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Q. 1 Write the properties of canal rays.

(Examiner may ask to write properties of proton)
ANSWER.
1. They travel in straight lines and cast shadow of the object placed in their path.
2. These rays are deflected by magnetic and electric fields in the opposite direction to that of
cathode rays.
3. The canal rays produce mechanical and heating effects.
4. The charge to mass ratio is smaller than that of the electrons showing that these particles are
heavier than the cathode ray particles.
1. The charge to mass ratio depends upon the nature of the gas.
2. The positive particle from hydrogen is 1837 times heavier than the electron. This positively
charged particle was called proton.
Important Points:
1. The positive particles obtained from hydrogen gas are called 'protons'. It comes from the Greek
word 'Proteios' meaning 'of first importance'.
2. The proton has a mass equal to that of hydrogen atom, which is equal to 1.67 x 10-24 g or 1.0073
amu while it has an unit positive charge of +1.602 x 10-19 C.
For Student guidance only:
The e/m ratio of the anode rays obtained from hydrogen gas was found to be highest and equivalent
to 9.58 x 104 C g-1. These particles carried a charge of 1.602 x 10-19 C. Thus, the mass of the positive
particle from hydrogen gas is,

e 1.062  10−19 C
= −1
= 1.67  10−24 g
e / m 958  10 Cg 4

As the mass of the electron is 9.1 x 10-28 g, the ratio of the mass of positive particle obtained from
hydrogen to the mass of an electron is,
1.67  10−24 g
= 1837
9.1  1028 g
The positive particle from hydrogen is 1837 times heavier than the electron. This positively charged
particle was called proton. The proton is produced by the loss of an electron from a neutral hydrogen
atom and is thus a hydrogen ion H+. The mass of H is found to be 1837 times that of an electron and so
the mass of the proton is nearly the same as that of a hydrogen atom.

Q. 2 Compare the characteristics of electrons, protons and neutrons

Characteristics of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
Particle Electron Proton Neutron
Symbol E p n
Nature Negatively Positively charged Neutral
charged
Relative charge -1 +1 0
Absolute charge 1.6 x 10 C
-19 1.6 x 10 C
-19 0
Relative mass 1/1840 amu 1 amu 1 amu
Absolute mass 9 x 10-24 g 1.6 x 10-24 g 1.6 x 10-24 g

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Q. 3 Write the main features of Rutherford’s atomic model.

ANSWER. Rutherford compared the structure of an atom to the solar system i.e., just as in the
solar system, the Sun is having the maximum mass and planets revolve around it, similarly in an atom,
the nucleus forms the main mass of atom and electrons revolve around it.
Main pints of Rutherford’s atomic model:
3. The atom of an element consists of a small, positively charged nucleus in the centre, which
carries almost the entire mass of the atom.
4. The electrons are revolving around the nucleus at high speed.
5. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons. Hence it is electrically
neutral.
6. The volume of the nucleus is negligibly small compared to the volume of the atom.
7. Most of the space in the atom is empty.
Important point: The volume occupied by the nucleus is about 10-12 times the volume of the atom.

Q. 4 Write about drawback of Rutherford's atomic model.

ANSWER.
8. Rutherford’s model was based on law of gravitation and motion, which are applicable to neutral
bodies. For charge particles, Coulomb’s laws are used.
9. Rutherford proposed that electrons revolve at high speed in circular orbits around the positively
charged nucleus. But according to the electromagnetic theory, if a charged particle were
accelerated around another charged particle then there would be a continuous radiation of
energy. The loss of energy would slow down the speed of the electron and eventually the
electron would fall into the nucleus. But such a collapse does not occur. Rutherford's model was
unable to explain it.

10. If loss of radiation is continuous, than spectrum should be continuous but atomic spectrum is
always line spectrum
Q. 5 Write main postulates of Bohr’s atomic model.
(Bohr’s atomic model for hydrogen atom)
ANSWER. In 1913, Neils Bohr proposed a model of an atom based on the Planck's quantum theory
of radiation. The basic postulates of Bohr's theory are:
11. An atom consists of a small, heavily positively charged nucleus around which electrons revolve
in definite circular paths called orbits.
12. These orbits are associated with definite energies called energy shells/energy levels. They are
designated as K, L, M, N, …. etc. shells or numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, …..etc. from the nucleus.
13. As long as the electron remains in a particular orbit /energy shell its energy remains constant.
This accounts for the stability of an atom.

