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A critical review on occurrence, distribution, environmental impacts and

biodegradation of microplastics

Article in Journal of Environmental Biology · August 2023

DOI: 10.22438/jeb/44/5/MRN-5099

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JEB Journal of Environmental Biology

p-ISSN: 0254-8704 • e-ISSN: 2394-0379 • CODEN: JEBIDP
Journal website : www.jeb.co.in « E-mail : editor@jeb.co.in
Triveni Enterprises
(Educational Services Set-up)

Review Article
DOI : http://doi.org/10.22438/jeb/44/5/MRN-5099

A critical review on occurrence, distribution,

py
environmental impacts and biodegradation
of microplastics
G.P. Avinash, S. Karthick Raja Namasivayam* and R.S. Arvind Bharani
Department of Research & Innovation, Saveetha School of Engineering, Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai-602 105, India
*Corresponding Author Email : biologiask@gmail.com

Received: 22.10.2022
Co
Revised: 02.02.2023

Abstract
*ORCiD: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2894-1905

Accepted: 28.02.2023

Microplastics are small plastic particles (<5mm) linked by hydrocarbon atoms. Microplastics are of two types: primary microplastics, which are
inadvertently released into the ecosystem as microbeads, plastic pellets and plastic fibres and secondary microplastics, derived from primary
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microplastics, when macroplastics get decomposed in the presence of UV light or weathering. Sources of contamination by microplastics can be
classified as Terrestrial sources and Aquatic
Sources. Microplastics are widespread in diverse
ecosystems and are spread in different parts of the
world, like India, China, Brazil and Malaysia.
Macroplastics Intake by
Recent studies have revealed the toxic
Aquatic Species
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effects of microplastics on various biotic and abiotic Degradation due to

components. Microplastics can be completely various physical and
removed from the soil by microbial biodegradation, chemical facotrs
most preferably bacteria, actinobacteria and fungi.
Bacteria, the recurring group of microbes, can degrade Intake by plants
pollutants. Actinobacteria, a commonly occurring Bacteria
Gram-positive bacterium, degrade polymer Microplastics
On

accumulation. Followed by bacteria, fungi are a major

group of microorganisms known to degrade
microplastics. The current review deals with the type Biodegradation
Primary Secondary Fungi
of plastics, their sources, distribution, environmental
impacts and degradation using biological methods,
preferably microbes, which would further help in
Aerobic Anaerobic
understanding the microplastic-mediated adverse
effects' molecular mechanism and their removal from Actinobacteria
the environment using Green Technology.
Key words: Biodegradation, Microbes, Microplastics, Toxicity

How to cite : Avinash, G.P., S. Karthick Raja Namasivayam and R.S. Arvind Bharani: A critical review on occurrence, distribution, environmental impacts and
biodegradation of microplastics. J. Environ. Biol., 44, 655-664 (2023).

