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Solution Manual for Social Problems, 16th Edition, William Kornblum

8
SEX AND GENDER
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
8.1 Analyze the distinction between sex and gender.

8.2 Define traditional gender roles.

8.3 Examine the roots of sexism and inequality.

8.4 Identify several examples of sexism and inequality today.

8.5 Assess the sources of sexism.

8.6 Describe the Women’s Movement and its policy agenda.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Virtually all social institutions—whether political, religious, economic, educational, or
familial—distinguish between men and women in fundamental ways. Throughout the
world, people are obsessed with perceived sex differences and these differences become a
basis on which power is distributed.

Although women have made gains across the globe, inequality still persists. In the United
States and around the world we’ve seen increasing rates of literacy and political gains.
Rates of literacy are increasing; more women are gaining political rights in more nations;
and there is an increasingly active global array of women’s organizations working to
achieve equal rights and empowerment. In many impoverished regions, it is women who
form economic cooperatives, develop women’s reproductive health clinics, carry forward
the fight for women’s political rights, and provide the greatest impetus to positive social
change and economic development.

It is important to distinguish between the terms sex and gender. The term sex refers to
biological differences and one’s role in reproduction. In contrast, the term gender refers
to the culturally and socially constructed differences, which are found in meanings,
beliefs, and practices associated with femininity and masculinity. Expectations differ

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around the globe. Although individuals may be born male or female, they learn the
culturally and socially prescribed traits associated with gender. Recently celebrities
including Chaz Bono and Caitlyn Jenner have brought more attention to transgender
issues.

Expectations about gender are in large part socially constructed. They are variable across
and within cultures, are historically situated, and reflect broad social patterns. Gender is
not completely innate or instinctive. Rather, much of it is socially and culturally
produced.

Men and women are far more alike than they are different from one another, but there are
some important biological differences. On average, males are biologically stronger, more
active, and more aggressive than females. However, in other ways, males are more
fragile. Males suffer from a wider variety of physical illnesses; infant mortality rates are
higher among males; and their life expectancy is shorter in almost all countries. Males are
afflicted with more genetic disorders and suffer from accidents at a higher rate.
Depression, however, is far more common among women. There is also some scientific
evidence that males and females may solve intellectual problems somewhat differently.
Societies, cultures, social institutions, and personal relationships tend to evaluate these
sex and gender differences, and, women are often considered “less than” men.

Sexism is the entire range of attitudes, beliefs, policies, laws, and behaviors
discriminating against women (or against men) on the basis of their gender. Male
dominance has persisted throughout the institutions of modern societies. Although
political power and coercion play an important role in this dominance, ideology is also a
key factor. In employment, gender stereotyping has impacted the careers women (and
men) choose and it also has impacted what they are paid. Women are more likely to be
concentrated in lower-status jobs at the lower end of the pay scale, despite the fact that
educational attainment for men and women is equal. Part of the explanation stems from
differences in the number of years worked, as there are more interruptions in the work
histories of women. Although the number of women in traditionally male-dominated
occupations has increased, they are still paid less than their male counterparts. For
minority women, there is an even wider wage gap.

Sexism is widespread and is found in virtually every society; however, it is more

pronounced in some societies than in others. Female genital mutilation is among the more
extreme examples of sexism, but standards of beauty as well as rape, sexual assault, and
harassment are also indicators of sexism. Nearly 1.8 million cosmetic surgery procedures
were performed in 2016, and nearly 90 percent of cosmetic surgery patients are women.
Women who have cosmetic surgery have internalized the media messages about “ideal”
women’s body image and are dissatisfied with their own bodies.

American institutions reinforce and perpetuate sexism in a number of ways. Much of our
behavior and attitudes about sex and gender are learned through socialization.
Socialization occurs within families, the education system, organized religion, in
language and the media, and among peers. In addition, religion, government, and legal

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systems reinforce this socialization.

The women’s movement has highlighted the importance of changes in social and political
policy needed to combat sexism. Changes are needed in child-rearing, education, and our
legal system. Reproductive rights and gay rights are also issues that are having an impact
on policy. In coming years, the women’s movement is likely to focus on single-parent
families and, within this group, the special needs of low-income, female-headed families.
It is important to highlight changes in men’s roles over the past few decades, which have
often been eclipsed by a focus on women’s rights. Men are learning that suppressing
emotions can be harmful and can lead to violent behavior and drug and alcohol abuse.
Numerous books have recently been published addressing the “boy crisis.”

LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Is It Sex or Gender?
A. Sex refers to biological differences and one’s role in reproduction
1. Intersex results from chromosomal or hormonal imbalances during
the prenatal stage
B. Gender refers to culturally and socially constructed differences between
males and females
C. Gender is socially constructed
1. In most societies throughout the world and throughout history, men
and women have been viewed as far more different than alike
2. Expectations about gender differ around the globe
D. Sex differences
1. Important to note that the biological differences between men and
women extend beyond those necessary for reproduction
2. Many studies suggest that on average, compared to females, males
are biologically:
a) Stronger
b) More active
c) More aggressive
d) More fragile
E. Incongruence between sex and gender
1. Transgender people manifest characteristics, behaviors, or self-
expressions associated typically with the other sex
2. They may feel that inside that they are truly the other sex
a) Transgender women are not usually as obvious in Western
cultures because women are allowed more leeway to
behave in traditionally masculine ways
b) Recent transitions by celebrities have brought more
acceptance and attention to the issue
F. The social evaluation of sex and gender: around the globe, women are
often considered “less than” men

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III. Traditional Gender Roles
A. Until the early 1970s, it was widely accepted that:
1. Primary desirable roles for a woman were wife, mother, and
homemaker
2. Entire life should revolve around these roles
3. Women were expected to be nurturing and skilled in the emotional
aspects of personal relationships
B. Today many people think of these roles for women and men as outdated
C. But outdated beliefs change slowly and vestiges of these gendered roles
remain

IV. The Roots of Sexism and Inequality

A. Sexism is defined as the “entire range of attitudes, beliefs, policies, laws,
and behaviors discriminating against women (or against men) on the basis
of their [sex or] gender”
B. Power, male homogony, and patriarchy
1. Patriarchy is a form of social organization in which men dominate
and have power and authority over women.
2. Internalized sexism or internalized misogyny is when women
undervalue the work of other women, and tolerate, or even
encourage, the sexual objectification of women
C. Stereotyping
1. Attributing a fixed and usually unfavorable and inaccurate
conception to a category of people
2. Stereotypes often make it easier to justify unequal treatment of
stereotyped person or group
3. Both men and women can be stereotyped

V. Examples of Sexism and Inequality Today

A. Female genital mutilation
1. Clitoridectomy is a procedure in which the clitoris is cut out of the
body
2. With infibulation, not only is the clitoris removed, but the vaginal
lips are also cut or scraped away, and the outer labia are stitched
together, leaving only a miniscule opening for menstrual blood and
urine to escape the body
3. The practice is deeply rooted in the patriarchal traditions (rather
than religious teachings) in these societies
B. Sexist standards of beauty
1. Nearly 90 percent of cosmetic surgery patients are women
2. Women who have cosmetic surgery have internalized the media
messages about “ideal” women’s body image and are dissatisfied
with their own bodies
C. Women in the labor force
1. Women are concentrated in lower-status jobs at the lower end of
the pay scale

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 2. Differences continue even among those who are most educated
3. What accounts for these pay differences?
a) Women may work fewer hours, as they still do the majority
of housework and child care
b) Labor market segmentation—men and women usually
work in different types of jobs
c) Women tend to work in less prestigious, nonunionized, and
lower-paying jobs than men
D. Rape, sexual assault, and harassment
1. Definition of rape has expanded over time
a) Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus
with any body part or object, or
b) Oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without
the consent of the victim
2. Nearly 1 in 5 women in the United States has been raped in her
lifetime, as compared with 1 in 71 men
E. Sexual assault may include:
1. Rape
2. Also includes other types of behavior, such as:
a) Unwanted physical contact (e.g., grabbing or pinching a
woman’s breasts)
b) Or noncontact, unwanted sexual experiences (flashing)
(1) Unwanted sexual contact is most often committed
by an acquaintance
(2) Noncontact, unwanted sexual experiences initiated
by strangers
c) These crimes are often not reported to the police out of fear
or shame
d) College students are particularly vulnerable to rape sexual
assault, harassment, and stalking due to:
(1) Their age
(2) Group living quarters
(3) The party atmosphere at many universities
(4) Increase in use of date rape drugs

VI. Sources of Sexism

A. Socialization
1. Family members
2. Toys
3. Peers
4. Mass media
B. Organized religion
1. Religious hierarchies, churches, and synagogues tend to reinforce
women’s subordinate role
2. Some changes, including movements to allow women to hold
leadership positions in churches and synagogues, have had some

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 success
C. The government and legal system
1. Many legal barriers to sexual equality throughout history
a) Some laws meant to protect employed women actually
limited them
b) Laws regarding birth control blocked women’s control over
their fertility
c) Most have been struck down

VII. Social Policy

A. The women’s movement
1. Officially founded in 1848, when a women’s rights convention
held in Seneca, New York with 300 attendees
2. Resurgence of the movement in the 1960s occurred in a context of
widespread social change
3. National Organization for Women (NOW) was founded
B. Need to recognize changes in men’s roles

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, DISCUSSION QUESTIONS, AND

CLASS EXERCISES
1. Have students analyze the gender composition of leaders of the Fortune 1000
companies. Fortune magazine usually provides an annual list of the top
corporations, their CEOs, and earnings. Ask students to make a list of the number
of companies that have female CEOs.