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14. Only those orbits are permitted in which angular momentum of the electron is a whole number
h
multiple of where h is Plancks constant. Any moving body taking a circular orbit has an
2
angular momentum equal to the product of its mass (m), velocity of movement (v) and radius of
orbit (r). In other words the angular momentum of an electron
h
mvr = n , where'n' = 1,2,3,
2
15. Electrons can either lose or absorb energy abruptly, when they jump from one energy level to
another. For instance when an electron moves from the 'normal or ground state - E1' of an atom
i.e., the state of lowest energy as required by its 'n' and 'l' values, to a higher level, it causes the
atom to be in its 'excited state - E2' i.e., where electrons in an atom occupy energy levels higher
than those permitted by its 'n' and 'l' values. The reverse is also true and the change in energy is
E, E = E2 − E1 = h

Q. 6 How the radius of hydrogen atom can be calculated by the help of Bohr’s atomic model.
(Examiner may ask What is radius of hydrogen atom?you can derive it from atomic model)
ANSWER. Hydrogen atom consist of one electron revolving aroung the nucleus( having one
proton)
v

e
r

Consider an electron of charge e revolving in an orbit of raius r. the centrifugal force acting on electron
mv 2
is F = ⎯⎯ → (1)
r
The electcastatic force(according to Coulomb’s laws ) of attraction between electron and nucleus is
given as
Ze  e
F= or F = Ze2 /4o r2 → (2)
4o r 2

Where Ze is nuclear charge and 0 (Epsilon not) is vacuum permittivity.

Its value is 8.84  10−12 C2J−1m −1 . By equating above two equations, we have
mv 2 Ze2 Ze2
= OR V2 = → ( 3)
r 4 r2 4rm
From Bohr theory we have
nh
mVr =
2
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nh
v=
2mr

By squaring V 2 = n2h2 /4m2r2 → ( 4 )

By Comparing eq (3) and ( 4 ) we get
Ze2 n 2 h2 r2 n2h2  4o m o h2 2
=  2 2
4o rm 4 m r
OR
r
=
42m2  Ze2
OR r=
me2
( n /Z ) ……….. (5)

For Hydrogen Z = 1, So r =o h2n2 / me2

Eq (5) tells that radius of an orbit is
directly Proportional to n2 ( Square of number of orbit ).
h2 o
The factor is constant. Its value is 0.529A or 0.529 10−10 m
me2
( )
Hence r = 0.529 n2 A
n = 1,r1 = 0.529(1) = 0.529A
2
If
n = 2,r2 = 0.529(2) = 2.11A
2

n = 3,r2 = 0.529(3) = 4.75A

2

n = 4,r4 = 0.529 ( 4 ) = 8.4A

2

We see that distance between orbits goes on increasing when we move from Ist orbit to higher orbit.
It means that r2 − r1  r3 − r2  r4 − r3  − − − − −
Q. 7 Calculate the energy of electron on the bases of Bohr’s atomic model.
ANSWER. Total energy (E) of electron in an orbit is equal to the sum of its kinetic energy due to
motion and potential energy due to interaction with the nucleus. Thus; E = K.E + P.E -----1
1
Since, K.E = mv2 -----------2
2
Relation for potential energy is
1 qq
P.E = −  1 2
4 r

For nucleus (charge Ze) and electron (charge e) the relation is modified as
Ze.e
P.E = −
4 r

Ze2
P.E = − ⎯⎯
→ (3)
4 r

Inserting the values of K.E and P.E in equation (1)

1  Ze2 
E = mv 2 +  − 
2  4 r 

mv 2 Ze2
 E= −
2 4o r

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Ze2
Since, 2
v =
4 rm
m Ze2 Ze2 Ze2  1 
E=  − = −1
2 4 rm 4 r 4r  2 

Ze2  1 
E= −
4 r  2 

Ze2
 E= −
8o r

n2
Since, r = 5.39 x 10-11 (m)
Z
Ze2  Z
E=−
8 n2  5.39  10−11

 e2  Z2
E = − −11  2
 8   5.39  10 n

Where;
e2
−11
= constant = 2.18  10−18 J
8 5.39  10

Z2
E = – 2.18  10-18
n2
For hydrogen Z (atomic number) = 1
1
E = −2.18  10-18 2 J/atom
n
1
E = −1313  2 kJ / mol
n
The following sequence shows that how these calculations from J/atom to kJ/mol are carried out.
1
E = −2.18  10-18 2 J
n
1
E = −2.18  10-18  J /atom
n2
1
E = −2.18  10-18  10−3  kJ /atom
n2
1 1
E = −2.18  10-18  3
 6.022  1023  2 kJ / mol
10 n
1
E = −13.13  10−18−3+23 
n2