© Triveni Enterprises, Lucknow (India) Journal of Environmental Biology September 2023 Vol. 44 655-664
656 G.P. Avinash et al.: Microplastics impact and biodegradation
Introduction
Microplastics are tiny plastic particles <5 mm in size,
known to cause diverse effects on various biotic and abiotic
components of an ecosystem. From an analytical standpoint,
microplastics cover fundamental particles within the micrometre
range (1μm – 1mm). Hydrocarbon atoms are linked in polymers to
form microplastics. Compounds like phthalates, polybrominated
diphenyl ethers, tetrabromobisphenol A and many other
chemicals are released from the plastics when discharged in the
environment. Microplastic is a new term, and researchers have
begun to analyse the possible threat to human health posed by
their exposure. To evaluate their phytotoxicity, Rahman et al.
(2021) conducted a research investigation to get a broad idea
towards this emerging field in an attempt to understand its basic
definition, importance related to the definition, and investigate
gaps in the existing knowledge base. After a brief investigation of
massive "landfills" inside the world's major oceanic gyres, the
major issue of microplastics (1 to 5,000 m particles) drew public
attention. Issues were expressed concerning the hazardous
effects of micorplastics on marine life and human health. The
incineration of plastic debris, leading to global warming and
organic chemicals, illustrates the key concern of the polluted
atmosphere worldwide. Microplastics come in various shapes
and sizes, including domains, particles and fibres (Fig.1).
Bhuyan (2022) reported occurrence of microplastics in
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various biotic, abiotic components of diverse ecosystems.
Contamination of oceans and rivers due to microplastics is a
growing threat to the environment owing to their slow degradation
rate, biological intake by aquatic organisms, and acting as
operators to focus and transfer artificial organic material (toxic
organic contaminants) from the surroundings to aquatic life such
as fishes (Jiang, 2017). Since 1980, a patent holder had already
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permitted the need for microbeads in detoxifying products; there
has been a considerable rise in the demand for microplastics,
primarily in cosmetics. Previously, these products contained ground
almonds, oatmeal, or pumice (Cverenkárová et al., 2021). Since the
debate on microplastics has persisted till now, it is necessary to
analyse the types of microplastics, their source and distribution, and
their impact on the environment. This review article further focuses
On
on the remediation of microplastics using biological methods.
Types, sources and distribution of microplastics:
Microplastics differ in size, structure and chemical components in
the aquatic environments, which is well reflected on the sand,
seafloor, seawater and animals (Smith et al., 2018). Sources of
occurrence of contamination by microplastics are broadly
classified as terrestrial and aquatic. As the American Academy of
Dermatology recommended, natural scrubs were broadly
substituted by rough scrubs with minute microbeads in the
primary microplastics, causing lighter skin irritations. However,
producers have investigated alternate treatments, namely
pulverised fruit pits, nut shells, salt and sugar with analogous
rubbing capabilities without damaging the environment.
Additionally, there is a risk of accidental exposure and spillover of
¨ Journal of Environmental Biology, September 2023¨
plastic resins during land transportation, loading/unloading,
trimming and tooling techniques in the production of plastics.
Primary microplastics are polymers discharged into the
environment as tiny particles. Examples of primary microplastics
include use of microbeads in cosmeceuticals, plastic pellets and
plastic fibres in various synthetic products (Boucher and Friot,
2017). Since they are intentionally designed to be small, synthetic
materials used in textiles are also considered major
microplastics. Fibres are among the most readily available
groups of plastic components found in the environment. Regular
py
cleaning of garments, both at industries and domestic level, is a
major source of microplastic fibres. With the high cylinder volume
of conventional washing machines, upto 19,000 fibres might be
liberated by a simple rinse of only ten items. Cosmetic
manufacturers frequently use microbeads in a variety of their
commodities (Crawford and Quinn 2017).
Co
Secondary microplastics are polymers that form when
bigger plastic items degrade into smaller plastic fragments in the
marine environment. Splitting of macroplastics due to
weathering, wave action, wind abrasion and UV radiation from
sunlight release secondary microplastics, which are discharged
directly into the aquatic systems from seashores, rivers, and
sewage pipes due to photodegradation and deterioration
mechanisms of improper waste, namely discarded plastic bags,
or accidental fatalities, such as fishing nets. Investigation of
primary microplastics with current data is crucial (Boucher and
Friot, 2017). Due to their compact size and the challenges in
identifying and retrieving them, relatively much study on
nanoplastics throughout aquatic habitats has been conducted
(Crawford and Quinn, 2017). Furthermore, despite the scarcity of
monitoring data, operative and unintentional leaks by commercial
shipping boats and cargo are regarded as a substantial source of
resin pellets (Wang et al., 2018). Synthetic polymers have been a
standard component of our lives throughout the years, and these
polymers have substituted several natural polymers. Extensive
application of plastic materials is due to their remarkable features,
like variability, lightness, flexibility, strength, and persistence.
Since all these qualities are appropriate for packing food and
other items, the packaging business accounts for more than one-
third of all plastics manufactured (Cverenkárová et al., 2021).
Klein et al. (2015) evidenced on the incidence and spatial
dispersal of microplastics in River shore sediments of the Rhine-
Main Area in Germany. The first record of microplastics in Bering
and Chukchi was documented by Mu et al. (2019). They isolated
microplastic samples by density separation method. Subsequent
records on the distribution of microplastics in the coastal
mangrove were evidenced by Zhou et al. (2020), who targeted the
coastal mangrove sediments of China. Another piece of evidence
was reported in South Indian Silver Beach by Vidyasakar et al.
(2020). They obtained 28 samples of sediments from Silver
Beach in South India. The profusion and distribution of
microplastics in the wand riverbank sediments in Malaysia was
reported by Choong et al. (2021). Song et al. (2015) evidenced
the spread of microplastics as paint resins and different polymers
 G.P. Avinash et al.: Microplastics impact and biodegradation
Microplastics
Primary
.Microbeads
Cosmeceuticals
Plastic Industrial
Pellets Manufacturing
Plastic Synthetic
Fibers Fibres
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Fig. 1: General overview of microplastics.
