological Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.2 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.3 Raman and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analyses . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.4 Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.5 Electromagnetic Shielding Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4.6 Thermal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
ix
x Contents
3 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)/Nickel-Plated Carbonized Loofah

Fiber/PEEK Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1 Material Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 Material Selection and Manufacturing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.2 Preparation of Nickel-Plated Carbonized Loofah
Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.3 Preparation of MWCNT/Nickel-Plated Carbonized
Loofah Fiber/PEEK Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.3 Raman and XRD Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4.4 Fracture Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4.5 Electrical Conductivity and Electromagnetic
Shielding Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4.6 Thermal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4 Silicon Carbide Whiskers Coated Carbonized Loofah Sponge
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Overall Composite Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 Materials and Used Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.2 Pre-Treatment of Loofah Sponge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.3 Preparation of Carbonized Loofah Sponge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.4 Preparation of Silicon Carbide Whiskers Coated
Carbonized Loofah Sponge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis of Natural Loofah
Sponge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.6 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Contents xi
5 MXene Aerogel/CVD Carbon-Coated Carbonized Loofah

Sponge Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.1 Composite Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2.2 Preparation of CVD Carbon-Coated Carbonized
Loofah Sponge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2.3 Preparation of MXene Aerogel/CVD Carbon-Coated
Carbonized Loofah Sponge Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.4.6 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6 Potential Applications of Carbonized Loofah Fiber/Sponge . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2 Gradient EMI Composites for High Absorption/Low
Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3 Cellulose for Direct Ink Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.4 Modified Carbonized Loofah/Metal Alloy Composites
for High Strength and Toughness Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.5 Catalysis for Water Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.6 Modified Carbonized Loofah for Microwave Absorption . . . . . . . . . 134
6.7 Nature Loofah Structure for Artificial Biomimetic Material
Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Chapter 1
Introduction to Electromagnetic
Shielding Composites
1.1 Adverse Effects of Electromagnetic Waves
The rapid development of information technology is leading the enormous growth of

integrated electronic equipment. The applications of electromagnetic waves in elec-
tronic equipment becomes more and more frequent and complicated such as elec-
tronic communications, smart cars, household appliances, medical facilities, military
radars and aerospace communications. Due to the extensive use of such electromag-
netic devices, unrestrained radiation of electromagnetic waves (EMW) appears to be
a serious electromagnetic pollution problem. The phenomenon in which the radiated
EMW causes the function of other electronic equipment to be interrupted is called
electromagnetic interference (EMI) [1]. The EMI phenomenon is nothing new. For
example, EMI generated by lightning causes power outages in power grids, and the
function of satellites orbiting the earth is interrupted due to solar storms. Owing
to the rapid development of electronics, broadcasting and communications, various
electromagnetic fields are ubiquitous. Nowadays, people are surrounded by EMW
pollution induced by different electronic devices, as shown in Fig. 1.1 [2]. Long-
term exposure to these EMI will not only cause catastrophic damage to electronic
equipment, but also may affect human health and even cause serious diseases (e.g.,
brain tumours and leukemia). A human pathological syndrome related to EMW was
first reported by German doctor Erwin Schliephake in 1932, and then successively
reported by Soviet researchers in the 1950s. More seriously, this similar disease
frequently and rapidly reappeared in the past 10 to 20 years, called electrical hyper-
sensitivity (EHS) or “microwave syndrome”, with typical medical symptoms such
as headaches, anxiety, sleep disturbances and fatigue [3, 4]. European investigators
found that long-term exposure to EMW may adversely affect brain development of
infants, and in some cases may even cause carcinogenic diseases.
According to the results of epidemiological research, the International Agency
for Research on Cancer has classified extremely low frequency magnetic fields to be
potentially carcinogenic to humans. Relevant studies have shown that the exposure to
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 1
S. Li et al., Hierarchically Porous Bio-Carbon Based Composites for High
Electromagnetic Shielding Performance, Engineering Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1069-2_1
2 1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Shielding Composites
Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of the phenomenon that people are surrounded by electromagnetic
pollution [2]
extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields including antennas or mobile phones

may produce artificially induced biological effects such as DNA damage, cell death
and infertility [5]. In addition, medical equipment such as cardiac pacemakers can fail
due to EMI, which may lead to the death of people wearing the equipment. In recent
years, another concerning EMI accident was caused by the explosion of nuclear
equipment, which would destroy entire electronic circuits, thereby terminating the
function of multiple electronic systems. Malicious persons can even use EMWs
issued by computers and other electronic devices to steal electronically transmitted
information [6]. Therefore, whether it is natural or man-made EMI, it is essential to
protect sensitive electronic equipment and people from its harmful effects.
1.2 Mechanism of Electromagnetic Shielding
In order to effectively reduce the problems caused by EMI, many countries have
put forward electromagnetic compatibility standards and regulations. There are two
typical coupling modes between EMI source and receiver (damaged equipment)
including conduction and radiation [7]. The practice of isolating the conducted or
radiated EMW from the sensitive area is called EMI shielding. Conduction occurs
when EMI source is connected to the receiver through signal cables or power lines,
and EMI is transmitted through these connecting cables. In addition, when the energy
1.2 Mechanism of Electromagnetic Shielding 3
emitted by the component propagates through space to the receiver, radiation can take
place. In fact, radiation is always accompanied by some kind of conduction and vice
versa. There are many ways to eliminate this harmful electromagnetic radiation. One
of the most effective methods is to place a shielding material between the radiation
source and the device, which can block the incident EMW by absorption or reflec-
tion. As is well known, EMW consists of alternating electric and magnetic fields,
which means that highly conductive materials such as metals can reflect EMW, as
opposed to the absorption of EMW by magnetic materials. In addition, the reflection
and absorption of EMW also depend on many other factors comprising electrical
conductivity, dielectric constant, magnetic permeability, frequency and thickness of
shielding materials. The EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) is usually used to evaluate
the ability of a shielding material to block incident EMW radiation.
There are different types of common EMI shielding measurement techniques such
as external field/free space method, shielded box method, shielded room method,
coaxial line method and waveguide method. Although the test setup for each method
is different, the basic principles are the same. The basic principles of the above-
mentioned shielding technology have been reported in detail in numerous review
articles and EMI shielding technical books [8]. The waveguide method is one of the
most preferred methods in EMI shielding testing. Its advantage is that the size of
test samples is relatively small, especially in high-frequency testing (GHz), which is
conducive to the preparation of samples for experimenters to accelerate the process of
experimental testing and analysis, thereby effectively assessing the shielding perfor-
mance of various materials. The method involves the measurement of plane wave
electromagnetic radiation. First, the reference test sample is mounted on a specially
designed fixture, and the power received at multiple frequencies is recorded. Then the
reference sample is replaced with a load sample and the measured value is recorded.
The ratio of the received power corresponding to the reference sample and the load
sample is the SE of the load material, usually expressed in decibels (dB). According
to Schelkunoff theory [9], the EMI SE can be expressed as
SE = 10lg(P0 /Pt ) = 20lg(E 0 /E t ) = 20lg(H0 /Ht ) (1.1)
where P0 , E 0 , and H 0 are the power, electric field strength and magnetic field
strength of the incident EMW, respectively. Pt , E t , and H t are the power, electric
field strength and magnetic field strength of EMW transmitted through shielding
materials accordingly.
In addition, when the incident EMW encounters the shielding material, reflection,
absorption, multiple reflection and transmission of EMW will occur [10], as shown
in Fig. 1.2. In other words, total EMI SE is determined by three factors. When the
incident EMW first interacts with the surface of electromagnetic shielding material,
it will cause shielding reflection loss (SE∗R ). After EMW enters the interior of the
material, the absorption attenuation of EMW is defined as shielding absorption loss
(SE∗A ), and multiple reflection attenuation of EMW inside the material is referred
to as multiple reflection loss (SEM ). The relationship between the above-mentioned
different shielding losses can be summarized as follows
Fig. 1.2 Schematic diagram of electromagnetic shielding mechanism
SE = SE∗R + SE∗A + SEM (1.2)
When SE∗A of the shielding material is relatively high, the shielding loss caused
by the multiple reflections of the incident EMW inside electromagnetic shielding
material is usually calculated into SE∗A , so SEM is not specially calculated into the
Eq. (1.2). According to the plane wave transmission line theory and the formula
derivation of Maxwell’s equations, SE∗R and SE∗A can be expressed as

μr f
SE∗R = 168 − 10lg (1.3)
σr

SE∗A = 131t f μr σr (1.4)
where f is the frequency of EMW, σ r is the relative conductivity, μr is the relative

permeability, and t is the thickness of electromagnetic shielding material.
It can be seen from Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) that both shielding reflection effectiveness
and shielding absorption effectiveness are directly proportional to electrical conduc-
tivity. In other words, if electromagnetic shielding material plays the role of shielding
EMW, it must have good electrical conductivity. Moreover, shielding absorption
effectiveness is also closely related to material thickness. Generally speaking, the
greater the thickness of shielding material, the greater its shielding absorption effec-
tiveness. In order to further improve EMW-absorbing ability of shielding material,
increasing its magnetic permeability is generally an effective measure.
At present, an instrument called a network analyzer can be implemented to
measure EMI shielding effectiveness value of shielding materials based on the prin-
ciple of waveguide technology. A scalar network analyzer (SNA) can only measure
the amplitude of a signal, while a vector network analyzer (VNA) enables to measure
the amplitude and phase of various signals. Moreover, SNA cannot be employed to
measure complex signals such as complex permittivity or permeability. Therefore,
1.2 Mechanism of Electromagnetic Shielding 5
Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram

of EMI shielding
performance test principle
based on VNA
despite the higher cost of VNA, it has become the most widely used instrument nowa-
days. In order to investigate total EMI shielding effectiveness of shielding materials
and the reflection loss of EMW, scattering parameters, namely S11 , S21 , S22 , S12
(Fig. 1.3), relating to dielectric constant, permeability and EMI shielding effective-
ness obtained from a vector network analyzer, can be calculated and evaluated [11].
Typical testing standards commonly used to assess the shielding ability of electro-
magnetic shielding materials are ASTM-D4935 and MIL-STD-285. At present, it is
more convenient to analyze the shielding ability of electromagnetic shielding mate-
rials by using scattering parameters to calculate reflection coefficient (R), absorption
coefficient (A) and transmission coefficient (T) corresponding to reflected power,
absorption power and transmission power. The specific theoretical derivation and
calculation formulae are given by
1=R+A+T (1.5)
Pr Pt
R= =| S11 |2 =| S22 |2 , T = =| S21 |2 =| S12 |2 (1.6)
P0 P0

