CHAPTER 3

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

PART II
Horizontal Alignment Design
 Vertical Alignment Design
 Phasing of Vertical & Horizontal Alignment

1 ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 3.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
2

 Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional

transition of the highway in a horizontal plane.
 Horizontal alignment includes the straight (tangent) sections of the
roadway and circular curves that connect their change in direction
 Why do we need horizontal curves:
 Terrain conditions, physical features, and right of way limitations
 Depends:
 primarily on the design speed
 type of curve,
 friction,
 super elevation and
 widening of pavements on curves
 Affects:
 safe vehicle operating speeds, sight distances, and opportunities for
phasing and highway capacity.
ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C
 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT…(Cont.)
3

 Objective:
 Geometry of directional transition to ensure:
 Safety
 Comfort
 Primary challenge
 Transition
between two directions
 Horizontal curves

 Fundamentals
 Circularcurves
 Super elevation

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 3.4.1 GENERAL CRITERIA
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 Horizontal alignment should meet these general considerations:

 Alignment should be as straight as possible within physical and economic
constraints. A flowing line that conforming generally to the contours is
always preferable from construction, maintenance and aesthetic point of
view to the one with long tangents that slashes through the terrain.
 Alignment should be consistent. Try to avoid sharp curves at the ends of
long tangents and sudden changes from gently to sharply curving
alignment.
 Curves with small deflection angle (5o degrees or less) should be at
least 150m (500ft) long and increased 30m (100ft) for every one-
degree in deflection angle, to avoid the appearance of kink.
 Avoid horizontal curvature on bridges when possible, however, when
curvature is unavoidable, place the entire bridge on a single curve as
flat as physical conditions permit. Ending or beginning curve on or near
a bridge can present design and construction problems with super
elevation transition.
 Avoid ―Brocken-back‖ – short tangent section between two curves in the
same direction.
ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C
Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves,
and Compound Curves

 Avoid abrupt reverse curves; It make difficult for

the driver to remain within his lane.
 Avoid "broken-back“ curves except where very
unusual topographical or right-of-way dictates;
Drivers do not generally anticipate successive
curves in the same direction.

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 3.4.2 DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
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 I. Straight Line
 provide the shortest distance between two established
control points
 The following guidelines may apply concerning the
length of straights:-
 Maximum length should not be greater than 20*Velocity (in
meter).
 Minimum length should not greater than 2*Velocity for sight
distance.
 In curves of the same direction intermediate straight lines
should be avoided or amounted to 6*Velocity.

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 DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT….(cont.)
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 II. Horizontal Curves

 four types of horizontal curves:
 Simple, Compound,
 Reverse, Spiral Curve

 A, Simple Curve: has a constant radius

 NOTE:
 M-middle ordinate
 T-Tangent length
 C-Cord length
 L-Length of curve
 R-Radius of curve
 ∆-Central angle
 PC-point of curvature
 PT-Point of tangency
 PI- Point of intersection
ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C
 Example:
1. A curve has a deflection angle of Δ = 24° and a radius of
1432.6m. The Point of Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87.
Calculate the tangent distance (T), external distance (E),
middle Ordinate (M), curve length (L), Point of
Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).
2. A horizontal curve is designed with a 610m radius. The
curve has a tangent length of 120m & the PI is at a
station 3+140. Determine the station of the PT.

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Solution for Q1
1) T=R tan(∆/2)= 1432.6*tan(24/2)=295.24
L= ∆*R*2∏ =24*1432.6*2*3.14=582m
360 360
E=R[sec ∆/2-1]=1432.6[sec (24/2)-1]=
PC=PI-T= 5+053.87-295.24=4+758
PT=PC+L=4+758+582=5+340

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 Solution for Q2
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 DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT..(cont.)
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 B, Compound Curves: consisting of

a series of two or more simple
curves of different radii turning in
the same direction.
 intersection curb radii, ramps and
transitions into sharper curves.
 the radii of the flatter curve should
not be more than 50% greater than
that of sharper curve
 C, Reverse Curves: consists of two
simple curves with equal or
different radii turning in opposite
directions.
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 DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT…(cont.)
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 D, Spiral Curves (Transition Curves): have got a

radius of curvature gradually changing from infinity
to the designed radius.
 placed between tangents and circular curves or
between two adjacent circular curves having
substantially different radii.
 Other type of curves: Brocken back, Switch back..

 Reading assignment

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 DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT…(cont.)
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 3.4.3 SUPERELEVATION
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 Superelevation(e) is the raising of the outer edge

of the travel lane to counterbalances the
centrifugal force, or outward pull, of a vehicle
traversing on the horizontal curve.
 To provide:
 safely and comfortably navigating
through curves at higher speeds.
 How?
 by the side friction between the
vehicle tires and the surfacing

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 SUPERELEVATION..(cont.)
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 Analysis of super elevation:-

e
1

Wv 2 F
gR

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 SUPERELEVATION…(cont.)
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 SUPERELEVATION…(cont.)
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 friction coefficients are dependent on:

 vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway surface,
weather conditions and type and condition of tires.
 maximum rate of super elevation is controlled by four
factors:
 climate conditions, terrain conditions, type of area and frequency of
vey-moving vehicles.
 In summary
 A rate of super elevation should not exceed 12%
 A rate of 4 % or 6 % is applicable for urban design in areas
with little or no constraints.
 As per ERA manual 4 % for urban and 8 % for rural.