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in the ocean of Jinhae Bay, South Korea. Effects of distance and
geomorphological characteristics on the amount and scattering of
microplastics in beach sediments of Granada in Spain has been
reported by Godoy et al. (2020). Distribution of microplastics in
Latin America has been extensively reviewed by Muniasamy et al.
(2020). Lestari et al. (2020) documented a report on the
distribution of microplastics in the Surabaya River, Indonesia.
On
Zhang et al. (2020) reported the distribution of microplastics in
surface water and sediments by collecting the samples from 12
sites along the urban section of the Qin River in Guangxi
Province, China. Rasta et al. (2020) documented on the distribution
of microplastics in the sediments and surface waters of Northern
Iran. Recently, dispersal of microplastics in the Caspian southern
coasts, on the estuary of 17 rivers was evaluated at two depths (0–5
and 5–15 cm) by Ghayebzadeh et al. (2021). Zhang et al. (2021)
studied the distribution and estimation of the microplastic load
ingested by wild-caught fish in the East China Sea.
Effects of microplastics: Microplastics are widespread in
aquatic organisms and adversely affect the aquatic ecosystems.
The reports available on the world fish intake reveal that at a
certain stage exposure to microplastics will be unavoidable for the
individuals (Alfaro-Núñez et al., 2021). The intensity of negative
¨ Journal of Environmental Biology, September 2023¨
657
Secondary
py
Primary or
Bigger plastics
degrade into
fragements
Co
Weathering
Wave action
UV from
Sunlight
Wind abrasion
impacts of hazardous chemical exposure is determined by the
chemical nature, contamination qualities, exposure route, and
danger limits. Microplastics discovered in ocean systems all over
the globe impact the feeding, growth, spawning, and survival of
aquatic life (James et al., 2020). The impacts of microplastics differ
depending on the organism species, microplastic type, and
concentrations. Microplastics have been identified at all the stages
of food web, influencing the digestive tracts and tissues to various
extents based on genre and location. The interrelationship between
microplastics and microbe cultures in marine ecosystems and
freshwater is poorly understood and require additional research
(Jiang, 2017).
According to World Health Organization (2017), exposing
plants to microplastics regulate photosynthesis.Kasirajan and
Ngouajio (2012) and Kang et al. (2015) selected Nicotiana
tabacum as a model organism to study the impact of polystyrene
microplastics. Teng et al. (2022) evaluated the toxic effects of
Polyethylene-Microplastics on the photosynthesis of Nicotiana
tabacum seedlings at both physiological and molecular levels.
Further, toxicity due to Polyethylene-microplastics in higher
photosynthetic plants has been evaluated by altering the
differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in photosynthesis by RNA-
658 G.P. Avinash et al.: Microplastics impact and biodegradation
Effects of microplastics
Plastic films
Indirect
Biodegradable mulches
inpact microbial activity, nutrient cycle and storage and exhibit
analogous impacts on soil and plants
Interactions of
microplastics with
agroecosystems
and plants
Microplastics in agroecosystems
Mechanism of microplastic uptake in plants
Fig. 2: Effect of Microplastics.
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Seq analysis. Boots et al. (2019) conducted an experiment which
showed reduction in various plant growth parameters like
seedling growth, germination, root/shoot ratio, chlorophyll a/b
ratio of L. perenne mediating as a stress simulator, growth of A.
rosea, and pH, total content of organic matter, stability and
aggregate mean weight diameter of the soil caused by the
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incorporation of High-Density Poly Ethylene and Poly Lactic Acid.
Microplastics and nanoplastics exhibit harmful impacts on the
territorial environments based on the source of exposure and
interaction with other pollutants. On analyzing the interactions
with these toxins, the significance of the properties of plastic
surfaces changes, as well as the agricultural ecosystem engulfs
On
the microplastics, nanoplastics and other contaminants (Zhou et
al., 2020; Barboza et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2019) due to modern
farming, plastics gets bioaccumulated, posing a severe threat to
the agro-ecosystems. Limited data is available on the impacts of
microplastics and nanoplastics on soil biota, predominantly in
plants, despite the potential entry of these emerging
contaminants into the agricultural system (Azeem et al., 2021).
As per the investigations, microplastics are regarded as a
cause for the increase in toxicity. They are universally present in
the terrestrial ecosystems, thereby exhibiting the change in plant
growth, soil properties and the composition and activity of
microbial communities. Although limited data is available on the
impact of microplastics on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). In
the case of plants, change in the abundance and activity of
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi occurs when microplastics
¨ Journal of Environmental Biology, September 2023¨
Organic Polymers Additives,
Plasticizers
Direct
Copper,
Inorganic Polymers
Nickel
py
Co
Microplastic affecting
litter decomposition
Shifts in litter quality
Affecting the
decomposition process
increases and decreases the biomass simultaneously and the
root diameter decreases. Reducing the soil bulk density, altering
the composition of pores, and transporting water in the soil are the
direct effects of microplastics. Since fibres have significant effects
on the size distribution and stability of soil aggregates, several soil
parameters are changed by microplastic fibres for estimating the
space and environmental conditions for arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi, which is supposed to affect the roles facilitated by
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi like accumulation and transport of
water and soil nutrients (Leifheit et al., 2021).
As few studies have focused on the impact of
microplastics on soil biota and plant effectiveness, the current
scenario must be understood for future research. This study
focuses on the association between microplastics and soil quality,
as well as the effects on the activity of plants and the fate of
microplastics in soils. C. stenophylla is gaining importance in arid
and semi-arid desert ecosystems, and its scarcity is a major
cause of desertification, which increases wind and water erosion
(Pajouhesh et al., 2020; Gharahi and Ahmad mahmoodi, 2022).
Agricultural activities, sewage/sludge amendments and organic
fertilisers, and plastic films and mulches, soil systems are the
major basin of plastics (de Souza Machado et al., 2018; He et al.,
2018; Chae and An, 2018). Despite known exposure and
accumulation scenarios in agricultural systems, comprehension
of these materials' interaction with agricultural plants remain
elusive (Azeem et al., 2022). The soil environment determines the
development of soil plants, an essential part of the soil
 G.P. Avinash et al.: Microplastics impact and biodegradation 659