P0 1
SER (dB) = 10lg = 10lg (1.7)
P0 − Pr 1−R

P0 − Pr 1− R
SEA (dB) = 10lg = 10lg (1.8)
Pt T

P0 1
SE(dB) = 10lg = 10lg (1.9)
Pt T
where Pr is the power of reflected wave. The mismatch loss, SER (=SE∗R ), represents
the reduction in the incident EMW traveling into the shielding material resulting from
reflection. The dissipation loss, SEA (=SE∗A ), represents the ability of the material to
attenuate EMW that only penetrates the shielding material due to absorption [12–14].
It can be clearly judged which shielding mechanism dominates the shielding ability
of the tested material by analyzing the proportion of R and A. In order to avoid
secondary electromagnetic pollution, it is often expected to develop electromagnetic
shielding materials dominated by shielding absorption.
In addition, it should be noted that high-frequency electromagnetic radiation can

penetrate the near surface area of conductive shielding materials, which is called
“skin effect” [15]. When the electric field intensity of EMW drops to 1/e of the
incident value, corresponding incident depth is defined as skin depth, which can be
calculated according to the following formula
21
1 t
δ= = 8.686 (1.10)
f π μσ SE∗A
where δ is skin depth, f is the frequency of EMW, σ is electrical conductivity, μ is

magnetic permeability, and t is the thickness of electromagnetic shielding material. It
is manifested from Eq. (1.10) that skin depth decreases with increasing the frequency,
conductivity and permeability. Generally speaking, the thickness of prepared elec-
tromagnetic shielding material must be larger than skin depth to effectively shield
the incident EMW. As such, skin depth is also deemed as one of the indicators for
evaluating the performance of shielding materials.
1.3 Electromagnetic Shielding Composites
In general, metal materials have been widely used as EMI shielding materials due
to their high electrical conductivity such as steel, copper and aluminum, which
can be used as the panels attached to the walls of buildings. Unfortunately, one
of main disadvantages of metals is heavy weight, which makes the manufacturing
and assembly process very difficult. Corrosion damage is another practical problem
for metals, which not only shortens the service life of metal shielding panels, but
also increases associated maintenance costs [16]. In addition, high density and low
flexibility of metals make it unsuitable for modern light-weight and high-end elec-
tronic devices. Moreover, it was also found that the shielding performance of metal
shield is very poor at the component connector [17]. Due to higher relative perme-
ability and lower density, high permeability alloys are also considered to be a good
EMI shielding material though high rigidity, weak corrosion resistance and high
cost of high permeability alloys limit their practical applications. Metal coatings
such as electroplating, chemical coating, spraying and vacuum coating have also
been used for EMI shielding. Nonetheless, their poor wear resistance, weak environ-
mental resistance and reflection-dominant shielding performance make them unpop-
ular in practical applications as well. In view of inherent flexibility, easy proces-
sibility, scalability, low cost, corrosion resistance and light weight of polymeric
materials, enormous research work has been concentrated on the development of
polymers as electromagnetic shielding materials in order to bypass the limitations
of metal shielding materials. Moreover, according to the EMI shielding mechanism,
polymeric materials have key advantages over metals. The former has electromag-
netic shielding performance dominated by shielding absorption efficiency, which is
1.3 Electromagnetic Shielding Composites 7
more desirable in military applications such as camouflage and stealth technologies,

and further greatly reduces second electromagnetic pollution. Initially, intrinsically
conductive polymers (ICPs) [18], as exemplified by polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole
(PPy), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) and
polythiophene (PTP), are the main material options for this purpose because their
conductivities can be greatly improved by chemical doping. However, the draw-
backs of low stability, high cost and poor thermal stability during processing limit
their practical engineering applications. Therefore, the development and demand for
new materials in the field of EMI shielding have increased dramatically. In order to
meet the ever-increasing demand, many new materials with multiple functions are
being developed in order to replace the traditionally used metal plates.
Carbon materials and their polymer-based composites have outstanding electrical
conductivity, light weight, high specific surface area, flexibility, chemical stability,
low cost, environmental friendliness, easy processibility, excellent mechanical prop-
erties and other versatility, and thus they are currently considered to be the best mate-
rial candidate for EMI shielding (Fig. 1.4) [19]. Moreover, under a specific micro-
scaled structure, polymer composites reinforced with carbon materials exhibit those
changes in the main shielding mechanism against electromagnetic radiation, varying
Fig. 1.4 Common electromagnetic interference shielding materials and their advantages of carbon-
based polymer nanocomposites as alternative materials [19]
from a typical reflection mechanism observed in metals to the dominant shielding

mechanism by absorption or multiple reflections, which enables to expand their
applicability and adjustability and particularly target EMI shielding applications. On
the one hand, polymer composites consist of a poorly conductive polymer matrix,
which improves wave impedance imbalance of EMW at the incident interface, and
thus allows more EMW to enter the interior of composite materials. Furthermore, the
large difference in conductivity between conductive fillers and insulating polymer
matrix causes corresponding composites to obtain the polarization and charge accu-
mulation at its interface, resulting in ohmic and dielectric losses to EMW, which is
more conducive to EMW absorption.
1.3.1 Conductive Fillers
Since most polymers used for electromagnetic shielding composites are insula-
tors including polystyrene (PS), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polypropylene
(PP), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene alcohol (PVA), polyethylene
(PE), polycarbonate (PC), polylactic acid (PLA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
polyether ether ketone (PEEK), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS), epoxy resin (EP), etc. As such, polymers often rely on other conductive
fillers to achieve the required minimum conductivity and EMI SE [20]. Although pure
metal sheets have many restrictions as electromagnetic shielding materials, the use
of tiny metal nanowires, nanoparticles and flakes as conductive fillers in the polymer
matrix is still vital. At present, the most promising conductive fillers include a
variety of carbon materials such as graphene, carbon fibers, carbon nanofibers, amor-
phous carbon, carbon black, CNTs, activated carbon, carbon nanoparticles and other
carbonaceous mixtures (Fig. 1.5), which have been widely reported for EMI shielding
applications [21]. These conductive inorganic fillers not only possess good EMI
shielding performance, but also play an important role in solar cells, electrochem-
istry, lithium-ion batteries, sensors, supercapacitors, catalysis, filtration, improved
mechanical properties, water–oil separation and many other potential applications.
According to the electromagnetic shielding mechanism, if the shielding material
needs to obtain better electromagnetic shielding performance, it must have good
conductivity. Moreover, it is anticipated to receive the greatest economic benefits at
the lowest cost in industrial production for facilitating the promotion and iterative
development of new materials. Therefore, when preparing polymer-based compos-
ites for electromagnetic shielding, it is often necessary to achieve a highly conductive
interconnected network with a low filler content.
Due to high specific surface area and good electrical conductivity of carbon mate-
rials, it has attracted the widespread attention to scientific researchers and mate-
rials engineers. A large number of experimental studies have been dedicated to the
development of different carbon materials in the field of electromagnetic shielding.
In addition, in order to meet the use of modern high-technology products, various
devices have light and flexible requirements for product development, where one of
Fig. 1.5 Conductive fillers used for electromagnetic shielding in recent years [22–25]
the most effective ways to reduce the weight of a device is to decrease the thickness
of its component materials. However, based on the electromagnetic shielding mech-
anism mentioned earlier, when the thickness of the shielding material decreases,
total EMI SE possessed by the material also decreases accordingly. Therefore, much
attention has been paid to the development and the use of two-dimensional mate-
rials in order to ensure that shielding materials can be light and thin on the basis
of good electromagnetic shielding performance. Inspired by the study and develop-
ment of graphene, MXene as a new type of two-dimensional graphene-like mate-
rial has become an important material candidate in the field of EMI shielding. It
has been proven that MXene and its composites possess excellent EMI shielding
performance, good electrical conductivity, mechanical stability and high thermal
conductivity [26, 27].
1.3.1.1 Metal Fillers
Metals are known for their excellent electrical conductivity along with a large amount
of free charge that can interact with the incident EMW. Therefore, polymer compos-
ites with metal fillers as conductivity reinforcements can be used as effective shielding
materials. Commonly used metal fillers include gold, silver, aluminum, copper, steel,
nickel, etc., with the combination of polymers in different sizes. Small-sized metal
nanofillers are more favorable because they are easier to be dispersed in the polymer
matrix as opposed to large-sized metal fillers. In particular, nanowires, due to their
high aspect ratios, are conducive to the manufacture of highly permeable network
structures, thereby leading to high electrical conductivity.
Many scientific researchers have reported the use of silver-based fillers including
nanoparticles and nanowires for the preparation of conductive composites for elec-
tromagnetic shielding applications. Li et al. [28] prepared superhydrophobic electro-
magnetic shielding composites by immersing commercial textile cloth in a suspen-
sion containing silver nanowires (Fig. 1.6), which exhibited a high water contact
angle of 160.8°, a low sliding angle of 2.9° and excellent EMI SE of 51.5 dB. Liao
et al. [29] prepared an ultra-efficient, lightweight, soft and corrosion-resistant silver
Fig. 1.6. a Schematic illustration of the preparation of silver nanowire reinforced composites;
b–f superhydrophobic behavior, g electrically conductive and h EMI shielding performance of
composites [28]
nanowire-coated carbon (Ag@C) hybrid sponge as an EMI shielding material. The

