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Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

1. Personality helps explain why a particular behavior provides great value to one consumer but none to another.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

2. Each individual has a unique personality.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

3. Personality traits do not influence behavior.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

4. The aggregation approach to studying personality measures behavior over time.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

5. The psychoanalytic approach to personality was proposed by B. F. Skinner.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

6. According to the psychoanalytic approach, the id differs from the ego in that the id focuses on utilitarian value.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

7. The superego works in accordance with the pleasure principle.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

8. The superego focuses on resolving the conflicts between the id and ego.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

9. A trait is a product symbol that a consumer identifies with strongly.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

10. The goal of the nomothetic perspective is to find common personality traits that can be studied across people.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

11. The idiographic approach in trait research focuses on individual traits.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

12. The trait approach takes an idiographic approach to personality.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

13. The prediction of individual behavior tends to be weaker with the multiple-trait approach.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

14. Kate always buys low-priced items regardless of quality. This consumer behavior trait signifies value consciousness.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

15. Symbolism refers to the extent to which material goods are important in a consumer’s life.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

16. Material possessions play an important part in self-expression.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

17. John gives away his old furniture to the poor and the needy whenever he buys new ones. Hence, it can be safely
concluded that John is a highly materialistic consumer.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

18. Lower materialism scores are typically found among younger consumers.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

19. Downshifting refers to a conscious decision to reduce one’s material consumption.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

20. Consumers with a low need for cognition tend to be influenced heavily by the quality of the arguments in an
advertisement.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

21. The competitiveness trait can be defined as an enduring tendency to strive to be better than others.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

22. Sara is married to an English media baron. She drives an expensive Lexus, wears designer clothing, and sends her
children to an exclusive private school to display her family’s social class to others. Sara's tendency to flaunt her material
possessions as a way of displaying her social class can be described as conspicuous consumption.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

23. Conspicuous consumption represents the tendency of a consumer to engage in bargaining behaviors when making
purchases.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

24. The five-factor model approach is universally accepted by all researchers.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

25. Hierarchical approaches begin with the assumption that all personality traits are specific.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

26. Broad traits tend to be better predictors of individual behaviors than specific traits.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

27. The personology approach combines personality theory and motivation.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

28. Brand personality refers to human characteristics that can be associated with a brand.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

29. Lifestyles are completely determined by personality.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

30. Consumer lifestyles are the same across cultures.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

31. Psychographic techniques use quantitative methods that can be used in developing lifestyle profiles.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

32. AIO statements are used in psychographic analysis to divide consumers into groups based on the resources available
to them.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

33. The VALS (Values and Lifestyles) approach classifies consumers into 66 distinct segments.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

34. Geodemographic techniques combine data on consumer expenditures and socioeconomic variables with geographic
information.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

35. PRIZM (Potential Rating Index by ZIP Market) combines demographic and behavioral information in a manner that
enables marketers to better understand and target their customers.
a. True
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

b. False
ANSWER: True

36. Demographics refer to the way consumer lifestyles are measured.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

37. “Baby Boomers” are those consumers who were born between 1981 and 1995.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

38. Failing to consider psychographic measures leads to the flawed assumption that all consumers of a certain
demographic have different tastes.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

39. Self-concept refers to the totality of thoughts and feelings that an individual has about him- or herself.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

40. According to a idiographic perspective, consumers agree on the shared meaning of products and symbols.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

41. All consumers have a single self-concept.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

42. Sandra is a tennis enthusiast. She is also an avid collector of sports memorabilia, and a frequent attendee to auctions
where she buys items owned by the tennis stars of yesteryears. In this instance, Sandra expresses her ideal social self
through her purchasing behavior.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

43. Self-awareness refers to the positivity of an individual’s self-concept.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

44. Cindy, an overweight teenager, feels pressurized as all her friends at school are slim. So she binges on fast-food and
then throws up after her meals. Unhappy with her body image, she often ends up being rude to her classmates. These
negative behaviors indicate that Cindy has low body esteem.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