Polymer

Anaerobic
(NO3-, Fe(SO4)2 C plastic + O2 → CH2
Bacteria Mn and CO2 as + CO2 + H2O + C
Precursors residual + C biomass

py
Biodegradation
Fungi
C plastic + O2 →
Binding to the CO2 + H2O + C
polymeric residual + C
molecules biomass
Hydrolytic
Actinobacteria

Co
enzymes

Fig. 3: Biological degradation of microplastics.

ecosystem. However, few studies on the effects of microplastics
on plants have been conducted. Qi et al. (2018) and Yu et al.
(2022) reported significant retardation in the wheat seedling and
seedling growth by Low-Density Polyethylene and biodegradable
plastic mulch film fragments. Microplastics can influence plant
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growth via various mechanisms, the majority of which are
assumed to be partial through the impact on soil and soil biota
(Rillig et al., 2019). Effect on soil formation and size distribution,
for example, can influence root penetration resistance and water
holding capacity. Biodegradable plastics may cause nutrient
immobilisation as the soil microbial communities decompose these
carbon-rich particles. Furthermore, microplastics or their effects on
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their molecular weight and size block them from entering the cell
walls of plants which contain cellulose. Since microplastics are
decomposed into their nanoforms, nanoplastics invade the plant
cells in their own method (Kumari et al., 2022). As per the study
conducted by Patil et al. (2019), the annual and maximum
loadings of microplastics in agroecosystems are estimated to
have 95% of their distribution in Europe, the USA and Australia,
which enters the sewage treatment plants, thereby captivating
biosolids. Apart from biosolids, plastic pollution involves
composts from unsorted domestic garbage or mixed municipal
solid waste, as well as source-separated garden organic waste.