interconnected Ag@C hybrid sponge was based on an effective method for electronic
transmission, thereby achieving a significant conductivity of 363.1 S/m and a high
EMI SE at approximately 70.1 dB in the frequency range of 8.2–18 GHz.
In addition, nanosilver can be uniformly decorated on the flexible substrate to
construct a conductive network with good light transmittance in order to prepare an
independent flexible transparent conductive film. It can be used in specific appli-
cations with the requirement of good transparency in order to individually shield
external EMI without affecting other functions, as exemplified by displays, protective
covers of keyboard and observation windows. However, despite the high efficiency of
metallic silver, the use of silver is still limited with some practical considerations such
as high cost and its susceptibility to oxidation in practical engineering applications.
Compared with silver, copper has corrosion resistance and low cost, which can be
used as a substitute for conventional EMI shielding materials. Sundararaj et al. [30]
reported that a polymer/copper nanowire nanocomposite sheet (thickness: 0.21 mm)
had a SE value over 20 dB at a copper nanowire content of only 1.3 vol%. Since metal
nickel not only has good electrical conductivity but also certain magnetic properties
as opposed to other metal materials, nickel can enhance the magnetic permeability
of composites, which is one of the key factors for absorbing EMW. Wang et al. [31]
prepared reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/nickel (Ni) chain mixtures with different
mass ratios to adjust microwave absorption and electromagnetic shielding perfor-
mance. PVDF-based composites showed a SE value up to 52 dB when the mass ratio
of rGO to Ni was 4:1 and the total filler content reached 10 wt%. Park et al. [32]
attempted to disperse nickel chains and CNTs in PVDF. The composite film prepared
with the inclusion of 1 wt% CNTs and 6 wt% Ni revealed good electromagnetic
shielding performance at 57.3 dB and a thermal conductivity of 0.65 W/(m·K).
1.3.1.2 Graphene
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov won the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics for
successfully separating the two-dimensional material graphene from graphite by
micromechanical exfoliation in 2004. This study proved the existence of 2D materials
through experiments. Graphene nanosheets (GNPs) have attracted widespread atten-
tion due to their extraordinary versatility such as high specific surface area (≈2600
m2 /g), large aspect ratio, super mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity
(6000 S/cm), high thermal conductivity (5000 W/(m·K)), good flexibility, corrosion
resistance and low thermal expansion coefficient [33]. Therefore, GNPs are consid-
ered to be one of the most promising nanomaterials in almost all fields of science,
technology and industries. GNPs are a kind of 2D carbon nanosheets with hexagonal
honeycomb lattice comprised of carbon atoms based on sp2 hybrid orbitals, which
can form the graphite when stacked together [34]. In order to manufacture low-
cost and high-quality GNPs in mass production, many technical methods for GNP
manufacturing have been developed such as mechanical exfoliation, carbon dioxide
reduction, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), chemical reduction of graphene oxide
Fig. 1.7 Schematic illustration of a preparation process for rGO reinforced composites [37]
(GO), green reduction of GO, SiC epitaxial growth method and carbon nanotube
(CNT) slicing method [35]. Because GNPs exhibit many excellent properties, more
and more researchers have selected them as a promising EMI shielding material,
and different types of GNPs have been developed and used such as GNP films, GNP
coating, GNP aerogels or foams, polymer/GNP composites, GNP/SiO2 composites
and modified GNP hybrids. Recently, Yue et al. [36] prepared epoxy/GNP/glass
fibers composites. When the total filler content increased up to 40 wt%, the SE of
such composites reached 21.3 dB. Xia et al. [37] fabricated Fe3 O4 @rGO/natural
rubber composites with segregation structures, resulting in specific electromagnetic
shielding effectiveness of 26.4 dB/mm, as illustrated in Fig. 1.7.
1.3.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
CNTs can be taken as hollow cylinders of hexagonal networks in shape composed

of single layer of sp2 bonded carbon atoms in which the ends are covered by the
half of fullerene with a diameter range of 1–50 nm [38]. According to the number
of carbon layers constructed, CNTs are generally classified into single-walled CNTs
(SWCNTs) and multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs). SWCNTs consist of a cylindrical
shape formed by a single curved carbon layer with a diameter between 1–2 nm.
In contrast, MWCNTs are composed of multiple concentric cylinders with weak
secondary van der Waals forces between these cylinders. The diameters of MWCNTs
can be changed according to the number of carbon layers with a typical outer diam-
eter of approximately 10–50 nm [39]. The chirality or helicity of CNTs is defined
according to the direction of graphite lattice relative to the axis of cylinder, and CNTs
may possess diverse structures such as armchairs, zigzags and so-called chiral struc-
tures. CNTs with an armchair structure exhibit metal-like behavior as a conductor.
Whereas CNTs with zigzag structures act as semiconductors, and CNTs with chiral
structures possess diode characteristics.
The ideal shield is to block the interference of EMW by shielding absorption as
a dominant mechanism, which at the same time has multiple functions to overcome
the impact induced by actual application environment. In this respect, due to many
excellent characteristics of CNTs and their composites such as high aspect ratio,
superior mechanical properties, excellent electrical conductivity, chemical inertness,
low density and easy processibility, they have been widely used in the field of EMI
shielding [40]. Currently, various techniques have been reported to synthesize CNTs
such as CVD, laser ablation, arc discharge, pyrolysis and electrochemical methods.
It is worth noting that CNTs with a high aspect ratio as effective fillers result in a
lower permeation threshold in the matrix, which is conducive to the preparation of
high-efficiency and low-cost composite materials for electromagnetic shielding. In
other words, when CNTs and a polymer work together, higher EMI SE can be easily
achieved at a relatively low filler content. A wide range of polymer/CNT composites
have been sophisticatedly developed for EMI shielding, as exemplified by EP/CNT
composites, PMMA/CNT composites, polyacrylate/CNT composites, PANI/CNT
composites, PE/CNT composites, PP/CNT composites, PU/CNT composites, etc.
Recently, Sudak et al. [41] reported that PP-based composites containing 1.75 vol%
CNTs and 1.75 vol% stainless steel fibers can yield a SE value of 57.4 dB. Xu et al.
[42] prepared PVDF-based composites reinforced with 4 wt% CNTs, which exhibited
a SE value of 36.8 dB (Fig. 1.8). Demarquette et al. [43] found that a poly(styrene-
b-ethylene-random-butene-b-styrene)-based composites with the inclusion of 8 wt%
CNTs possessed a SE value of 56.73 dB.
Fig. 1.8 Schematic illustration of the preparation process of CNTs reinforced composites [42]
1.3.1.4 Carbon Fibers
Light weight, flexibility, high specific strength and modulus, and high conductivity
of carbon fibers (CFs) make them a suitable material candidate for EMI shielding
applications [44]. Moreover, it is easy to entangle long CFs to form a non-woven
structure when targeting easier applications. In addition, CFs in irregular shape may
be beneficial to the high absorption and reflection of EMW. Polymer/CF compos-
ites can yield higher EMI SE at a relatively low filling content because CFs with
high aspect ratios facilitate a low percolation threshold of composites. Ge et al. [45]
dispersed 0.75 wt% short carbon fibers (SCFs) in unsaturated polyester to achieve a
SE value of 32.5 dB. Han et al. [46] prepared highly conductive composites with a SE
value of approximately 65 dB via dipping by embedding 63 vol% continuous carbon
fibers (CCFs) into epoxy resin. Among carbon-based materials with different high
aspect ratios, CFs are deemed to be easier for mass production. Commercial CFs
are mainly CCFs, which can be produced by the graphitization of polymer precur-
sors such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or pitch precursors in an inert atmosphere. In
comparison, SCFs can be synthesized from hydrocarbons such as acetylene. Gu et al.
[47] evaluated electromagnetic shielding performance of three SCFs, namely T300
and M40J based on polyacrylonitrile and XN-90-60S based on asphalt (Fig. 1.9).
Fig. 1.9 a–b Schematic illustration of the preparation process of CFs felt [47]
The experimental results showed that CFs felt prepared by M40J SCFs with an areal
density of 42.5 g/m2 achieved a high SE value in range of 66.7–71.4 dB.
1.3.1.5 Carbon Black
Carbon black (CB) is an aggregate formed by the fusion of carbon particles, which are
manufactured by partial combustion or thermal decomposition of petroleum prod-
ucts. Generally speaking, CB particle size varies between 10 and 50 nm [48]. The
crystal structure of CB contains ordered graphitized regions in the short and medium
range, but in lack of the ordered crystal regions in the long range where the crystal
order range depends on processing parameters. CB with a near-middle range of
graphite orderliness shows a low resistivity in range of 10–1 ~ 10–2 ·m, lightness
and low cost, so it has been widely used as effective fillers for rubber, rubber-based
compounds and thermoplastics [49]. Moreover, CB not only provides a conductive
support for the matrix of composites, but also imparts the strength and durability
to the matrix. These characteristics promote CB to be an important electromag-
netic shielding material in some special application environments. Han et al. [50]
prepared CB enhanced wood-plastic composites, which showed high EMI shielding
capability at approximately 22.5 dB (Fig. 1.10). Tian et al. [25] blended 3 wt%
CB and 20 wt% magnetic carbonyl iron with PVDF to prepare such composites
for efficient electromagnetic shielding with separation structures, hereby achieving
a SE value of 20–27 dB. Moreover, in order to induce a strong interfacial inter-
action between CB and the matrix to facilitate uniform CB dispersion in terms of
the required properties and applications, CB needs to undergo appropriate surface
modification [51]. Therefore, many studies have been conducted on various surface
modifications of CB such as heat treatment, wet chemical or electrochemical oxida-
tion, plasma treatment, photochemistry, ion or cluster bombardment, reaction with
organic compounds, silanization or polymer grafting. Das et al. [52] used a simple
dip coating method to immerse polyurethane sponge in the modified CB suspension
to prepare electromagnetic shielding composites with ultra-light, water-resistant,
soft and highly conductive characteristics. EMI SE value of polyurethane sponge
composites containing only 2 wt% modified CB reached 65.6 dB.
Fig. 1.10 Schematic illustration of the preparation process of CB reinforced composites [50]
1.3.1.6 MXene
Since MXene was reported by the research group of Professor Yury Gogotsi at Drexel
University, USA in 2011, it has received extensive attention and development. MXene
is a 2D transition metal carbide, nitride and carbonitride, which is a very thin 2D
material similar to graphene [53]. MXene is usually prepared by selectively extracting
certain atoms from a layered matrix such as MAX phase. Its molecular formula can
be expressed as Mn+1 Xn Tx where M is a transition metal such as Ti, Zr, Hf, Nb,
V and Mo, etc., X represents C or N, n = 1, 2 or 3, and Tx is referred to as the
surface groups OH, O and F [54]. So far, many methods have been implemented to
manufacture 2D MXene, mainly including top-down etching assisted stripping and
bottom-up synthesis (e.g., CVD and epitaxial growth). The etching assisted strip-
ping method is dominant for the mass production of single-layer and multi-layer
MXene such as hydrofluoric acid (HF) etching, in-situ HF etching, melting salt
etching and fluoride-free etching method in detail [55]. This method is often used to
prepare experimental samples to study electromagnetic properties of MXene. Addi-
tionally, MXene shows good electrical conductivity (14,000 S/cm), adjustable active
surfaces, controllable minimum nanolayer thickness, stable dispersion in water or
organic solvents, excellent mechanical strength and the ability to attenuate EMW.
Accordingly, it has been quickly applied in the fields of EMI shielding, microwave
absorption, energy conversion and storage, sensors, gas separation and water purifi-
cation. Yu et al. [56] developed MXene foams with hydrophobic surfaces, light
weight and good flexibility, resulting in an EMI SE value of approximately 70 dB
(Fig. 1.11). Taylor et al. [57] prepared MXene/CNT composite films by a layer-by-
layer rotary spraying process, which exhibited an electrical conductivity up to 130
S/cm and a high specific SE value of 58,187 dB·cm2 /g. Koo et al. [58] reported that
when the thickness of the prepared MXene film was 45 µm, the EMI SE could reach
92 dB. Although MXene has been proven to be an excellent EMI shielding material,
it still has some drawbacks and application limitations. When MXene is exposed
to high humidity, its many performances appear to be greatly diminished [59]. The
hydrophilicity of MXene is the main reason for this problem. Therefore, the direc-
tion of future development is anticipated to focus on such high-yield, low-cost and
environmentally friendly methods in order to prepare high-quality and antioxidant
MXene products.
1.3.2 Conductive Networks
Conductive polymer composites show potential applications in EMI shielding mate-