45. Tattoos are means of promoting one’s self-concept.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

46. Body piercings are popular forms of self-expression.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

47. The structural-functional theory proposes that much of consumer behavior can be explained by the match between a
consumer’s self-concept and the image of typical users of a focal product.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

48. For consumers having very strong ties to brands, the task of self-expression through product ownership is one of
identity maintenance and communication.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

49. When consumers feel very close to organizations, organizational identification is said to be present.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

50. Descriptions of how each consumer differs according to specific traits or patterns of behavior are called _____.
a. individual difference variables
b. active participation variables
c. dependent variables
d. behavioral variables
e. socioeconomic variables
ANSWER: a

51. _____ is the totality of thoughts, emotions, intentions, tendencies, and behaviors that a person exhibits consistently as
he or she adapts to his or her environment.

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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

a. Brand personality
b. Demographics
c. Personality
d. Self-congruency
e. Self-esteem
ANSWER: c

52. Jenny is shy and afraid to speak to other people. She avoids going out with her friends and colleagues and prefers to
read a book on her own rather than interacting with others. These emotions and behaviors that Jenny exhibits comprise her
_____.
a. id
b. personality
c. demographic characteristics
d. super ego
e. self-esteem
ANSWER: b

53. Which of the following statements is true of personality?

a. Personality traits remain consistent across all individuals.
b. Personality analysis fails to explain why a particular behavior provides great value to one consumer but none
to another.
c. Personality can best be conceptualized as a set of acquired habits.
d. Personality traits are relatively stable and interact with situations to influence behavior.
e. Personality traits are always consistent across situations.
ANSWER: d

54. Which of the following approaches involves assessing behaviors and tendencies over time?
a. The utilitarian approach
b. The aggregation approach
c. The hierarchical approach
d. The commodity approach
e. The functional approach
ANSWER: b

55. According to Sigmund Freud, human behavior is influenced by:

a. a complementary relationship between the superego and the id.
b. the personality traits of every person that always remain consistent across situations.
c. the id that works against the superego.
d. an inner struggle between various systems within the personality system.
e. the ego which motivates behavior that matches societal norms and expectations.
ANSWER: d

56. According to the psychoanalytic approach to personality, which of the following components focuses on pleasure-
seeking and immediate gratification?
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

a. The id
b. The ego
c. The superego
d. The social self
e. The actual self
ANSWER: a

57. The id primarily operates on a _____.

a. self-actualization principle
b. reality principle
c. benefit principle
d. utilitarian principle
e. pleasure principle
ANSWER: e

58. According to the psychoanalytic approach to personality, the superego:

a. focuses on pleasure-seeking and immediate gratification.
b. works against the id by motivating behavior that matches societal norms and expectations.
c. focuses on resolving the conflicts between the id and the ego.
d. operates on the benefit principle.
e. attempts to balance the desires of the id with the constraints of, and expectations found in, the ego.
ANSWER: b

59. Carl restricts himself to social drinking because he feels that drinking too much alcohol is not socially acceptable.
According to the psychoanalytic approach, which of the following motivates him to match societal norms and
expectations?
a. The id
b. The utilitarian outlook
c. The superego
d. The need for cognition
e. The ego
ANSWER: c

60. In the context of the psychoanalytic approach, the ego primarily:

a. focuses on immediate gratification.
b. operates on the pleasure principle.
c. focuses on hedonic value.
d. works against the superego by motivating behavior that goes against societal norms and expectations.
e. focuses on resolving the conflicts between the id and the superego.
ANSWER: e

61. According to the psychoanalytic approach to personality, which of the following principles implies that the ego seeks
to satisfy the id within the constraints of society?
a. The pleasure principle
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

b. The reality principle
c. The motivation principle
d. The hedonic principle
e. The personology principle
ANSWER: b

62. Which of the following approaches to personality focuses on distinguishable consumer characteristics that describe
one’s tendency to act in a relatively consistent manner?
a. The trait approach
b. The motivational approach
c. The psychoanalytic approach
d. The utilitarian approach
e. The hedonic approach
ANSWER: a