soil physico-chemical properties may affect key plant symbionts
such as root-colonising mycorrhizal fungi (Rillig et al., 2021).
Soil health is commonly related to physical and chemical
properties of soil, influencing plant health. The physical properties
of soil include its texture and surface area, structure, bulk density,
On
In addition, microplastics have existed in soils for a long
time and release toxic pollutants as it takes about 20-500 years
for the plastics to degrade, based on their substance, structure,
and environmental conditions. The problem is a matter of global
concern and the issue is still on the rise, related data is insufficient
in the case of microplastics regarding their fixed cause and the

porosity, infiltration rate, available water capacity, and depth. In
contrast, its biological properties include soil organic carbon,
microbial biomass, and soil enzymes and biota. pH, electrical
conductivity, cation exchange capacity, nutrient reserves, heavy
metals, elemental balance and carbonates are all chemical
properties of soil (Lal, 2016). Agricultural production is influenced
by soil health. Bacterial diversity has been linked to plant net
primary productivity as a marker of soil health. Microplastics have
already been reported to alter soil biophysical properties such as
bulk density, water-holding capacity, soil microbial interactions
with water stable aggregates, and agricultural intensification,
which strains soil health and, thus, long-term agricultural
productivity (Tang, 2020). Phytologists have started to analyse
the mechanisms of microplastic uptake and translocation in
plants in the past decade, wherein they have presumed that
entrapping microplastics by plants is impossible. The increase in
duration for degradation (Kumari et al., 2022). Bisphenol-A (BPA)
and phthalates are two well-known chemicals released by
microplastics and, if taken into the body, can cause endocrine
disruption. Since Bisphenol-A is chronic and volatile, it can be
continuously removed, resulting in high absorption in aquatic
environments (vom Saal and Myers 2008; Wang et al., 2021).
Wastewater is a significant source of primary and secondary
microplastics in agricultural soils. Wastewater treatment plants filter
out solids from roads and homes, such as tyre abrasion particles
and fibres from synthetic clothing washing (Lehmann et al., 2020).
Microplastic affecting litter decomposition: Shifts in litter
quality:By enhancing plant performance by adding microplastics,
ground production of biomass increases, thereby converting it
into waste during the growth phase. The rate of degradation
decreases due to the assumption that the rise in the growth of