rials due to their adjustable conductivity, light weight, flexibility, corrosion resistance
and excellent processability. It has been found that the permeation threshold is a
key parameter of conductive polymer composites, which is defined as the minimum
content of conductive fillers in the polymer matrix for long-distance conduction [60].
When the amount of fillers is lower than the permeation threshold, the conductivity
of composites appears to be too low, resulting in extremely poor EMI shielding
Fig. 1.11 Schematic illustration of the preparation process of MXene foams [56]
effect. In general, carbon materials with high aspect ratios and large specific surface
areas can be easily connected to achieve a lower permeation threshold. In addition
to the characteristics of conductive fillers, the morphology of conductive fillers, the
types of connections between fillers and morphological structures of polymer/filler
composites are also of importance to the effective shielding of incident EMW [61].
Therefore, the design and development of advanced three-dimensional conductive
networks enable to prevent EMW interference more effectively (Fig. 1.12). The
reasonable allocation of conductive filler position in the matrix of composites not
only decreases the permeation threshold, but also reduces the economic cost for
preparing new materials. Most importantly, it can show multi-functional character-
istics induced by the change of material structures. According to filler properties
and manufacturing methods, various types of composites in shape and structure have
been developed, including sheets, films, multilayer materials, foams, etc. [62].
In addition to the use of conventional manufacturing methods when constructing a
three-dimensional conductive network of composites, current 3D printing technolo-
gies as a post-processing step spark new processing methods and innovative ideas.
Such advanced technologies are believed to develop ideal devices and materials with
complex structures more conveniently and efficiently. The development and rapid
prototyping based on 3D printing technologies are very impressive from initial 3D
printing ideas to primary model printing. Today, 3D printing technologies have been
Fig. 1.12 Conductive networks structure used for electromagnetic shielding in recent years [63–69]
utilized in various fields such as building houses, printing automotive parts, human
organs and electromagnetic shielding shells. 3D printing technologies are also more
in line with the requirements of human development, thus reducing manufacturing
costs and saving energy.
1.3.2.1 Polymer/Filler Composites Prepared by Blending
Blending is the most common, simple, efficient and mass-produced process for
preparing polymer composites. Generally speaking, a certain amount of functional
fillers and polymer particles are stirred together, and then final functional composites
are usually prepared by casting, injection molding or compression molding. Such
processing methods are also used by many scientific researchers and engineers to
prepare electromagnetic shielding composites. Gupta et al. [70] prepared degradable
nanocomposites reinforced with 15 wt% GNPs by a compression molding process,

which achieved a SE value of 15 dB in the X-band. Gargama et al. [71] stirred and
mixed nickel particles with PVDF, and then molded the mixture to prepare elec-
tromagnetic shielding composites. When the filler content reached 40 vol%, the
EMI SE value of resulting composites became 20–23 dB (X-band). However, such
a simple blending process has a serious disadvantage that the poor dispersibility of
micro/nanofillers may lead to the failure of designed composite materials to achieve
an expected performance along with serious application problems. Therefore, it is
very important to improve the filler dispersibility in the matrix of composites. At
present, some methods have made good effect on improving filler dispersion and
eventually the properties of composites. The following is explicitly mentioned (i)
the fillers and the polymer matrix are mixed in a certain transition liquid; (ii) the
fillers are dispersed when the polymer precursor undergoes in situ polymerization;
(iiii) the fillers are modified to reduce filler agglomeration and improve their disper-
sion in the polymer matrix. Das et al. [72] mixed chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) and
MWCNTs in tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution by ultrasonication, then removed the
liquid in the mixture, and finally prepared corresponding composites by hot press.
With the addition of 15 wt% MWCNTs in prepared composites, their EMI SE reached
36 dB. Thomas et al. [73] fabricated conductive polymer nanocomposites by mixing
non-covalently functionalized MWCNTs with ionic liquids into a styrene butadiene
rubber matrix along with a SE value of approximately 35.06 dB at 18 GHz, which
means that the approximately 99.99% of EMW was attenuated by shielding. It is
noted that MWCNTs embedded in the ionic liquid makes it easy for filler dispersion
using a cation exchange method.
In order to further increase the utilization rate of fillers in the matrix and improve
the electromagnetic shielding performance of composites, in addition to improving
the filler dispersion, the direction of research and development of new materials
tend to shift to design material structures based on electromagnetic shielding mech-
anisms. Yang et al. [63] developed PVDF/PS/HDPE-MWCNTs composites with an
ultra-low permeability threshold of 0.022 vol% based on three-continuous multi-
phase structures formed in situ in the ternary blend and the selective distribution
of MWCNTs. The three-continuous structures offer many conductive interfaces to
benefit the reflection and absorption of the incident EMW resulting from shielding
materials. When only 1.6 vol% MWCNTs was used, resulting composites exhibited
a SE value of 31 dB at 9.5 GHz. Poothanari et al. [74] used melt mixing tech-
nology to uniformly disperse MWCNTs in polymers, thereby fabricating a variety
of PC/PP nanocomposites with multiphase structures (Fig. 1.13). When the content
of MWCNTs reached 10 wt%, total SE of nanocomposites became 54.78 dB.
Recently, a novel segregation structure consisting of fillers and polymer matrix
has been concentrated on by scientific researchers and engineers. The preparation
method of segregation structures is to wrap tiny fillers on the surfaces of polymer
particles, and then perform the hot press onto the mixture to prepare such composites.
This method could further enhance filler dispersibility and reduce the phenomenon
of filler agglomeration. Moreover, filler-wrapped polymer particles form small inde-
pendent unit capsules, which are combined into a three-dimensional network with
Fig. 1.13 Schematic illustration of the morphological evolution of PC/PP nanocomposites with
multiphase structures [74]
the cross-section similar to a honeycomb structure with countless interfaces after

the operation of hot press together. Continuous three-dimensional network struc-
tures are beneficial to improve the conductivity of composite materials and yield
more attenuation interfaces for reflecting and absorbing the incident EMW. Li et al.
[64] wrapped rGO on the surfaces of PS particles, and then molded the mixture
into composite materials under high pressure, thus achieving a SE value of 45.1 dB
at a rGO content of 7 wt% (Fig. 1.14). Liu et al. [75] plated a Ni layer on the
surfaces of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) particles by elec-
troless plating, and then prepared the mixture using hot press. Due to the high melt
viscosity of UHMWPE, pre-arranged thin Ni layer can only be selectively located
at the boundary between UHMWPE regions, thereby establishing a well-connected
and segregated Ni conductive network. When the Ni content was only 2.58 vol%,
prepared composites exhibited an average EMI SE value of 55 dB (X band).
Fig. 1.14 Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of rGO/PS composite with segregation
structures [64]
1.3.2.2 Foam/Aerogel
With the rapid development of microelectronic materials, the application condi-

tions of electromagnetic shielding materials become more demanding. Electromag-
netic shielding materials must not only have excellent electromagnetic shielding
performance but also meet the lightweight requirement. Conductive porous materials
are deemed as a good material candidate for electromagnetic shielding to achieve
low density, multiple interfaces and high absorption. The surface conductivity of
porous materials is usually less than that of non-porous materials, which also greatly
improves the wave impedance matching at the air/material interface. As such, EMW
reflection can be decreased from air/material interfaces, which allows more incident
EMW to penetrate into the materials for attenuation. Currently, the commonly used
types of artificially prepared porous materials include the form of foams and aero-
gels. The use of foaming agents to produce a controllable cell structure in polymers
is one of the most commonly used techniques for foam preparation [76]. A variety
of similar techniques can be used according to actual applications of porous mate-
rials and some characteristic properties of different polymers. This is evidenced by
(i) introducing physical or chemical foaming agents into the liquid/molten polymer
by extrusion, injection molding or compression molding; (ii) forcing gas into solid
polymers and then releasing the dissolved gas by pressure reduction or heating [77];
(iii) using a discontinuous process such as intermittent foaming or injection molding
to apply the foaming technology. Besides, other foaming methods such as phase
separation can also be employed in the laboratory to prepare porous materials with
carbon-based nanoparticles [78]. Park et al. [79] prepared polyethylene (HDPE)/GNP
composite foams with light weight and high density by supercritical fluid treatment
and physical foaming during injection molding, which achieved the SE value of
31.6 dB (K band) and the conductivity of ~10–4 S/cm at the GNP content of 19 vol%
(Fig. 1.15). Zheng et al. [65] prepared a light microporous polyetherimide/GNP
Fig. 1.15 The conductivity (a) and shielding effectiveness (b) of GNP/HDPE composite foams
and solids [79]
nanocomposite foam with a density of approximately 0.3 g/cm3 in a phase sepa-