63. _____ refers to a distinguishable characteristic that describes one’s tendency to act in relatively consistent manner.
a. A trait
b. Motivation
c. An impulse
d. Self-concept
e. Intuition
ANSWER: a

64. A researcher studies consumer characteristics such as materialism, need for cognition, along with their impact on the
purchasing behavior of consumers. Which of the following approaches to studying personality is the researcher using in
the given instance?
a. Motivational research
b. The trait approach
c. The BCG matrix analysis
d. Porter’s five forces analysis
e. The Personology approach
ANSWER: b

65. Which of the following refers to a “variable-centered” approach that focuses on particular variables, or traits, that exist
across a number of consumers?
a. The deontological perspective
b. The hedonic perspective
c. The nomothetic perspective
d. The idiographic perspective
e. The utilitarian perspective
ANSWER: c

66. Some consumer researchers focus on one specific trait, such as conscientiousness, that exists across a number of
consumers, to predict the adoption rate of new products. Which approach does this exemplify?
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

a. The idiographic perspective
b. The nomothetic perspective
c. The nominal perspective
d. The cognitive perspective
e. The functional perspective
ANSWER: b

67. The _____ focuses on the total person and the uniqueness of his or her psychological makeup.
a. hedonic perspective
b. nomothetic perspective
c. universal perspective
d. utilitarian perspective
e. idiographic perspective
ANSWER: e

68. Which of the following statements is true of the idiographic approach?

a. It focuses on the individual traits that can be studied across multiple consumers.
b. It focuses on a single trait that is common across all consumers.
c. It focuses on understanding the complexity of each individual consumer.
d. It examines combinations of traits and the effect of each individual trait on the masses in general.
e. It is invariably the same as the trait approach.
ANSWER: c

69. Stan is a marketing intern who has been asked to conduct a research on consumer behavior by a fashion designer. The
designer wants him to focus on a few selected customers who exclusively buy customized products from the designer.
Stan goes about his research by interacting with each customer to know more about their psychological makeup. In this
instance, which of the following perspectives is Stan using?
a. The utilitarian perspective
b. The self-congruency perspective
c. The nomothetic perspective
d. The idiographic perspective
e. The functional perspective
ANSWER: d

70. With the _____, the focus of a researcher is on one particular trait.
a. hierarchical approach
b. personology approach
c. single-trait approach
d. self-congruency approach
e. idiographic approach
ANSWER: c

71. The prediction of individual behavior tends to be stronger with the _____.
a. functional approach
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

b. single-trait approach
c. nomothetic perspective
d. aggregation approach
e. multiple-trait approach
ANSWER: e

72. Which of the following represents the tendency for consumers to focus on maximizing what is received from a
transaction as compared to what is given?
a. Materialism
b. Innovativeness
c. Frugality
d. Bargaining proneness
e. Value consciousness
ANSWER: e

73. Which of the following behaviors is most likely to be exhibited by value-conscious consumers?
a. They are likely to display a tendency to retain control and ownership over possessions.
b. They are unlikely to redeem coupons.
c. They are likely to flaunt their material possessions as a way of displaying their social class.
d. They are likely to refrain from engaging in bargaining when making purchases.
e. They are likely to pay close attention to the resources that they devote to transactions and to the benefits that
they receive.
ANSWER: e

74. Danielle is a very meticulous shopper and is keen on maximizing the value of every transaction she makes. She uses
coupons whenever possible, and purchases items on sale to save money. However, she is likely to pay more for a product
if she thinks that it is the best one to meet her or her family’s needs. Which consumer behavior trait does Danielle display?
a. Materialism
b. Value consciousness
c. Competitiveness
d. Innovativeness
e. Trait Vanity
ANSWER: b

75. _____ is most closely associated with a tendency to retain control and ownership over possessions.
a. Materialism
b. Value consciousness
c. Trait vanity
d. Competitiveness
e. Innovativeness
ANSWER: a

76. Sarah is very possessive of her clothes. She does not like lending her clothes to others, including her friends. Which
trait does Sarah's behavior best illustrate?
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

a. Innovativeness
b. Value consciousness
c. Materialism
d. Frugality
e. Trait vanity
ANSWER: c