¨ Journal of Environmental Biology, September 2023¨

660 G.P. Avinash et al.: Microplastics impact and biodegradation
plants by microplastic has no relation with the nutrients content
present in the soil, resulting in the reduced contents of foliar
nutrients ("dilution effect"). Compared with the incorporation of
other slow-mineralising carbon, the litter accessible to
decomposers will be diluted, reducing degradation in the
presence of Microplastic. Plant community in the natural
environment or distribution of weed in agriculture gets affected
due to alterations in the nutrient content or water in addition to the
composition and accumulation of soil which also affect the
distribution and degradation of waste (Rillig et al., 2021).
Affecting the decomposition process: Changes in the soil
physico-chemical characteristics (weight of soil aggregates,
porosity and water capacity) caused by microplastics are crucial
for soil biota. Due to alterations in the microbial community, the
distribution of microbes have negative impacts on the
degradation of wastes. Since the carbon: nitrogen ratio in most
types of microplastic increases, entrapment of nutrients gets
triggered, resulting in the enhanced activity of microbes with
possible alterations in the nutrient contents and dissolved organic
carbon. Direct impacts of microplastic on soil ecosystem have a
significant use in decomposition. Earthworms (Lumbricidae) are
the main organisms for the induction of waste into the soil.
Accumulation of microplastic results in skin lesions, a rise in
mortality and a decline in reproductive rates in earthworms (Büks
et al., 2020), which further leads to reduction in transfer of organic
matter into deeper layers of soil (Rillig et al., 2021).
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Biological degradation of microplastics: Biodegradation is the
phenomenon where alterations in a material occur through
physical and chemical modes mediated by microbes. Bacteria,
actinomycetes and fungi are the major microbes that have the
capacity to degrade natural and artificial polymers (Ishigaki et al.,
2004; Alshehrei 2017; Zeenat et al., 2021). Diverse biological
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organisms have the potential to degrade toxic pollutants including
plastics or microplastics. Among them, microorganisms play a
major role as they degrade microplastics effectively (Goswami et
al., 2020). Microplastics are degraded by the mediation of
microbes which is a crucial method for safeguarding aquatic
organisms via in-situ or in-vitro (Harrison et al., 2011). Initially,
plastics were regarded as non-biodegradable, but,various
On
studies have proved degradation capacity of microplastics using
microbial strains, associated with diverse environment. Limited
data is available on depolymerase enzyme activity involved in the
decomposition of plastics, and the major debate lies in inducing
the efficacy of the decomposition of enzymes.
The upcoming scope focuses on investigating various
depolymerases from decomposition of microbes in plastic and
biotechnological incorporation of increasing efficiency. Most of
the techniques focus on investigating and analysing effective
enzymes decomposing microplastics having a probability for
advancing biological action for microplastics (Badola et al., 2022).
A relatable focus is being paid on the biodegradation of
microplastics by microbes. A variety of microplastics, like High-
Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Low-Density Polyethylene
¨ Journal of Environmental Biology, September 2023¨
(LDPE), Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA), Polypropylene (PP),
Polyethylene (PE), Polycaprolactone (PCL), Polystyrene (PS),
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
are decomposed by microbes like bacteria, fungi, algae and
insects, which is an eco-friendly technique (Gu, 2003; Yuan et al.,
2020) thereby tackling harmful effects posed by microplastic
pollution due to its environmental-friendly nature and affordability,
engulfing and decomposing polymers by extracellular enzymes.
Evaluation of metabolism and utilisation of plastics by
microorganisms is critical because biodegradation of
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microplastics is affected by the chemical structure and molecular
weight of plastics, microorganisms and various ecological factors,
which are further biodegraded by marine and soil microbes.
Although numerous data are available on the biodegradation of
microplastics, till now, the relatable technique is not completely
explained (Pham et al., 2021).
Co
Toxification of microplastics in the ecosystem arises due
to the rise in the production and usage of plastics, since these
polymers are non-fragile, and it should be taken into
consideration that fragility varies between these polymers. As per
the studies conducted by Rachid and Doğruöz-Güngör (2020),
the biodegradation of commonly used plastics is detailed
pertaining to specific atmosphere and microbes, however, in
contrary biodegradation of microplastics is a difficult task. Only
microbes (bacteria and fungi) possess the ability to decompose
the microplastics, where some of them initiate the process of
biodegradation. Competition between microbial species also
helps in partial or complete degradation of microplastics (Rachid
and Doğruöz-Güngör 2020). Biodegradation carried out in the
presence of microbial enzymes changes carbon containing
components into simpler components, calcified and restructured
in basic cycles, namely carbon, nitrogen and sulphur.
The investigations conducted by Rujnić-Sokele and
Pilipović (2017) concluded that bacteria and fungi exhibit the field
of study in the biodegradation of natural and artificial plastics