ration process where the permeation threshold decreased from 0.21 to 0.18 vol%
compared with solid polyetherimide/GNP nanocomposites. Moreover, due to the
use of the foaming process, specific electromagnetic SE value of nanocomposite
foams increased from 17 to 44 dB/(g·cm3 ).
In addition to using foaming technology, porous electromagnetic shielding mate-
rials with a foam structure can also be prepared by the template method, dip coating
method, or carbonization of polymer-based foams. Ren et al. [80] used GNP foam
skeleton and PDMS to develop electromagnetic shielding composites with excellent
flexibility. At a very low GNP content (<0.8 wt%), prepared composites showed
a high EMI SE value of 30 dB and a special EMI SE value up to 500 dB·cm3 /g
(Fig. 1.16a). Kim et al. [81] used CVD technology and template method to grow
GNPs on nickel foam and obtained GNP foam by etching away nickel, and then coated
Fig. 1.16 Schematic diagram of fabricating GNP/PDMS foam composites (a) and lightweight
carbon-based foam nanocomposites (b) [80, 83]. (https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.9b0
2309)
PEDOT:PSS on the foam surface to prepare ultra-light composites with high porosity,
which exhibited a SE value of 91.9 dB and a specific SE value of 3124 dB·cm3 /g.
Zhai et al. [82] developed ultra-light and compressible conductive foams by simply
dip-coating a commercial polyurethane sponge with high porosity in rGO dispersion,
exhibiting low density and adjustable EMI shielding performance. The maximum
SE value of composites prepared could reach 57.7 dB. Pitkänen et al. [83] fabricated
lightweight carbon-based foam nanocomposites via simple carbonization and CVD
technology, achieving a SE of approximately 20–30 dB at the K-band frequency
range of 18–26.5 GHz (Fig. 1.16b).
Recently, an aerogel constructed by self-assembly of fillers based on physical and
chemical changes has raised the focus on the development and investigation of porous
materials [84, 85]. The advantage of aerogels is that it not only can effectively solve
the problem of uniform filler dispersion, but also enables the constructed 3D frame-
work to have typical characteristics of higher filling rate, porosity and light weight.
The 3D interconnected network can be formed with a very low filler content and
work as a fast transport channel for charge carriers, thereby providing such compos-
ites with significantly enhanced conductivity. The large number of porous interfaces
in the 3D framework can also promote the attenuation of incident EMW through
multiple reflections, with the further improvement of the EMI shielding performance
of composites [66]. Sun et al. [86] prepared ultra-light cellulose fibers/thermally
reduced graphene oxide (CF/rGO) hybrid aerogels with superelasticity and excellent
electromagnetic shielding properties in freeze-drying and carbonization processes.
CF/rGO aerogel with a thickness of 5 mm achieved a high EMI SE value of approx-
imately 47.8 dB after annealing at 1000°C. Similarly, Lu et al. [87] reported that
rGO/lignin derived carbon aerogel achieved a SE value of 49.2 dB (Fig. 1.17).
1.3.2.3 Multilayer Sheets/Films
Multilayer composites are also often used in the field of electromagnetic shielding
because it can adjust the required electromagnetic shielding performance and induce
the advantages of multiple materials to achieve versatility [88, 89]. Multilayer sheets
are generally used in industries especially in aircrafts because they offer high strength
and low density required for aircraft manufacturing. In particular, EMI shielding
multilayer sheets have some unique advantages. When incident EMW penetrates
into the material surface, they may suffer from multiple reflections depending on
resulting multilayer structures. As the multiple reflections of EMW occur, they grad-
ually lose energy so that EMW is attenuated and prevented from passing through
the materials. There are many scientific reports on electromagnetic shielding multi-
layer composites. Li et al. [90] developed laminated Fe-Si-B/Ni-Cu-P metallic glass
composites by simply electroless plating Ni-Cu-P coating on commercial Fe-Si-B
metallic glass. Multilayer composites with the thickness of 0.1 mm exhibited an
EMI SE value of 40 dB in the X band, which was higher than those of conventional
metals, metal oxides and polymer composites with the larger thickness. Besides,
multilayer composites have strong corrosion resistance, good thermal stability and
Fig. 1.17 Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of rGO/lignin derived carbon aerogels
(a); optical and SEM images of (b–e) GO/lignin aerogels and (f-i) corresponding rGO/lignin derived
carbon aerogels [87]
high tensile strength. In addition, multilayer composites designed by Ding et al. [91]
consisted of several graphene films separated by a transparent polyethylene tereph-
thalate (PET) film (Fig. 1.18) by evaluating the electromagnetic shielding perfor-
mance and shielding mechanism of composites with different layers. When the total
graphene thickness of composites was only 4 nm, the average SE value reached
19.14 dB in the range of 18–26.5 GHz, and the maximum microwave absorption
rate was 95.82% at 25.7 GHz, along with the standard visible light transmittance of
80.5%.
It is well known that fast-developing flexible electronic devices such as foldable
phones, electronic skins and wearable devices are required to be integrated with
very thin and flexible EMI shielding films, cloth or paper. Therefore, it is necessary
to prepare high-efficiency and thin-film multifunctional electromagnetic shielding
materials. For the preparation of thin-layer electromagnetic shielding composite
materials, various types of materials have been developed after a few generations
of efforts. Commonly used preparation methods include physical vapor deposi-
tion (PVD), CVD, spin coating, scraper method, casting, compression molding,
vacuum filtration, etc. [92, 93]. The internal structures of prepared films material
have different types according to characteristic properties and functions of different
materials, which include blended structures with randomly dispersed filler particles,
and a laminated structure with the cross-section similar to a pearl shell. Yang et al.
Fig. 1.18 Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of PET/graphene composites with
multilayer structures [91]
[94] combined a shielding film and a pressure-sensitive film to prepare a multi-

functional electronic skin with tactile feel and electromagnetic radiation shielding
properties, which imitated the structures and functions of human skin (Fig. 1.19).
Feng et al. [95] prepared an ultra-thin and flexible PEDOT:PSS/MXene composite
film with a laminated structure by vacuum filtration. When the weight ratio of MXene
to PEDOT:PSS was 7:1, the thickness of ultra-thin polymer composite film became
only 11.1 µm, but it had a high EMI SE value of 42.10 dB, the tensile strength of
13.71 MPa and the electrical conductivity of 340.5 S/cm.
Fig. 1.19 Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of protective layer and sensing layer (a);
the structure illustration of bionic skin (b) [94]
1.3.2.4 3D Printing
Traditionally, polymer/carbon material composites for EMI shielding are prepared

by injection molding, compression molding or melt casting. With the development
of science and technology in recent years, people believe that 3D printing tech-
nology has a promising application prospect in the rapid preparation of advanced
materials. Moreover, there have been great breakthroughs in the development of
hardware and software, as well as the research of new multifunctional materials suit-
able for 3D printing [96]. The core advantage of 3D printing technology is that those
products with complex shapes can be manufactured at a moderate speed without
the assistance of molds. 3D printing techniques include fused deposition modeling
(FDM), fused filament manufacturing (FFF), selective laser sintering (SLS), micro-
stereolithography (MSL), UV-assisted 3D printing (UV3DP), direct ink writing
(DIW) and solvent casting 3D printing (SC3DP), etc. [97]. Among them, FDM and
FFF are the most commonly used methods to construct 3D structures. The polymer
melt is extruded from a heated nozzle and deposited layer by layer on a platform to
form a 3D shape. The commonly used materials used as filaments in the FDM process
are polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC),
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), etc. Because they
are not conductive, raw filament materials cannot be used in EMI shielding applica-
tions, but carbon-based inclusions (at least one of them) can be embedded to improve
the conductivity and the EMI shielding performance of raw filament materials. When
compared with other methods, the use of 3D printing technology to prepare shielding
materials constructed from polymer composites has several potential advantages.
Traditionally, the formation of common polymer-based shielding materials is
carried out in the laboratory using complex chemical routes and reagents, which is a
time-consuming and labor-intensive process [98]. In addition, constructing complex
3D patterns on a flat polymer surface requires the use of dedicated and expen-
sive lithography techniques such as stereolithography and nanoimprint lithography.
Surprisingly, 3D printing technology can not only produce 3D shielding materials
over a short time, but also construct complex structures in such a simple step [99].
Ecco et al. [100] used FDM technology to produce 3D printed samples consisting
of MWCNTs, CB and ABS, and evaluated the EMI SE of prepared FDM samples
and the relationship between different fillers and printing parameters. Chen et al.
[101] designed and fabricated high-performance PLA nanocomposites incorporating
GNP/CNT hybrids by FDM. The printed nanocomposites possessed the excellent
comprehensive performance, an electrical conductivity of 82.0 S/m and an EMI SE
value of 36.8 dB (Fig. 1.20a). Nicolosi et al. [102] developed an aqueous Ti3 C2
MXene-functionalized PEDOT:PSS ink for 3D printing. Highly conductive and
robust hydrogels were prepared via DIW technology and freeze-thawing protocol
(Fig. 1.20b), which exhibited a high conductivity of 1525.8 S m−1 and EMI SE
value of 51.7 dB. Therriault et al. [67] developed a highly conductive 3D printable
ink composed of CNTs and PLA. The printed composites significantly improved
EMI shielding performance, as opposed to the sample formed by solid thermo-
compression (i.e., ~70 dB/(g·cm3 ) vs. ~ 37 dB/(g·cm3 )). Polymer/carbon material
composites prepared by 3D printing technology are also widely used in electronic
Fig. 1.20 Schematic illustration of FDM (a) and DIW (b) used as the fabrication processes of 3D
printing samples [101, 102]
products including energy storage devices, electronic components (e.g., transducers,

flexible conductors, transmitters, radio frequency inductors, EMW receivers), liquid
sensors and miniature electrical interconnectors. Moreover, 3D printing technology
can produce biological materials such as human organs and tissues, which may play
a leading role in future medical applications.
1.4 Applications of Biomaterials in Electromagnetic