77. Which of the following is a dimension of materialism?

a. Bargaining proneness
b. Envy
c. Value consciousness
d. Frugality
e. Generosity
ANSWER: b

78. Which of the following refers to downshifting?

a. The conscious decision to reduce one’s material consumption
b. The resentment that arises as a result of another’s belongings and a desire to acquire similar possessions
c. The tendency of a consumer to engage in bargaining behaviors when making purchases
d. The tendency of consumers to take excessive pride in themselves, including their appearance and
accomplishments.
e. The tendency of an individual to retain control and ownership over his possessions
ANSWER: a

79. The degree to which a consumer is open to new ideas and quick to buy new products, services, or experiences early in
their introduction is referred to as consumer _____.
a. materialism
b. frugality
c. possessiveness
d. innovativeness
e. competitiveness
ANSWER: d

80. Carol Bates, a young, dynamic, and affluent banker, likes to shop online and try out new products. She likes to keep
herself updated on the latest products introduced in the market. She is usually the first among her friends to buy the latest
gadgets. Which of the following traits best describes Carol?
a. Possessiveness
b. Innovativeness
c. Frugality
d. Agreeableness
e. Extroversion
ANSWER: b

81. Which of the following is a characteristic of consumers with low need for cognition?
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

a. They tend to be influenced by things like an endorser’s attractiveness and cues that are not central to a
message.
b. They tend to think carefully about products, problems, and even marketing messages.
c. They tend to be influenced heavily by the quality of the arguments in an advertisement.
d. They tend to have more negative consumer attitudes and purchase intentions when presented with humorous
ads.
e. They exhibit more negative attitudes and purchase intentions towards brands that are advertised using sexual
imagery.
ANSWER: a

82. Sam recently bought a new cologne just because his favorite football star had endorsed it. In doing so, which of the
following traits did Sam display?
a. High levels of innovativeness
b. High levels of frugality
c. Low need for cognition
d. High levels of materialism
e. Low affinity toward competitiveness
ANSWER: c

83. Which of the following traits can be defined as an enduring tendency to strive to be better than others?
a. Competitiveness
b. Innovativeness
c. Agreeableness
d. Value consciousness
e. Impulsiveness
ANSWER: a

84. Which of the following instances indicates the presence of competitiveness?

a. When a consumer attempts to display superiority over others by openly flaunting exclusive products,
especially publicly visible products
b. When consumers look out for acquiring high value at minimal costs and engage in bargaining while
purchasing products in the market
c. When consumers reduce their material consumption
d. When consumers exhibit restraint while purchasing items other than basic provisions
e. When consumers redeem grocery coupons at retail outlets
ANSWER: a

85. Bob has a huge collection of apparel associated with his favorite basketball team. He buys and wears them actively
every time his team wins a match. Which of the following traits does Bob most exemplify?
a. Innovation
b. Frugality
c. Value conciousness
d. Competitiveness
e. Need for cognition

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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

ANSWER: d

86. Which of the following best describes conspicuous consumption?

a. It refers to the conscious decision to reduce one’s material consumption.
b. It refers to the tendency of a consumer to engage in bargaining behaviors while making purchases.
c. It refers to the tendency of a consumer to exhibit restraint while making purchase decisions and using
resources.
d. It refers to the tendency of consumers to focus on maximizing what is received from a transaction as compared
to what is given.
e. It refers to a tendency of the wealthy to flaunt their material possessions as a way of displaying their social
class.
ANSWER: e

87. Deanne is married to a very wealthy attorney and she wants everyone to know her status. She drives an expensive car,
wears designer clothing and diamond jewelry. In doing so, which of the following traits does Deanne exhibit?
a. Need for cognition
b. Conspicuous consumption
c. Value consciousness
d. Downshifting
e. Innovativeness
ANSWER: b

88. Carla Miller is an upscale interior designer and a socialite living in New York City. She is often seen wearing high-
end designer clothing and accessories emphasizing her high social status. She is very presentable in social situations and is
only seen in the company of the elite. Which of the following traits can be associated with Carla’s behavior?
a. Value consciousness
b. High need for cognition
c. High frugality
d. High trait vanity
e. Low self-esteem
ANSWER: d