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 SUPERLEVATION TRANSITION
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 super elevation should be introduced and removed

uniformly over the length adequate for likely travel
speeds.(comfort and safety)
 Super elevation transition section consists:
 Superelevation runoff
 tangent run out sections

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 SUPERLEVATION TRANSITION…..Cont…
23

Superelevation runoff  the length of Tangent runout  the length of

highway needed to accomplish the
change in cross slope from a section
with adverse crown (in a typical 2-
lane pavement case) removed to a
fully superelevated section, or vice
versa.
highway needed to accomplish the
change in cross slope from a normal
crown section to a section with the
adverse crown removed, or vice
versa.

(Full Superelevation)
PC Superelevation runoff
(Adverse Crown)
Tangent runout
ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C (Normal Crown)
 SUPERLEVATION TRANSITION..(cont.)
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 SUPERLEVATION TRANSITION..(cont.)
25

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 SUPER ELEVATION TRANSITION..(cont.)
26

 Minimum Length of Superelevation runoff:

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 SUPERLEVATION TRANSITION..(cont.)
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 Superelevation Runoff Location:

 On simple curves, 67 % of the Superelevation runoff normally is
developed on tangent and 33 % on circular curve.
 AASHTO suggests a range of 60 % to 90 % of the runoff placed on
the tangent is acceptable.

 On spiral curves, the Superelevation runoff transition is

normally within the entire length of the spiral (TS to SC and
CS to ST)

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 SUPERLEVATION TRANSITION..(cont.)
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 Minimum Length of Tangent Runout

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 SUPERLEVATION TRANSITION..(cont.)
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 Methods of Attaining Superelevation

 Four methods are used to transition the pavement to
a super elevated cross-section. These methods
include
 Revolving a travelled way with normal cross-slopes
about the centerline profile.
 Revolving a traveled way with normal cross-slopes
about the inside-edge profile.
 Revolving a travel way with normal cross-slope about
the outside-edge profile.
 Revolving a straight cross-slope traveled way about the
outside-edge profile.
ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C
 Methods of Attaining Superelevation…(cont.)
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 Methods of Attaining Superelevation…(cont.)
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ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Axis of rotation with a Median
32

 Case I: - the whole of the traveled way, including the median is

super elevated as a plane section. The rotation in most cases is done
about the centerline of the median. This method is used only for
highways with narrow medians and moderate super elevation
(specifically to width of 4 m or less)
 Case II: - The median is held horizontal plane and two traveled ways
are rotated separately around the median edges. This method is
used mainly for pavements with median widths of 4 m and 18 m,
although it can be used for any median.
 Case III: - the two travelled ways are treated separately for runoff
with a resulting variable difference in elevation at median edges.
This design can be used with wide medians of 18 m or more.

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Example 1
33

Calculate super elevation rate (e) for VD = 40

mph, R = 700m. fmax = 0.178
Solution : Given: VD = 40 mph, R = 700m. fmax = 0.178
e = (VD2/127R) - fmax (metric version).
e = (402/127*700) - 0.178 = 0.152 - 0.178 = -0.0256=-2.56%
Where:
VD = design speed
R = radius
e = super elevation rate
fmax= maximum side friction.

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

Example 2
► Compute the theoretical point of normal crown and the theoretical
point of full superelevation.
Given: Where:
PC = Station 870+00.00 PC = Point of Curvature
L = 115 m (Table 7, 40mph design speed) L = Length of Runoff
X = L * NC/ e = 115 * .02/.02 = 115m X = Length of Tangent Runout
NC = Normal Crown of 2%
Theoretical point of normal crown
PC - 2/3L - X = 870+00.00 - 76.67 - 115 =
Station 868+08.33

Theoretical point of full superelevation

PC + 1/3L = 870+00.00 + 38.33 =
Station 870+38.33

34 ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Widening of Curves
35

 As vehicle turns, the design vehicle occupies a greater width because

the rear wheels generally track inside front wheels (offtracking) in
negotiating curves.
 drivers experience difficulty in steering their vehicles in the center of
the lane.
 Total widening is computed by adding the mechanical widening and
psychological widening.

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Widening of Curves…(cont.)
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 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
37

Where there are sight obstructions (such as walls, cut slopes,

buildings, and longitudinal barriers) on the inside of curves or
the inside of the median lane on divided highways
make the appropriate adjustments to provide adequate sight
distance

Where sufficient stopping sight distance is not

available
(1) increase the offset to the obstruction,
(2) increase the radius,
(3) reduce the design speed.