Shielding Field
Due to the rapid development of industrialization, it has inevitably induced serious

negative effects on ecological environment, especially the exhaustion of fossil energy
and the pollution of natural environment. Therefore, people are more inclined to using
cheap, renewable, environmentally friendly and resource-rich biomaterials to replace
or partially replace fossil energy and chemical materials. In recent years, the use of
biomaterials has attracted the wide attention [103] such as silk [104, 105], wood
[106], bagasse fibers [107], lignin [87], cellulose [108], peanut and hazelnut shells
[109], walnut shells [110], egg shells [111], rice husks [112], waxberry [113], bamboo
[114] and loofah [115], etc. (Fig. 1.21). The pyrolysis of biomaterials is one of the
easiest means to produce raw conductive carbon materials for EMI shielding. Liao
et al. [104] used carbonized silk@cobalt@graphene as effective fillers to prepare
porous composites (Fig. 1.22a), which reached a SE value of 55.0 dB at the filler
content of 45 wt%. Feng et al. [116] prepared epoxy composites with high EMI
shielding performance and thermal conductivity (TC) by backfilling epoxy resin
into wood-derived carbon skeletons (Fig. 1.22b). The associated results showed that
carbon skeleton could be well maintained after the carbonization at 1200°C, which
can be used as a thermal and electrical pathway in composites. When the carbon
content was 7.0 vol%, TC, electrical conductivity and average EMI SE in X band of
prepared composites reached 0.58 W/(m·K), 12.5 S/m and 27.8 dB, respectively.
Among the biomaterials mentioned earlier, natural loofah has many special char-
acteristics including unique porous physical structures and excellent mechanical
properties. It is a common grain grown in tropical and subtropical regions, which can
be used as daily necessities (e.g., hats, insoles and gloves), engine filters, catalysts,
wastewater adsorbents, cell carriers, supercapacitor electrodes and malfunction of
composites. Soft and elastic loofah can be obtained by removing the skin and seeds
from mature loofah fruit. Vascular bundle network structure entangled by loofah
fibers is similar to open-cell foams. The tissue composition of loofah is composed
of 60% cellulose, 30% hemicellulose and 10% lignin. The corresponding elements
mainly include C, Ca, H, O and N [119–121]. The applications of loofah in several
important areas are briefly introduced, as illustrated in Fig. 1.23. Zhu et al. [122]
used loofah sponge as ion-selective membranes for salinity gradient power genera-
tion. Guo et al. [123] modified carbonized loofah into a light absorbing layer with
abundant channels for solar steam generation. Song et al. [124] effectively promoted
1.4 Applications of Biomaterials in Electromagnetic Shielding Field 29
Fig. 1.21 Biomaterials used for EMI shielding in recent years [104, 109–118]
Fig. 1.22 Schematic illustration of fabrication processes of carbonized silk@cobalt@graphene

(a) [104] and epoxy wood-derived carbon composites (b) [116]
Fig. 1.23 Schematic illustration of fabrication processes of ion-selective membranes (a), solar
steam evaporator (b), microbial electrosynthesis cathode (c) and biocarrier (d) derived from loofah
[122–125]
microbial electrosynthesis from carbon dioxide by combining carbonized loofah

sponge with polydopamine and Mo2 C. Chen et al. [125] reported that loofah was
an environmentally friendly biocarrier that can be applied for intimately coupled
photocatalysis and biodegradation.
It is often an important means to learn from nature for the progress of human
society. Many advanced functional materials have been prepared by imitating the
natural structure of biological materials. For example, three-dimensional network
structures of loofah provide a reliable mechanical design model for the development
of advanced ultra-light metal and energy absorption materials [126, 127]. It is worth
noting that after the carbonization of loofah fibers, they retain original microporous
structures with the endowment of many other properties. Carbonized loofah fibers are
a natural, biodegradable, inexpensive, chemically stable, conductive and non-toxic
porous carbon material with high porosity and high specific surface area. In addition,
carbonized loofah is considered as a good microwave absorbent and electromagnetic
shielding fillers because it has unique porous structures similar to a honeycomb. Zhou
et al. [128] used carbonized modified loofah to prepare porous carbon/ferroferric
oxide@iron composites, which exhibited excellent microwave absorption properties.
At the filler content of 30 wt%, a microwave absorption loss value of –49.6 dB
could be achieved. Li et al. [129] developed a lightweight microwave absorbing
material derived from loofah, which demonstrated an absorption effect of –43.8 dB
1.4 Applications of Biomaterials in Electromagnetic Shielding Field 31
at the frequency of 8.3 GHz. The development and applications of natural loofah to
electromagnetic shielding have been detailed in other forthcoming chapters.
1.5 Summary
After several generations of efforts, high-performance electromagnetic shielding

composites that replace traditional metal shielding materials have led to many prod-
ucts particularly targeting industrial applications. When driven by technological inno-
vation, a variety of new technologies and functional materials have been used in the
field of electromagnetic shielding. At present, a large number of studies on opti-
mizing electromagnetic shielding composites are mainly focused on the innovation
of structural design and new materials based on electromagnetic shielding theory.
However, a theoretical analysis of electromagnetic shielding mechanism specifically
for new functional composites still encounters great challenges, especially in terms of
the mechanism interpretation for the effectiveness of microporous structures. More
importantly, a massive development of industrialization can do great harm to ecolog-
ical environment. Therefore, the development of new materials increasingly tends
to rely on environmentally friendly and renewable biomaterials, which would be an
important resource for humans to survive in the future to replace other predominantly
available synthetic materials.
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1870–1871. Navy yard, New York.
1871. Worcester, home station.
1872. Promoted to commander. Receiving ship, New York.
1873–1874. Commanding side-wheel steamer Wasp in the Rio de
la Plata.
1875–1876. Navy yard, Boston.
1877–1880. Naval Academy, Annapolis.
1880–1883. Navy yard, New York.
1883–1885. Commanding steam sloop Wachusett, South Pacific
Squadron.
1885. Assigned to Naval War College, as lecturer on naval history
and strategy.
1886–1889. President of Naval War College.
1889–1892. Special duty, Bureau of Navigation. Member of
commission to choose site for navy yard in Puget Sound.
1892–1893. President of Naval War College.
1893–1895. Commanding cruiser Chicago, flagship of Rear
Admiral Erben, European station.
1895–1896. Special duty at the Naval War College.
1896. November 17, retired as captain on his own application after
forty years’ service.
1896–1912. Special duty in connection with Naval War College.
1898. Member of Naval War Board during Spanish War.
1899. Delegate to Hague Peace Conference.
1906. June 29, rear admiral on the retired list.
1914. December 1, died at the Naval Hospital, Washington.
Academic Honors
D.C.L., Oxford, 1894; LL.D., Cambridge, 1894; LL.D., Harvard,
1895; LL.D., Yale, 1897; LL.D., Columbia, 1900; LL.D., Magill, 1909;
President of the American Historical Association, 1902.
PUBLISHED WORKS
1883. “The Gulf and Inland Waters.”

1890. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783.”
1892. “The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution
and Empire, 1793–1812.” Two volumes.
“The Life of Admiral Farragut.”
1897. “The Life of Nelson: the Embodiment of the Sea Power of
Great Britain.” Two volumes.
“The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future.”
1899. “Lessons of the War with Spain.”
1900. “The Problem of Asia, and its Effect upon International
Policies.”
“The Story of the War with South Africa, 1899–1900.”
1901. “Types of Naval Officers, Drawn from the History of the
British Navy.”
1902. “Retrospect and Prospect: Studies in International
Relations, Naval and Political.”
1905. “Sea Power in its Relations to the War of 1812.” Two
volumes.
1907. “Some Neglected Aspects of War.”
“From Sail to Steam: Recollections of a Naval Life.”
1908. “Naval Administration and Warfare.”
1909. “The Harvest Within: Thoughts on the Life of a Christian.”
1910. “The Interest of America in International Conditions.”
1911. “Naval Strategy, Compared and Contrasted with the
Principles and Practice of Military Operations on Land.”
1912. “Armaments and Arbitration: the Place of Force in
International Relations.”
1913. “The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American
Independence.”
Uncollected Essays
“Reflections, Historical and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the

Sea of Japan,” U. S. Naval Institute, June, 1906; Reprinted in
Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, November, 1906.
“The Battleship of All Big Guns,” World’s Work, January, 1911.
“Misrepresenting Mr. Roosevelt,” Outlook, June 17, 1911.
“Importance of Command of the Sea,” Scientific American,
December 9, 1911.
“Was Panama a Chapter of National Dishonor?” North American
Review, October, 1912.
“Japan among Nations,” Living Age, August 2, 1913.
“Twentieth Century Christianity,” North American Review, April,
1914.
“Macdonough at Plattsburg,” North American Review, August,
1914.
“The Panama Canal and the Distribution of the Fleet,” North
American Review, September, 1914.
REFERENCES
There is at present no printed source for the life of Mahan except

his autobiographical record “From Sail to Steam,” which is confined
almost entirely to the period preceding his retirement in 1896. Aside
from book reviews, the more important critical essays and tributes
are as follows:
“Mahan’s Counsels to the United States,” G. S. Clarke, Nineteenth
Century, Review, February, 1898.
“Mahan on Sea Power,” S. G. W. Benjamin, New York Times Book
Review, January 18, 1902.
“La Maîtrise de la Mer,” Auguste Moireau, Revue des Deux
Mondes, October, 1902.
“Some American Historians,” Professor H. Morse Stephens,
World’s Work, July, 1902.
“Lee at Appomattox and Other Papers,” Charles Francis Adams,
1903, p. 356 ff.
“The Writings of Mahan,” New York Nation, December 10, 1914.
“A Great Public Servant,” Theodore Roosevelt, Outlook, January
13, 1915. See also Outlook, December 9, 1914.
“Alfred Thayer Mahan—In Memoriam,” United States Naval
Institute, January–February, 1915.
“The Influence of America’s Greatest Naval Strategist on the War
in Europe,” Current Opinion, February, 1915. (Taken from Paris
Figaro.)
“Naval History: Mahan and his Successors,” Military Historian
and Economist, January, 1918.
INDEX
Aden, #$1#, 152

Admiralty, British, organization of, 118–122, 194, 195
Adriatic Sea, 26, 306
Africa, 46.
See South Africa
Alabama, Confederate cruiser, 96
Alaska, 40
Alava, Spanish admiral, 215
Alexander the Great, campaigns of, 4, 14
Alexander I, of Russia, 224–226
Algeciras Conference, 306
Alliances, military weakness of, 60, 61, 315.
See Entente; Triple Alliance
Alsace-Lorraine, 326, 349
American Independence, War of, 23, 85, 343;
unwise policy of England in, 143–144;
influence of sea power in, 164–170.
Amsterdam, 34, 39.
Antilles, Lesser, strategic value of, 102, 105, 107, 108
Antwerp, 30, 306
Arbitration, #$1#, inadequacy of, 293–295, 344–347
Armenia, 345, 347
Armored cruiser, a faulty type, 260
Asia. See China; Japan; Far East
Atlantic Coast, of United States, 35, 65–67, 111–112, 274, 285
Australia, 148, 149, 350
Austria, in Thirty Years’ War, 50 ff.;
in Napoleonic Wars, 76, 191, 228;
in Seven Years’ War, 147;
an ally of Germany, 304–306, 317, 322, 323, 327
Balkan States, 306