89. Consumers with a(n) _____ are most likely to focus on making progress and accomplishing more in less time.
a. conspicuous consumption habit
b. trait superstition outlook
c. trait vanity outlook
d. productivity orientation
e. innovativeness trait
ANSWER: d

90. _____ refers to the tendency of consumers to take excessive pride in themselves, including their appearance and
accomplishments.
a. Trait vanity
b. Trait anxiety
c. Innovativeness
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

d. Frugality
e. Competitiveness
ANSWER: a

91. Richard is a very social person. He enjoys talking to people and makes friends effortlessly. Which of the following
personality traits does he display?
a. Competitiveness
b. Materialism
c. Conscientiousness
d. Trait impulsivity
e. Extroversion
ANSWER: e

92. According to the five-factor model approach, which of the following characteristics most aptly describes a
conscientious consumer?
a. Talkativeness
b. Outgoing attitude
c. Creativity
d. Sympathetic attitude
e. Preciseness
ANSWER: e

93. The _____ works on the assumption that some traits, such as bargaining proneness, are specific and others, such as
extroversion, are more broad.
a. nomothetic perspective
b. hierarchical approach
c. five-factor model
d. idiographic perspective
e. single-trait approach
ANSWER: b

94. The _____ is a relatively new approach to researching consumers which combines personality theory and motivation.
a. nomothetic approach
b. idiographic approach
c. single-trait approach
d. self-congruence approach
e. personology approach
ANSWER: e

95. _____ refers to human characteristics that can be associated with a brand.
a. Brand language
b. Brand personality
c. Brand architecture
d. Brand identity
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e. Brand equity
ANSWER: b

96. _____ refers to the ways consumers live and spend their time and money.
a. Lifestyle
b. Demographics
c. Personality
d. Psychographics
e. Geodemographics
ANSWER: a

97. Which of the following statements is true about consumer lifestyles?

a. They are considered an important manifestation of social stratification.
b. They are not influenced by culture, groups, and individual processes.
c. They are completely determined by personality.
d. They refer to personality traits that are not context specific.
e. They remain consistent across cultures.
ANSWER: a

98. _____ refers to the way consumer lifestyles are measured.

a. Demographics
b. Cost-benefit analysis
c. Psychographics
d. Geodemographics
e. Conjoint analysis
ANSWER: c

99. Psychographic analysis involves surveying consumers using _____ to gain an understanding of consumers’ activities,
interests, and opinions.
a. PERT tools
b. Six Sigma methods
c. ANOVA techniques
d. CPM algorithms
e. AIO statements
ANSWER: e

100. Which of the following classifies consumers into eight distinct segments based on resources available to the
consumer, as well as three primary motivations?
a. Program Evaluation and Review Technique
b. Aggregation approach
c. Values and Lifestyles approach
d. Symbolic interactionism perspective
e. Geodemographic Technique
ANSWER: c
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101. _____ combine data on consumer expenditures and socioeconomic variables with geographic information in order to
identify commonalities in consumption patterns of households in various regions.
a. Demographic techniques
b. Psychoanalytic techniques
c. Values and Lifestyles segments
d. Geodemographic techniques
e. Single-trait approaches
ANSWER: d

102. PRIZM is based on the premise that people with similar backgrounds and means tend to live close to one another and
emulate each other’s behaviors and lifestyles. This is an example of the _____.
a. psychoanalytic technique
b. five-factor model
c. idiographic perspective
d. single trait approach
e. geodemographic technique
ANSWER: e

103. Which of the following is a lifestyle analysis technique that uses 66 different segments as descriptors of individual
households, which are ranked according to socioeconomic variables?
a. VALS
b. CPM
c. ANOVA
d. PRIZM
e. PERT
ANSWER: d