relying on the ecosystem due to biodiversity and occurrence of
microorganisms altering within the area. Biodegradation of
plastics is majorly affected by microbial and polymer
characteristic levels, consisting type, distribution, growth
conditions (temperature, pH, oxygen concentration, nutrients)
and enzyme types (intracellular and extracellular enzymes,
leading to exo-or-endo polymer cleavage) (Oliveira et al., 2020).
Researches on biodegradation of microplastics was initiated in
1970, which focused on the susceptibility of deterioration of
aliphatic plastics by microbes in an ecosystem where there is a
contradiction in the microbial attack on various plastics.
Traditional polymers (Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene,
Polyvinyl Chloride) and microbes (bacteria, actinomycetes and
fungi) possess tremendous capacity for biodegradation by
altering the biological and non-biological components,wherein
the current focus is only on various bacterial and fungal strains
(Tokiwa et al., 2018; Iram et al., 2019) (Fig. 3). Microbial
remediation is the phenomenon of degrading plastics when
microbial components (fungi, bacterial and algae) act as a
 G.P. Avinash et al.: Microplastics impact and biodegradation
mediator, which includes incorporating biofilms on plastics
leading to decay in structural arrangements of plastics by
depolymerisation upon the action of specific enzymes acting as a
mediator whose byproducts contain oligomers, dimers and
monomers alongwith CO 2 , H 2 O and products from
depolymerisation (Zhang et al., 2021). Algae, the light-
autotrophs, degrade polymers by consuming plastics as a source
of carbon. Upto date, the research focus has been carried out
limitedly. Some algal strains (Scenedesmus dimorphus, Anabena
spiroides) degrade microplastics and plastic particles by
occupying the substrate and deterioration, this phenomenon is
globally recognized, eco-friendly and cost-effective, but also has
limitations (time consumption, difficulty in spot implementation,
species-specific gaps), which should be regarded for sustainable
degradation of microplastics to limit contamination without
threatening the natural ecosystems (Sutradhar, 2022).
Nanthini Devi et al. (2021) evaluated the biodegradation
capacity of microplastics by bacterial cultures collected from
Vaigai River, Madurai (India) and further synthesised using a
suitable protocol and induced the decomposition of polyethylene
and polypropylene with the aid of UV light. Based on primary
screening, four bacterial species viz., Bacillus sp. (BS-1, BS-2),
Bacillus cereus (BC) and Bacillus paramycoides (BP) were
isolated from bacterial cultures, and were subjected to
degradation experiment for additional three weeks. Bacterial
cultures were incorporated into microplastics (Polyethylene,
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Polypropylene), utilised as a carbon source for their generation,
and batch adsorption studies were further processed using two
basic techniques with control as its main parameter. Degradation
of microplastics was identified based on the loss in size,
accumulating breakage and substrate alterations against control
(without isolates) and finalised to have their degradation capacity
of isolated bacterial cultures via the size and surface area, which
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do not have any alterations. The maximum deterioration capacity
was found in Bacillus paramycoides (78.99±0.005%)as
compared to Bacillus cereus (63.08±0.009% PP and PE,
respectively) in a single stroke. In contrast, the maximum
biodegradation capacity was observed in Bacillus cereus and
Bacillus paramycoides (78.62±2.16% in PP and 72.50±20.53% in
PE) when synthesized in combined stroke. Newly observed
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functional groups were formed, leading to the formation of biofilms
on the microplastics substrates by bacterial cultures, thereby
demonstrating their capacity to degrade the microplastics, which
should be cost-efficient, eco-friendly and suggesting further studies
to release the way of degrading microplastics and inhibit their
spread in the aquatic ecosystems (Nanthini Devi et al., 2021).
In a recent study, Li et al. (2023) investigated the toxic
effects of biodegradable plastics and copper ions in single and
combined state on probiotic, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. Their
findings demonstrated that Poly Lactic Acid Microplastics
(PLA–MPs) caused oxidative damage to the cell membranes,
ruptured the composition of cell wall and retarded cell growth by
21.2%–27.5%. Toxicity was neither additive or synergistic under
single and combined treatment of PLA-MPs and copper on B.
¨ Journal of Environmental Biology, September 2023¨
661
amyloliquefaciens, thereby inducing various methods for
inhibiting Cu toxicity towards bacteria, leading to spore formation
for inhibiting Poly Lactic Acid Microplastics and weakening the
deleterious effects of Cu2+ by chelation and efflux. Expression of
fengycin and iturin was enhanced by Cu2+, improvising the
probiotic microbial activity.
Microorganisms as precursors for biodegradation:
Metabolites (mainly hydrolytic enzymes) produced by
microorganisms are known to convert toxic polymers of
py
microplastics to non-toxic monomers. Bacteria are the most
predominant group of microbes, primarily found in soil, water and
air, possessing the capacity to degrade pollutants. Bakir et al.
(2014) and Yuan et al. (2020) carried out research where
microplastics were extracted from residue, mud and effluent by
enhancement of microbial culture, offering the benefit of utilizing
pure strains of bacteria in microplastic degradation. This method
Co
is appropriate to investigate or evaluate the impact of the