Baltic Sea, 31, 82, 186, 188, 191, 273, 274, 313
Barbados, 60, 196
Bases, naval, for permanent operations, 28;
in the Caribbean, 29;
exposed to land attack, 71;
useless without a navy, 287.
See Ports; Strategic Positions
Battleships, design of, 61–62.
See Speed
Beachy Head, battle of, 81, 155, 157
Belgium, ports of, closed, 30;
a possession of Spain, 38, 50, 57, 60, 67
Berlin Decree, 95, 331
Bermuda, 105
Biscay, Bay of, 192
Bismarck, Prince, #$1#, 326
Blockade, in the Civil War, 41–42, 94;
military, 86;
commercial, 94–99, 330–331;
defense against, 129–132;
of Santiago, 251–255;
of France, in Napoleonic Wars, 300–311
Bombardment, defense against, 129–132
Bombay, #$1#, 153
Boulogne, 191, 192, 194, 197
Bourrienne, Napoleon’s secretary, 13, 14
Boyne, battle of, 37
Brest, 23, 24, 31, 154, 174, 192–194, 196, 222
Brock, General, 233, 234
Brunswick, British ship, 180–182
Bucentaure, French ship, 215–219
Bulgaria, 345
Byng, British Admiral, 85, 86, 158
Cadiz, 26, 58;

Villeneuve at, 197–202, 208–211, 219–222
Cæsar, campaigns of, 4, 14
Calder, British Admiral, 196
Cámara, Spanish Admiral, 252
Canada, 143, 147, 154;
in War of 1812, 229–240, 307
Cape Verde Islands, 241
Caribbean Sea, strategic importance of, 27–29, 289, 325;
features of, 100–112;
map of, 100;
hurricane in, 244
Cartagena, 26
Central Line, or Position, defined and illustrated, 50–67, 103;
of Germany, 53
Cervera, Spanish Admiral, squadron of, 59, 88, 89;
approach of, 241–249;
blockaded at Santiago, 251–255
Champlain, Lake, battle of, 235, 239
Channel, British, 23, 24, 25, 52, 53, 69, 140;
defenses in, against Napoleon, 191–195;
controlled by England, 312–315
Charles, Archduke, campaigns of, 11 ff
Chauncey, Commodore, 235–236
Chemulpo, 256, 267
Cherbourg, 31, 174
Chesapeake Bay, British forces in, 31;
battle off, 164–170
China, at war with Japan, 296;
and foreign powers, 300, 345;
emigration from, 349, 352.
See Open Door
Cienfuegos, 59, 88, 89, 103, 241, 246, 247
Civil War, American, Mahan’s service in, #$1#;
blockade in, 41–42, 94–96;
Farragut in, 76;
results of, 292
Clausewitz, Karl von, quoted, 89
Clinton, Sir Henry, 164, 167
Coasts, influence of, on naval development, 28–32, 40–42;
defense of, 89, 129–133;
fortification of, 261.
See Frontiers
Codrington, Sir Edward, 178, 183, 201
Colbert, French Minister, 138, 139
Collingwood, British Admiral, at battle of June First, 178;
off Rochefort, 192;
at Trafalgar, 197, 201, 206, 213–217, 220
Colonies, national policies regarding, #$1#, 45–46;
as motives for a navy, 20;
British, 22;
Germany’s desire for, 319, 323
Commerce, easier by sea than by land, 16;
importance of foreign, 17, 148;
as a motive for naval power, 18–19, 355–357;
routes of, 69–70, 76–78
Commerce Warfare, operations of, discussed, 5, 91–99;
a weapon of the weaker sea power, 24;
requires distant bases, 25, 154;
in the Napoleonic Wars, 198, 223–228.
See Blockade; Private Property
Communications, facility of, by sea, 16, 77, 286, 331–332;
between England and Ireland, 37, 38;
importance of, in warfare, 52–60, 75–78, 92;
maintained by naval forces, 154;
altered by interoceanic canals, 288–290
Compromise, evils of, 259–262;
in Rozhestvensky’s plans, 281
Concentration, defined and illustrated, 60–67;
disregarded by Russia in war with Japan, 270–275, 277–282
Continental System, Napoleon’s, 198, 223–228
Contraband, 99
Convoys, 17
Copenhagen, Nelson’s campaign of, 184–191
Corbett, Sir Julian, quoted, 85, 89
Corfu, 287
Cornwallis, British Admiral, 192, 194, 196
Cornwallis, General, at Yorktown, 159, 164–170
Corsica, 26
Corunna, 52
Crete, 58, 70, 347
Cronstadt, 273
Cuba, strategic value of, 59, 74, 79, 100–112;
in Spanish War, 243, 245, 345, 348, 349
Culebra Island, 111
Curaçao, 241, 248
Curieux, British brig, 196
Curtis, British Captain, 178, 179, 183
Cyprus, 153
D’Aché, French Admiral, 153

Danube, central position on, 50, 53–56, 60, 67
Dearborn, General, 236, 238
De Barras, French Admiral, in the American Revolution, 164–168
Defensive, limited rôle of, in naval warfare, 87–90, 309–311;
in the War of 1812, 228 ff
De Grasse, French Admiral, at Saints’ Passage, 160;
off the Chesapeake, 164–170
Du Guichen, French Admiral, engaged with Rodney, 159–163
Denmark, trade of, 25;
waters of, 51;
Nelson’s campaign against, 184–190
De Ruyter, Dutch Admiral, 207
Detroit, 233, 238, 239
Dewey, Admiral, #$1#
Dominica, 160
Dumanoir, French Admiral, at Trafalgar, 218–220
Egypt, Napoleon in, 58, 127, 192;

British rule in, 152, 191, 343
England. See Great Britain
Entente, Triple, 53, 304–306, 317–318
Erie, Lake, operations on, 232, 233, 235–236, 238, 240
Far East, political conditions in, 289–291, 296–297.

See China; Japan; Open Door
Farragut, Admiral, his place as a naval leader, #$1#;
at Mobile, 64, 251;
on the Mississippi, 76;
quoted, 340
Ferrol, 192, 196, 197
Fighting Instructions, of the British Navy, 157–158
Fleet in Being, theory of, 81;
illustrated by Cervera’s fleet, 242–248;
in Russo-Japanese War, 258–269
Florida, exposed position of, 36, 65, 66;
Straits of, 69, 147
Flying Squadron, in Spanish War, #$1#, 59, 88, 89, 241, 246
Fortress Fleet, 258–269
Française, Cape, 165, 166
France, a rival of Great Britain, #$1#;
geographical conditions affecting, 22–25;
ports of, 31, 32;
in Napoleonic Wars, 43–44, 171–174;
colonial policy of, 46;
in Thirty Years’ War, 50–57;
exhausted under Louis XIV, 137–140;
in American Revolution, 143–144;
in Seven Years’ War, 147, 153–154;
opposed to Germany, 305, 317–318, 320;
arrested growth of, in population, 307, 322;
Channel coast of, 312–313.
See Navy, French
Franklin, Benjamin, quoted, 350
Frederick the Great, 14, 147
French Revolution, 152;
effect on French navy, 171–174, 178
Frontiers, advantage of seaboard, 30;
of United States, regarded as a line, 65–67, 112;
warfare on, in 1812, 229–234.
See Coasts
Genoa, 67
Germany, recent naval policy of, #$1#–xv, 51;
trade of, 25;
rivers of, 33, 69;
central position of, 53;
possible acquisitions in West Indies, 288;
political character and aims of, 292, 302–308, 317–327;
and Far East, 299;
her sea routes threatened by Great Britain, 312–316, 333, 336.
See Navy, German
Gibraltar, an important base, 20, 22, 58, 69, 74, 152, 154;
acquired by Great Britain, 26, 147, 157;
siege of, 85, 86, 107, 178;
Nelson at, 196, 199, 209
Good Hope, Cape of, 20, 26, 33, 51, 152, 290, 314
Graves, British Admiral, off the Chesapeake, 160, 164–170
Gravina, Spanish Admiral, at Trafalgar, 210–211, 214, 219–220
Great Britain, growth of, in naval power, #$1#, 32–34, 43–44;
colonial policy of, 45, 46, 343;
naval policy of, 47–48, 141–146;
community of interests with United States, 111, 291–295, 318–332;
in American Revolution, 143–144;
gains of, in Seven Years’ War, 147–154;
navy her first line of defense, 191–195;
in commerce warfare with Napoleon, 223–228, 310–311;
and problem of imperial federation, 293;
threatened by Germany, 302–308;
policy of, relating to seizure of private property at sea, 333–338.
See Navy, British
Guadeloupe, 25, 143
Guantanamo, 58, 103–107, 111
Hague, The, 155–157, 165, 166.

See Peace Conferences
Haiti, 105, 108
Halifax, 105
Hamilton, Lady Emma, 200
Hampton Roads, #$1#, 59, 66, 89, 241, 246
Hannibal, campaigns of, 4, 14
Havana, 39, 59, 88, 89, 105, 106, 110, 143, 166, 241, 246, 247
Havre, 174
Hawaiian Islands, value of, to the United States, 285–287, 356, 357;
Japanese in, 301
Hawke, British Admiral, 155
Heligoland, #$1#
Holland, dependent on commerce, 161;
as a sea power, 22, 23;
trade of, 25;
closes Belgian ports, 30;
raids Chatham, 30;
naval rivalry with England, 32–34, 312, 313;
at war with Spain, 37–38, 342;
colonial policy of, 45–46;
rivers of, 69;
in wars of Louis XIV, 137–140;
in Napoleonic Wars, 193;
possible union with Germany, 320
Hood, British Admiral, 167, 168
Hotham, British Admiral, 81
Howe, British Admiral, policy of, 5;
in the battle of June First, 175–183
Hudson River, 31, 166
India, British in, 147, 151, 317, 343;

route to, 152, 153
Interior Lines, value of, in warfare, 51–67;
illustrated, 103, 314
International Law, regard for, in Napoleonic Wars, 227–228;
inadequate to check national aggressions, 300
Ireland, 37, 313
Italy, position of, 26;
exposed by sea, 36–37;
in wars of France and Austria, 50, 56, 60;
unification of, 292;
interests of, opposed to those of Germany and Austria, 305–306,
317
Jamaica, lost by Spain, 39;

threatening position of, 58;
strategic value of, 100–112
James II, of England, 38, 277;
fighting instructions issued by, 157–158
Japan, influenced by Mahan’s writings, #$1#;
in war with Russia, 56, 57, 60;
influence in Asia, 76–78, 82–84;
coerced by the European powers, 291–292;
growth of, 296–297, 326;
and the Open Door Policy, 299–301;
compared with Germany, 303, 324;
and Great Britain, 306–307, 318, 320;
emigration from, 349–352.
See Russo-Japanese War
Jervis. See St. Vincent
Jomini, on strategy, 11, 12, 49, 321;
on strategic lines, 64, 65, 238;
on Napoleon, 80;
on British sea power, 141
June First, battle of, 175–183
Kamimura, Japanese Admiral, 66