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1
E = −13.13  102  KJ/mol
n2
For 1st orbital of hydrogen
E = - 1313 KJ/mol
Q. 8 Define atomic orbital, how you can distinguished between orbit and orbital?
ANSWER. According to wave mechanics, we cannot simply say that the electron exists at a
particular point but we talk about certain regions in space around the nucleus where the probability
of finding the electron is maximum. Such regions are expressed by mathematical expressions and are
called orbital wave functions or commonly known as orbitals. Therefore, the wave equation leads to
the concept of orbitals instead of well-defined circular orbits.
An orbital may be defined as the region in space around the nucleus where the probability of finding
the electron is maximum.
If a boundary is drawn which encloses a region where there is high probability (about 90 - 95%) of
finding the electron, the figure obtained gives the general picture of an orbital. However, it is difficult
to draw the real picture of an orbital. For the sake of simplicity, it may be represented as shown in the
figure given below.

The orbital is indicated by dotted figure representing electron cloud.

Comparison between orbit and orbital.
Orbit Orbital
An orbit is a well defined circular path around An orbital is a region in space around the
the nucleus, in which the electron revolves nucleus, where the probability of finding the
electron is maximum. It maybe dumb bell or
spherical in shape
It represents the movement of an electron It represents a three dimensional motion of an
around the nucleus in one plane electron around the nucleus
The position as well as the momentum can be The uncertainity principle holds good with
known with certainty in a orbit respect to position and velocity. An orbital has
the concept of most probable regions where the
probability of locating the electron is maximum
It can accommodate a maximum of 2n electrons This can accommodate only two electrons with
2

where ‘n’ is the number of the orbit paired spins

Q. 9 Describe the shape of s,p and d orbitals.
(dear student examiner amy ask aboput only s,p or d)

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ANSWER. Shapes of s orbitals: s orbitals are non-directional and spherically symmetrical, This
means that the probability of finding the electron is same in all directions at a particular distance from
the nucleus, The 1s orbital is shown in the figure

It is observed that density of charge cloud is maximum at the nucleus and decreases with increase in
distance from the nucleus. The 2s orbital is also non-directional and spherically symmetrical. In this
case, the density is maximum at the nucleus and becomes small at large distances. However, the
effective volume or size of 2s is larger than 1s orbital
Shapes of p orbitals: For p-orbitals (l=1), there are three possible orientations corresponding to m =
-1, 0, +1 values. This means that there are three p - orbitals in each p-subshell. These are designated as
px, py and pz; For e.g., 2px, 2py and 2pz.

These three orbitals are equal in energy but differ in their orientations. Each orbital consists of two
lobes symmetrical about a particular axis. Depending upon the orientation of the lobes, these are
designated as 2px, 2py and 2pz, as they are symmetrical about x, y and z-axes respectively.
Shapes of d orbitals: For d-orbital (l = 2), there are five possible orientations corresponding to m = -
2, -1, 0, + 1, +2. This means that there are five orbitals in each d-subshell. For 3d subshell, these are
designated as 3dxy, 3dyz, 3dxz, 3dx2- y2 and 3dz2. These five orbitals are equal in energy but differ in their
orientations. The shapes of 3d orbitals are shown in the figure.

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For Students guidance only:

16. The three orbitals dxy, dyz, and dzx are similar and each consists of four lobes of high electron
density lying in xy, yz and zx planes respectively. These lobes lie in between the principal axes.
For e.g., in case of dxy orbital, the four lobes lie in xy plane in between the x and y-axes
17. The dx2- y2 orbital has also four lobes of high electron density along the principal axes x and y. It
may be noted that this orbital is exactly like dxy orbital except that it is rotated through 45o
around the z-axis.
18. The dz2 orbital consists of two lobes along the z-axis with ring of high electron density in the xy
plan.
Q. 10 How many types of quantum numbers? how they can tell us about shape and
orientation of orbital? explain your answer.
ANSWER. Quantum Numbers:
The relation of a particular electron to the nucleus can be described through a series of four numbers,
called the Quantum Numbers. The first three of these numbers describe the energy (Principle
quantum number), shape (Angular momentum quantum number), and orientation of the orbital
(magnetic quantum number). The fourth number represents the "spin" of the electron (spin quantum
number). The four quantum numbers are described below.
1. Principle Quantum Number (n)
The principle quantum number indicates how the distance of the orbital from the nucleus. Electrons
are farther away for higher values of n. Electrons are negatively charged, so electrons that are closer
to the positively charged nucleus are more powerfully attracted and tightly bound than those that are
farther away. Electrons that are closer to the nucleus are thus more stable, and less likely to be lost by
the atom. In other words, as n increases, so does the energy of the electron and the likelihood of that
electron being lost by the atom. In a given atom, all the atomic orbitals with the same n are collectively
known as a shell. n can take on integer values of 1 or higher (ex. 1, 2, 3, etc.).
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
(Angular Momentum Quantum number)
The angular momentum quantum number describes the shape and energy of the orbital. The angular
momentum number (or subshell) can be represented either by a number (any integer from 0 up to n-
1) or by a letter (s, p, d, f, g, and then up the alphabet), with 0 corresponding to s, 1 to p, 2 to d, and so
on.
For example:
When n = 1, l can only equal 0; meaning that shell n = 1 has only an s orbital (l = 0).
When n = 3, l can equal 0, 1, or 2; meaning that shell n = 3 has s, p, and d orbitals.
s orbitals are spherical, whereas p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped. d orbitals and beyond are much
harder to visually represent.

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Figure: s and p atomic orbital shapes

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
Gives the orientation of the orbital in space; in other words, the value of m describes whether an
orbital lies along the x-, y-, or z-axis on a three-dimensional graph, with the nucleus of the atom at the
origin. m can take on any value from -l to l. For our purposes, it is only important that this quantum
number tells us that for each value of n there may be up to one s-orbital, three p-orbitals, five d-
orbitals, and so on. For example:
The s orbital (l = 0) has one orbital, since m can only equal 0. That orbital is spherically symmetrical
about the nucleus.

Figure: s orbital
The p orbital (l = 1) has three orbitals, since m = -1, 0, and 1. These three orbitals lie along the x-, y-,
and z-axes.

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Figure: p orbitals
The d orbital (l = 2) has five orbitals, since m = -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2. It is far more difficult to describe the
orientation of d orbitals, as you can see:

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Figure: d orbitals
4. Spin Quantum Number (s)
The spin quantum number tells whether a given electron is spin up (+1/2) or spin down (-1/2). An
orbital contains two electrons, and each of those electrons must have different spins.
Note: no need to draw shapes of s, p or d in final examination if examiner ask just about quantum
number, these are for students guidance .
Q. 11 Write a detail note on electronic configuration.
(Examiner may ask only about Aufbua principle, Pauli’s Exclusion principle or Hund’s rule)
ANSWER. The distribution of electrons in different orbitals is known as its electronic
configuration. This characterizes each electron in an atom. The electronic configuration is expressed
by indicating the principal quantum number and its respective orbital along with the number of
electrons present in it. For example the notation 3px1 indicates that in the third principal shell there
is one electron in the 'px' orbital.
Sometimes the electronic configuration is also described by box notation form i.e., putting an arrow
for single electron in a box or a pair of arrows for two electrons in a box. The direction of the arrows
gives the orientation of its spin.
Further the box is labeled on top by writing the symbol of the orbital.

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Rules for Filling the Orbitals

5. Aufbau principle: The principle states that the electron in an atom are so arranged that they
occupy orbitals in the order of their increasing energy. Since the energy of a 'n' orbital in the
absence of any magnetic field depends on the 'n' and 'l' quantum number values, the order of
filling orbitals with electrons may be obtained from the (n + l) rule of Bohr Bury's rule.
According to this principle the orbital with the lowest energy will be filled first. The orbital having
lower (n + l) value has lower energy. However for orbitals whose (n + l) values are equal, the orbital
having lower value of 'n' has lower energy. It is important to remember that because of this rule, this
sequence of energy levels pertains to energy level up to '3p' and thereafter, '4s' orbitals comes first
instead of '3d'. Thus, the orbitals should be filled in the order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p,
6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s

