DNA and Meiosis

Structure of DNA

DNA is the chemical that determines inherited characteristics and it contains vast amounts of
information in the form of the genetic code. DNA is made up of just three basic components that
combine to form a nucleotide.

 A sugar called a deoxyribose

 A phosphate group
 An organic base belonging to one of two different groups:
o Single-ring bases – cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
o Double-ring bases – adenine (A) and guanine (G)

The deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group and organic base are combined as a result of condensation
reactions, to give a mononucleotide. Two mononucleotides may in turn, be combined as a result of a
condensation reaction between the deoxyribose of one mononucleotide and the phosphate group of
another. The new structure is called a dinucleotide. The continued linking of mononucleotides in this
way forms a long chain known as a polynucleotide.

DNA is made up of two long strands of nucleotides, joined together by hydrogen bonds formed
between certain bases. Adenine always pairs with thymine by means of two hydrogen bonds.
Guanine always pairs with cytosine by means of three hydrogen bonds. They are complementary to
one another.

The uprights of phosphate and deoxyribose wind around one another to form a double helix. For
each complete turn of this helix, there are ten base pairs.
Function of DNA

DNA is the hereditary material responsible for passing genetic information from cell to cell and
generation to generation. The DNA molecule is adapted to carry out its funcion in a number of ways:

 It is very stable and can pass from generation to generation without change
 Its two separate strands are joined by hydrogen bonding which allow them to separate
during DNA replication and protein synthesis
 It is an extremely large molecule and therefore carries and immense amount of genetic
information
 By having the base pairs within the helical cylinder of the sugar-phosphate backbone, the
genetic information is, to some extent, protected from being corrupted by outside chemical
and physical forces.

See p. 134 for proof that DNA is hereditary

The triplet code

Genes are sections of DNA that contain the coded information for making polypeptides. The coded
information is in the form of a specific sequence of bases along the DNA molecule. Polypeptides
combine to make proteins and so genes determine the proteins of an organism. Since enzymes are
proteins, genes determine the nature and development of all organisms. A gene is a sequence of
DNA bases that determines a polypeptide, and a polypeptide is a sequence of amino acids.

Scientists suggested that there must be a minimum of three bases that coded for each amino acid
because:

 Only 20 amino acids occur regularly in proteins

 Each amino acid must have its own code of bases on the DNA
 Only four different bases are present in DNA
 If each base coded for a different amino acid, only four amino acids could be coded for
 Using a pair of bases (42), the number of codes is still inadequate
 Three bases produce 64 different codes, more than enough to satisfy the requirements of 20
amino acids

As the code has three bases, it is called the triplet code. Some amino acids have more than one code
(64 codes only 20 amino acids).

The start of a sequence is always the same triplet code, this codes for the amino acids methionine. If
this first methionine molecule does not form part of the final polypeptide, it is later removed.

DNA and chromosomes

 In prokaryotic cells such as bacteria, the DNA molecules are smaller, form a circle and aren’t
associated with protein molecules. They therefore do not have chromosomes.
 In eukaryotic cells, the DNA molecules are larger, form a line rather than a circle, and occur
in association with proteins to form strutures called chromosomes.
Chromosomes are only visible as distinct structures when a cell is dividing, at which time they appear
as two threads (chromatids) which join at a single point (centromere). The DNA in chromosomes is
held in position by proteins (histones). The considerable length of DNA found in each cell is highly
coiled and folded.

In almost all species there is an even number of chromosomes because they occur in pairs
known as homologous pairs. This is because sexually produced organisms are the result of the
fusion of a sperm and an egg, each of which contributes a set of organisms to the offspring.
Therefore, one of each pair is derived from the chromosomes provided by the mother and the
other half derived from the father. A homologous pair is always two chromosomes that
determine the same genetic characteristics but this is not the same as being identical.

During meiosis, the halving of the number of chromosomes is done in a manner which ensures
that each daughter cell receives one chromosome from each homologous pair. In this way, each
cell recieves one set of information for each characteristic of the organism. When these haploid
cells combine, the diploid state, with pair homologous chromosomes, is restored.

Genes are sections of DNA that contain coded information in the form of specific sequences of
bases. Each gene exists in two, occasionally more, different forms. Each of these forms is called
an allele. Each individual inherits one allele from each of its parents, which may be the same or
different.
 Any differences in the base sequence of an allele of a single gene may result in a different
sequence of amino acids being coded for. This different amino acid sequence will lead to the
production of a different polypeptide, and hence a different protein.

Meiosis and genetic variation

Before the cell as a whole can divide, first the nucleus must divide, either by mitosis or meiosis.
Meiosis produces four daughter nuclei, each with half the number of chromosomes as the
parent cell.

In sexual reproduction, two gametes fuse to give rise to new offspring. If each gamete had a full
set of chromosomes then the cell that they produce would have double the number. In humans,
the diploid number of chromosomes is 46, which means that this cell would have 92
chromosomes. This doubling would continue at each generation. It follows that, in order to
maintain a constant number of chromosomes in the adults of species, the number of
chromosomes must be halved at some stage in the life cycle. This halving occurs as a result of
meiosis.

Meiosis involves two nuclear divisions that normally occur one after the other:

1. In the first division the homologous chromosomes pair up and their chromatids wrap
around eachother. Equivalent portions of these chromatids may be exchanged by a process
called crossing over. By the end of this stage the homologous pairs have separated, with one
chromosome from each pair going into one of the two daughter cells.
2. In the second meiotic division the chromatids move apart. At the end of meiosis 2, four cells
have been formed. In humans, each of these cells contains 23 chromatids.

Meiosis also produces genetic variation among the offspring, allowing an organism to adapt and
survive in a changing world. This variation is brought about by:

 Independent segregation of homologous chromosomes

 Recombination of homologous chromosomes by crossing over

Locus – the position of a gene on a chromosome or DNA molecule

Independent segregation:

During meiosis 1, each chromosome lines up alongside its homologous partner. In humans, this
means that there will be 23 homologous pairs lying side by side, arranged randomly. One of each
pair will pass to each daughter cell. Which one of the pair goes into the daughter cell, and with
which one of any of the other pairs, depends on how the pairs are lined up in the parent cell. Since
the pairs are lined up at random, the combination of chromosomes that goes into the daughter cell
at meiosis 1 is also random. This is called independent segregation. The random distribution and
consequent independent assortment of these chromosomes therefore produces new genetic
combinations.

Genetic recombination by crossing over:

During meiosis 1 each chromosome lines up alongside its homologous partner then:

 The chromatids of each pair become twisted around one another

 During this twisting process, tensions are created and portions of the chromatids break off
 These broken portions then rejoin with the chromatids of its homologous partner
 Usually it is the equivalent portions of homologous chromosomes that are exchanged
 In this way new genetic combinations are produced

The chromatids cross over one another many times and so this process is known as crossing over.
The broken-off portions of chromatid recombine with another chromatid, so this process is called
recombination.

The effect of this recombination by crossing over on the cells produced is shown above, all four cells
will have a different genetc composition.