metabolism of microbes in microplastic deterioration under
various ecological factors. Actinobacteria is a Gram-positive
bacterium that possess the maximum potential of biodegradation,
leading to a reduction in polymers due to their association with
Bacillus species. Upon conditioning the microbes with nitric acid,
microbes degrade microplastics, thereby removing polymeric
links and decomposing into minute strings, which further induces
carbonyl (mediating as stimulators for biodegradation) in the
polymeric base, thereby enhancing degradation in the presence
of Microbacterium paraoxydans (Rajandas et al., 2012). Due to
their beneficial effect, Actinobacteria offers the best potential of
degrading Poly Lactic Acid because profitable Poly Lactic Acid is
the most utilised bioplastics instead of biodegradable polymer
(Auta et al., 2017, 2018; Oliveira et al., 2020).
Fungi, another group of organisms are known to degrade
wide range of pollutants, mainly microplastics. Comparing fungi
with bacteria, fungi also decompose polymers with microplastics
biofilms as a satisfying resource but also pose harmful effects on
the environment and health because fungi mediate as a pathogen
but also characterise a chance to investigate the novel method of
deteriorating metabolism and species in polymers (Matavulj and
Molitoris 2009; Kettner et al., 2017). Recently, a study conducted
by Oliveira et al. (2020) focused on the capacity of remediation of
plastics by aquatic fungi when compared with bacteria and
revealed the arrival of new methodologies using fungi.
Fungi catalyse diverse reactions with various non-specific
enzymes, which is convenient for microplastic biodegradation. The
fungal intracellular engrading microplastics biologically as they offer
a variety of non-specific enzymes exhibiting the potential of
metabolising diverse reactions and is crucial in mediating
adaptation and detoxification. Fungi have well equipped enzyme
system capable of hydrolyzing polysaccharides, polystyrene
microplastics (Bhatt et al., 2019; Pathak and Navneet, 2017; Bhatt
et al., 2021). In association with hydrolytic enzymes, fungi also
produces non-specific enzymes (laccases, peroxidases and
peroxygenases), capable of degrading complex polymeric
662 G.P. Avinash et al.: Microplastics impact and biodegradation
molecules (Olicón-Hernández et al., 2017; Miloloža et al., 2022).
Srikanth et al. (2022) reviewed biodegradation of plastic
polymers by fungi. Variety of techniques (photodegradation,
thermo-oxidative degradation, hydrolytic degradation and
biodegradation) are employed to degrade microplastics.
Photodegradation is the phenomenon where microplastics are
exposed to UV from the sun, cleaving the polymers into simple
monomers in the presence of oxygen, whereas thermo-oxidative
degradation is the process where microplastics are subjected to
heat (Geweret et al., 2015). Biodegradation is the convenient
method to deteriorate microplastics comparing with the
abovementioned methods because it does not pollute the
environment and is cost-effective. Though this method is slow, it
also includes microorganisms, where majority deals with fungi,
mediating on microplastics. It releases degrading enzymes
(cutinase, lipase, proteases and lignocellulolytic enzymes) and
Co
pro-oxidant ions which deteriorates microplastics effectively.
Well-defined fungal species (Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus
flavus, Aspergillus glaucus, Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus
nomius, Penicillium griseofulvum, Bjerkandera adusta,
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Cladosporium cladosporioides
etc.) and saprotrophic groups (Pleurotus abalones, Pleurotus
ostreatus, Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus eryngii) act on
microplastics, thereby, leading to successful degradation. Their
study concludes that biodegradation using microbes (fungi and its
related species) degrades microplastics efficiently without
ne
polluting the ecosystem than other methods.
Presently, our team is working on the biodegradation of
microplastics using a microbial consortium. This consortium
comprises microbial strains isolated from garbage mainly
dumped with plastic wastes. As we have expertise in the
construction of microbial culture mixture (consortium), this study
li
will help to develop scientifically validated microbial preparation
capable of degrading microplastics efficiently. Publications
related to the degradation of various organic pollutants using
microorganisms carried out by Sivasubramaniam and
Namasivayam (2014) support the strength towards
bioremediation. These findings indicate the role of microbial
consortium in the degradation of phenol. Future research focuses
On
on the developmental formulation of microbial consortiums
capable of degrading microplastics and to utilize the principles of
green technology to remove microplastics associated with
diverse ecosystems effectively.
Acknowledgment
We acknowledge the management of Saveetha School of
Engineering, SIMATS for the encouragemment and support.
Authors’ contribution: S.K.R.Namasivayam: Concepulistation
and manuscript writing; G.P. Avinash: Literature collection and
manuscript writing; R.S. Arvind Bharani: Manuscript editing and
image processing.
¨ Journal of Environmental Biology, September 2023¨
Funding: Not applicable.
Research content: The research content of manuscript is
original and has not been published elsewhere.
Ethical approval: Not applicable.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare that is there is no
conflict of interest.
py
Data availability: Not applicable.
Consent to publish: All authors agree to publish the paper in
Journal of Environmental Biology.
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