2. One important source of sexism is socialization. Have students investigate the

ways in which sex-role socialization works by engaging in one or more of the
following activities:

a. Go to a department store and visit the baby department to look at clothes,

blankets, and other “layette” items to observe whether the styles and
colors are clearly designed for boys or for girls. They could also examine
baby’s toys for these differences.

b. Go to a greeting card store and look at congratulatory cards for new

parents. They can note the colors used, contents of pictures, and messages
on the cards to see if there are differences between those for parents of
boys and those of girls.

c. If students know anyone who has a baby (or babies), they can observe how
the baby is dressed, what toys are in the infant’s presence, and then ask the
parents to comment on the basis of their choices. They can also ask the
parents if they received gifts of clothing or toys for their babies that they
exchanged because they did not seem suitable for their boy or girl.

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3. A useful exercise in elevating self-awareness about sexual identity and for
generating class discussion about gender roles is to have students respond in
writing (and anonymously) to the question “How would your life be different if
you were a member of the opposite sex?” Instruct students to write “Male” or
“Female” at the top of their paper. Allow 15 to 20 minutes for students to
respond. If the class size permits, read each of the students’ responses aloud; if the
class is too large, read every other response (in either case, sort the responses into
“Male” and “Female” groups; this intensifies the dramatic differences in
responses between the sexes). Have the class react to these responses—prepare
yourself for some emotional reactions.

4. Point out to students that men are underrepresented in four predominantly female
professions: nursing, elementary school teaching, librarianship, and social work.
Ask them if they perceive any advantages for men who work in these
professions—do they suspect that men in these career fields are discriminated
against? Some research suggests that men do not face discrimination in these
occupations; however, they do encounter prejudice from individuals outside their
professions. In contrast to the experience of women who enter male-dominated
professions, men generally encounter structural advantages in these occupations
that tend to enhance their careers. Because men face different barriers to
integrating nontraditional occupations than women do, the need for different
remedies to dismantle segregation in predominantly female jobs is emphasized.

5. Have teams of students choose a country in which female genital mutilation is

widely practiced and have them develop a culturally sensitive program designed
to reduce or eliminate this procedure. They should think of both micro-level and
macro-level solutions.

6. Invite a representative to class from a rape crisis center in your community. They
likely have a presentation about sexual assault that is targeted to college-age
students.

7. Show a video about male gender roles, such as Tough Guise. Have students
respond in writing about the extent to which they believe this portrayal accurately
affects boys today.

8. Ask students to identify a list of standards of beauty in vogue today. Then identify
some from the past. How these standards have changed over the years. In what
ways are they sexist?

SUGGESTED ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Are traditional gender roles positive or negative? Explain.

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Solution Manual for Social Problems, 16th Edition, William Kornblum

2. Describe and discuss some of the attitudes and practices that are part of sexism in
our society.

3. List and describe the various sources of sexism.

4. Describe the consequences of sexism for both men and women.

5. Discuss the concept of gender identity; contrast this with sexual identity.

6. Discuss issues regarding the increase in attention to transgender individuals.

7.
7. Discuss the various changes necessary for the elimination of sexism.

8. Discuss the women’s movement and assess the extent to which it has been
successful, in light of the patterns described in this chapter.

9. Examine changes in men’s roles in families and at work.

REVEL RESOURCES
Current Event Bulletin
Watch: Gender Identity: Meant to Be Maddie
Watch: Senegal: Beyond Tradition
Table 8–4 Women’s Earnings as a Percentage of Men’s Earnings, 1980–2016
Figure 8–2 Women and Men's Earnings, by Age, 2016
Watch: A Conversation about Sexual Aggression and Violence
Figure 8–3 Lifetime Reports of Sexual Violence Among Female Victims by Type of
Perpetrator
Watch: Sexual Assault on Campus
Table 8–7 Preference for a Son versus a Daughter
Watch: Shout Your Abortion
Survey: Views on Gender Equality

8
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