6. Pauli's exclusion principle: The Paulis exclusion principle states, that no two electrons in an
atom can have the same values of all the four quantum numbers. If one electron in the atom has
the quantum numbers n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 and s = +1/2, no other electron can have the same four
quantum numbers. In other words, we cannot place two electrons with the same value of 's' in a
'1s' orbital.
Secondly, each orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons only if their spins are of
opposite directions. Each sub shell holds a maximum of two electrons in an orbital.
Note: It can be inferred that the maximum number of orbital in each shell is n 2 and the maximum
number of electrons is 2n2.
7. Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity: It states that when more than one orbital of equal
energies are available then the electrons will first occupy these orbitals separately with parallel
spins. The pairing of electrons will start only after all the orbitals of a given sub level are singly
occupied. This is because electrons with parallel spins tend to be as far apart as possible to
minimize the electrostatic repulsion.

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For example, the three electrons that are filled into the three 'p' orbitals can be represented in two
different ways:

Exercise Atomic Structure

A Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ’s)

8. Which of the following constitutes the stream of cathode rays.
a. protons b. Electrons c. x-rays d. -particles Ans. b. Electrons
9. Which one of the following is visible electromagnetic wave
a. violet. b. ultraviolet c. microwave d. x-rays. Ans. a violet
10. Angular momentum of electron in an orbit is.
a. mvr = h/. b. mvr = nh/2. c. mv = n/2. d. mr = nh/2
Ans. b. mvr = nh/2.
11. Which type of photon has the highest energy
a. infrared. b. red. c. x-rays. d. U-V. Ans. c. x-rays.
12. Which one of the following wavelengths of high falls in visible range?
a. 2 nm. b. 900 nm. c. 100 nm. d. 500 nm. Ans. d. 500 nm
13. What is the frequency of light with the wavelengths of 400 nm.
a. 7.5X1014Hz. b. 7.5X1015Hz. c. 6X1014Hz. d. 6.5X1015. Ans. a. 7.5X1014Hz
14. The frequency of the radio broad casting is 105 M Hz, what will be its .
a. 2.0m. b. 2.85m. c. 285m. d. 28.5m. Ans. b. 2.85m.
15. Calculate the De-Broglie wavelength of a proton moving at 350 km.s-1.
a. 1.41X10-9. b. 3X10-10m. c. 1.18X110-12m. d. 1.0X10-11m. Ans. d. 1.0X10-11m.
16. What is the change in energy level of a hydrogen atom when an electron falls from n=6
state to the n=1 state
a. 21.2X10-18 J. b. 3.0X10-18 J c. -2.12X10-18 J. d. 2.12X10-18 J. Ans. d. 2.12X10-18 J.
17. What is the frequency of light emitted when a hydrogen atom changes energy state from
n=7 to n=5 state?
a. 6.45X1013Hz. b. 1.65X1015Hz. c. 2.65X1015Hz. d. 1.88X1014Hz.
Ans. a. 6.45X1013Hz
18. How many sub shells are present in the n=3 shell?
a. 4. b. 3. c. 5. d. 2. Ans. b. 3.
19. What two quantum numbers are permissible for a 3-p orbital. (n,l).
a. 2.1. b. 2.2. c. 3.1 d. 3.2 Ans. c 3.1
20. How many orbital are present in 7d sub shell.
a. 3. b. 14 c. 4 d. 5 Ans. d. 5
21. Nitrogen has three unpaired electrons according to:
a. Hund’s rule. b. Aufbau principle. c. Pauli’s Exclusion principle. d. Thumb rule.
Ans. a. Hund’s rule
22. The azimuthal quantum number of the 17th electron of Cl atom is:
a. 2. b. 1. c. 0. d. 3. Ans. b. 1
23. How many electrons can be present in n=4 with l=3.
a. 2. b. 6. c. 14. d. 10. Ans. c. 14.

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24. Determine the electronic configuration of an atom X having four set of quantum numbers
for the valence electron as follow; n=4, l=1, m=1, ms=+1/2
a. x:1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2,4p1. b. x:1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2
c. x:1s ,2s ,2p ,3s ,3p
2 2 6 2 1 d. x:1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6
Ans. a (x:1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2,4p1)

Remember In your Prayers ☺ Faiz Ul Hassan

Keep Calm and study Hard ☺ Alchemist

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