Kamranh Bay, 83
Keith, British Admiral, 194
Key West, 29, 36, 111, 241, 269
Kiel Canal, #$1#, 51
Kingston, in Canada, 231–240;
in Jamaica, 107
Korea, 256, 300, 346
Kuropatkin, Russian General, 256, 257
Lafayette, General, 164, 169

La Hogue, battle of, 155–157, 165, 166
Levant, trade of, 33
Line of Battle, of fleets, 62, 156, 158, 162, 163.
See Strategic Lines
Logistics, defined, 49
London, 30
Louis XIV, of France, 37, 155;
wars of, 137–141
Louis XVI, of France, 172
Louisburg, 20, 154
Macdonough, Commodore, 142

Madagascar, #$1#, 82
Madrid, 81, 209
Magellan, Straits of, 51, 67, 290
Malta, 20, 26, 58, 70, 107, 152, 287
Manchuria, 56, 57, 267, 300
Manila, 39, 143
Mantua, 76, 80
Marengo, battle of, 13, 14, 76, 257
Marlborough, Duke of, 142
Martinique, 25, 74, 104, 143, 154, 160, 161, 196, 241
Masampo Bay, 66
Mauritius, 20, 152
Mediterranean Sea, position of France on, 22, 59, 140;
importance of, as a trade route, 27, 31, 39, 289–290;
Villeneuve ordered to, 198–199;
bases in, 287, 314
Metz, 71
Mexico, Gulf of, 29, 31, 35, 36, 65, 66;
strategic features of, 100–112, 325
Milan, 50, 53
Minorca, 39, 107, 147, 154, 158
Mississippi River, importance of, 29, 31, 35, 69, 100, 101;
in the Civil War, 42, 76, 143
Mobile Bay, battle of, 64, 251
Mona Passage, 102
Monroe Doctrine, 102, 111, 149, 288–291, 318, 320–322, 325, 356
Montreal, 231, 233, 234, 238, 240
Moore, Sir John, 81
Morocco, 306, 318, 320
Mukden, battle of, 56, 256
Naples, 38, 39
Napoleon, as a strategian, 11;
anecdote of, 12–14;
quoted, 4, 14, 55, 58, 70, 78, 110, 155, 173, 241, 271, 287, 296, 335;
at Marengo and Mantua, 76, 257;
a believer in the offensive, 80, 81, 152, 153;
in commerce warfare with Great Britain, 92, 93, 95, 223–228, 331;
armies of, 172;
and the northern neutrals, 184, 187;
his plan for the invasion of England, 191–198;
and the Trafalgar campaign, 221–223, 248;
downfall of, 237;
at Waterloo, 239
Napoleonic Wars, 12, 31, 80, 81, 142, 307, 310, 343
Naval Administration, civil vs. military, 113–115;
in peace and war, 115–118;
British, 118–122;
United States, 122–124.
See Admiralty
Naval Training, 8–15
Naval War College, Mahan at, #$1#;
aims of, 10–15
Navarino, battle of, 178
Navies, motives for, 18, 355–357;
a protection for commerce, 19;
fighting order of, 61;
an offensive weapon, 71–73
Navigation Acts, British, 337
Navy, British;
training of officers in, 8–9;
compared with French, 43;
maneuvers of, 72;
tactics of, in the 18th century, 156–158;
protection afforded by, 306–308;
French:
training of officers in, 8–9;
compared with British, 43;
weakness of, in Revolutionary Wars, 146, 171–174, 178;
faulty policy of, 155–158;
German: growth and purpose of, 111, 299, 307, 317–320;
United States:
interested chiefly in material, 8;
in Civil War, 41;
insufficient, 44;
in Spanish War, 59–60, 245, 250–253;
concentration of fleet of, 60, 274–275;
administration of, 122–124;
requirements of, 128–134
Nebogatoff, Russian Admiral, 83
Nelson, British Admiral, his place as a naval leader, #$1#;
in the Trafalgar campaign, 5, 62, 63, 196–223;
his pursuit of Napoleon in the Mediterranean, 58;
on concentration, 61;
quoted, 80, 82, 85, 175, 253;
and the rule of obedience, 126–127;
in the Copenhagen campaign, 184–190;
in command of channel forces, 191–192, 195
Netherlands. See Belgium; Holland
Neutrality, League of Armed, 184–190
Newport, Rhode Island, #$1#, 164, 166
New York, 31, 69, 73, 164–167
Niagara frontier, warfare on, 231–232, 235–236
Nile, battle of, 153
North Sea, 23, 25, 51, 313–316
Nossi-Bé, 82, 83
Offensive, advantage of, in war, 128–133, 229, 309–311;

operations of, discussed, 79–86;
navy chiefly useful for, 70–73
Ontario, Lake, campaign on, in War of 1812, 229–240
Open Door Policy, 299–301, 325, 356, 357
Oregon, United States ship, 59, 60
Oswego, 232
Pacific Coast, of United States, 35, 40, 67, 111, 112, 285, 289;
immigration to, 350, 356
Pacific Ocean, interest of the United States in, 289, 299–301
Panama Canal, its effect on naval policy, 18, 27–29, 325;
an interior line, 51, 301;
central position of, 67, 70, 77;
strategic importance of, 100–112, 149, 150, 356–357;
need of controlling approaches to, 285–287;
and the Monroe Doctrine, 288–291, 318
Paris, Treaty of, 147–148;
Declaration of, 99, 337;
city of, 198
Parker, British Admiral, 184–190
Peace Conferences, at The Hague, #$1#, 132, 331, 342, 346
Peninsular War, 81, 82
Pensacola, 29
Philippine Islands, 252, 349
Pitt, Sir William, British Prime Minister, 143, 151
Plevna, 56, 57
Plymouth, England, 24, 31
Pondicherry, 78, 154
Population, affecting sea power, 43–44;
of Pacific Coast, 301
Port Arthur, threatening Japanese communications, 56, 57;
attacked by siege, 71, 82;
squadron based on, 256–271, 275
Port Mahon, 289
Porto Rico, 241, 349
Ports, in Gulf and Caribbean, 128, 29;
flanking communications, 56–58
Portsmouth, England, 31
Preparation, for war, 128–134, 229–230, 237–238, 357
Private property at sea, immunity of, 78, 93, 98, 99, 328–341;
Rule of 1756 regarding, 227–228
Prussia, 147, 153, 189, 191, 228
Puget Sound, 67
Pyrenees, 52, 65
Ratisbon, 50
Red Sea, 152
Resources, affecting strategic value of positions, 68, 69, 74
Revel, 188–190
Rhine River, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 60, 197.
Richelieu, Cardinal, 31, 60
Rions, Commodore de, 174

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Hierarchically Porous Bio Carbon

Based Composites for High

High Temperature Mechanical Behavior of Ceramic-Matrix

Principles and Technologies for Electromagnetic Energy

Electromagnetic Shielding Theory and Applications 2nd

All-carbon Composites and Hybrids 1st Edition Oxana V.

High-Performance Training for Sports, 2nd Edition Joyce

Carbon Allotropes and Composites Materials for

Principles of High-Performance Processor Design: For

Recent Advances in Smart Self healing Polymers and

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/4288

Dongyan Liu Yu Dong

ISSN 1612-1317 ISSN 1868-1212 (electronic)

under different compression deformation levels of composites. This chapter uses

Shenyang, China Songtao Li

1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Shielding Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)/Nickel-Plated Carbonized Loofah

5 MXene Aerogel/CVD Carbon-Coated Carbonized Loofah

1.1 Adverse Effects of Electromagnetic Waves

The rapid development of information technology is leading the enormous growth of

extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields including antennas or mobile phones

1.2 Mechanism of Electromagnetic Shielding

SE = 10lg(P0 /Pt ) = 20lg(E 0 /E t ) = 20lg(H0 /Ht ) (1.1)

Fig. 1.2 Schematic diagram of electromagnetic shielding mechanism

SE = SE∗R + SE∗A + SEM (1.2)

where f is the frequency of EMW, σ r is the relative conductivity, μr is the relative

Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram

In addition, it should be noted that high-frequency electromagnetic radiation can

where δ is skin depth, f is the frequency of EMW, σ is electrical conductivity, μ is

1.3 Electromagnetic Shielding Composites

more desirable in military applications such as camouflage and stealth technologies,

from a typical reflection mechanism observed in metals to the dominant shielding

1.3.1 Conductive Fillers

1.3.1.1 Metal Fillers

nanowire-coated carbon (Ag@C) hybrid sponge as an EMI shielding material. The

1.3.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

CNTs can be taken as hollow cylinders of hexagonal networks in shape composed

1.3.1.4 Carbon Fibers

1.3.1.5 Carbon Black

1.3.2 Conductive Networks

Conductive polymer composites show potential applications in EMI shielding mate-

1.3.2.1 Polymer/Filler Composites Prepared by Blending

nanocomposites reinforced with 15 wt% GNPs by a compression molding process,

the cross-section similar to a honeycomb structure with countless interfaces after

With the rapid development of microelectronic materials, the application condi-

nanocomposite foam with a density of approximately 0.3 g/cm3 in a phase sepa-

1.3.2.3 Multilayer Sheets/Films

[94] combined a shielding film and a pressure-sensitive film to prepare a multi-

Traditionally, polymer/carbon material composites for EMI shielding are prepared

products including energy storage devices, electronic components (e.g., transducers,

1.4 Applications of Biomaterials in Electromagnetic

Due to the rapid development of industrialization, it has inevitably induced serious

Fig. 1.22 Schematic illustration of fabrication processes of carbonized silk@cobalt@graphene

microbial electrosynthesis from carbon dioxide by combining carbonized loofah

After several generations of efforts, high-performance electromagnetic shielding

1. Wanasinghe D, Aslani F (2019) A review on recent advancement of electromagnetic

1883. “The Gulf and Inland Waters.”

“Reflections, Historical and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the

There is at present no printed source for the life of Mahan except

Aden, #$1#, 152

Balkan States, 306

Cadiz, 26, 58;

D’Aché, French Admiral, 153