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 SSD ON HORIZONTAL CURVES..(Cont.)
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 Example
40

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 3.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
41

 Vertical alignment is composed of a series of straight-line

gradients connected by curves, normally parabolic in form.
 direct effect on the safety and comfort of the driver
 Steep grades: slow down large, heavy vehicles in the uphill
direction and stopping ability in the downhill direction.
 Grades that are flat or nearly flat: pavement surface drains.

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Vertical Alignment

Reduced
Speed

Increased
Speed
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Engineering 2015 E.C 42
Vertical alignment

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Engineering 2015 E.C 43
 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT….(Cont.)
44

Vertical Alignment
 Objective:
 Determine elevation to ensure
 Provision of adequate site distance at all points along the profile
 Provision of adequate drainage
 Maintenance of comfortable operations
 Maintenance of reasonable aesthetics
 Primary challenge
 Grades
 Vertical curves

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 VERTICAL CURVES
45

 Vertical curves are used to provide gradual change from one

tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as
they traverse the highway.

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 VERTICAL CURVES…(cont.)
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y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)

x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)

Ex = elevation of a point on the curve

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C
 GRADES
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 the rate of rise or fall along the length of highway.

 affected by the grades provided:
 The cost of operation of vehicles, the speed of vehicles and
the capacity of a highway
 Maximum and minimum Gradients.
 minimum gradient for the usual case 0.5%

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Length of Crest Vertical Curves
48

 Minimum length of crest vertical curves based on sight distance

criteria, generally are satisfactory from the standpoint of safety,
comfort and appearance.

Use:
When the height of eye and the height of
object are 1080mm and 600mm, respectively

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Length of Crest Vertical Curves…(cont.)
49

 Stopping Sight distance:

 Use: the height of eye
and the height of object
are 1080mm and
600mm, respectively
 Passing Sight Distance:
 Use: the height of eye
and the height of object
are 1080mm and
1080mm, respectively

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
50

 The selection of minimum length of a sag vertical curve is controlled

by the following criteria:
 Headlight SSD
 Passenger Comfort
 Drainage Control
 General appearance
 A)Minimum length based on SSD (for Headlight SSD)

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Length of Sag Vertical Curves..(cont.)
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 Sight Distance at Undercrossing:

 Driver Comfort:
 L=(V2A)/395

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Length of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves Based on K factors
52

 The reciprocal L/A is the

horizontal distance in meters
needed to make 1% change
in gradient
 K = L/A
 Where
 K = limiting value, horizontal
distance required to achieve a
1% change in grade
 L = length of vertical curve (m)
 A = Algebraic difference in
approach and exit grades (%)
ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C
 Vertical Alignment Considerations
53

 Vertical Alignment Considerations:

 The profile should be smooth with gradual changes consistent
with the type of facility and the character of the surrounding
terrain.
 A ―roller-coaster‖ or ―hidden dip‖ profile should be avoided.

 Undulating grade lines involving substantial lengths of steeper

grades should be appraised for their effect on traffic
operation, since they may encourage excessive truck speeds.
 Broken-back grade lines (two vertical curves—a pair of either
crest curves or sag curves—separated by a short tangent
grade) should generally be avoided.

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 Example 1:
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Solution:

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 Solution…(cont.)
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 Example 2:
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 Example 3:
Minimum Length of a Crest Vertical Curve
59

 A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join a +3%

grade with a -2% grade at a section of a two-lane
highway. Determine the minimum length of the curve if
the design speed of the highway is 60 mi/h, S,L,and a
perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec. The deceleration
rate for braking (a) is 11.2 ft /sec2

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Solution
60

 Use the equation derived to determine the SSD

required for the design conditions. (Since the grade
changes constantly on a vertical curve, the worst-
case value for G of 3% is used to determine the
braking distance.)

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 Example 4: Minimum Length of a Sag
62
Vertical Curve
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join
a -5% grade to a +2% grade. If the design
speed is 40 mi/h, determine the minimum
length of the curve that will satisfy all
criteria. Assume a=11.2 ft /sec2 and
perception-reaction time =2.5 sec.

ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C

 Solution:
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 3.6 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
64

 implies their coordination so that the line of the road

appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation
of hazards and visual defects.
 horizontal curves will be longer than vertical curves.
 It is generally more pleasing to the driver when vertical curvature
can be superimposed on horizontal curvature.
 Sharp horizontal curves should not be introduced at or near the
top of a pronounced crest vertical curve or at or near the low
point of a pronounced sag vertical curve.
 On two-lane roadways, long tangent sections (horizontal and
vertical) are desirable to provide adequate passing sections.
 Horizontal and vertical curves should be as flat as possible at
intersections where sight distances along both roads and streets is
important and vehicles may have to slow or stop.
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 THANK YOU
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ASTU Department of Civil Engineering 2015 E.C