104. Which of the following statements is true about PRIZM?

a. It combines demographic and behavioral information in a manner that enables marketers to better understand
and target their customers.
b. It classifies consumers into eight distinct segments based on resources available to the consumer as well as
three primary motivations.
c. It was developed and marketed by Strategic Business Insights.
d. It is based on the premise that people with similar backgrounds and means disassociate themselves from each
other’s behaviors and lifestyles.
e. It is based on the premise that people with similar backgrounds tend to live away from one another.
ANSWER: a

105. _____ are observable, statistical aspects of populations including such factors as age, gender, or income.
a. Psychographics
b. Semiotics
c. Traits
d. Identifiers

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e. Demographics
ANSWER: e

106. _____ refers to the totality of thoughts and feelings that an individual has about him or herself.
a. Value Consciousness
b. Brand personality
c. Self-concept
d. Self-esteem
e. Body esteem
ANSWER: c

107. Mary thinks of herself as a warm, caring person. She is content with her life and believes that others enjoy her
company. These thoughts and feelings that Mary has about herself comprise of her _____.
a. body esteem
b. self-congruence
c. demographic features
d. need for cognition
e. self-concept
ANSWER: e

108. According to the _____, consumers agree on the shared meaning of products and symbols.
a. symbolic interactionism perspective
b. symbolic logic perspective
c. nomothetic perspective
d. idiographic perspective
e. self-congruency perspective
ANSWER: a

109. Which of the following best describes semiotics?

a. It refers to the study of symbols and their meanings.
b. It refers to the study of human psychology.
c. It refers to the study of human behavior.
d. It refers to the study of organizational behavior.
e. It refers to the study of cognitive development.
ANSWER: a

110. Sally is a research student who wants to conduct a consumer behavior research for her doctoral thesis. Believing that
consumers often use products to convey their self-concepts to others, she studies luxury brands, logos, and products to
find out what they mean to consumers. Which of the following best describes this field of study?
a. Teleology
b. Semiotics
c. Linguistics
d. Personology
e. Archeology
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ANSWER: b

111. Which self-concept refers to how a consumer currently perceives him or herself?
a. The ideal self
b. The actual self
c. The possible self
d. The social self
e. The extended self
ANSWER: b

112. Claudia reads publications such as The Wall Street Journal and other reputed dailies, and perceives herself to be
knowledgeable about current affairs. Which of the following self-concepts is best reflected in Claudia’s perception of
herself as a knowledgeable person?
a. The possible self
b. The ideal self
c. The social self
d. The extended self
e. The actual self
ANSWER: e

113. Which of the following best describes the ideal self?

a. It represents the various possessions that a consumer owns that help him or her form perception.
b. It represents the image that a consumer would like others to have about him or her.
c. It refers to how a consumer would like to perceive himself or herself.
d. It refers to the beliefs that a consumer has about how he or she is perceived by others.
e. It refers to how a consumer currently perceives himself or herself.
ANSWER: c

114. Which of the following statements about the self-concept is true?

a. The actual self refers to how a consumer would like to perceive himself or herself.
b. The ideal self refers to how a consumer currently perceives himself or herself.
c. The ideal social self represents the image that a consumer would like others to have about him or her.
d. The possible self represents the various possessions that a consumer owns that help him or her form
perceptions.
e. The extended self refers to the positivity with which one holds his or her body image.
ANSWER: c

115. Kenneth enrolled himself in a graduate school to study entrepreneurship because he wants to become a successful
entrepreneur and start his own business venture in a few years’ time. Which of the following types of self-concepts played
the greatest role in Kenneth’s decision to enroll in graduate school?
a. The actual self
b. The social self
c. The ideal social self
d. The extended self

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e. The possible self
ANSWER: e

116. The extended self refers to:

a. how a consumer would like to perceive himself or herself.
b. the beliefs that a consumer has about how he or she is seen by others.
c. the various possessions that a consumer owns that help him or her form perceptions about himself or herself.
d. an image of what a consumer could ideally become.
e. the image that a consumer would like others to have about himself or herself.
ANSWER: c

117. The positivity of an individual’s self-concept is called _____.

a. id
b. body esteem
c. extended self
d. self-congruence
e. self-esteem
ANSWER: e

118. Which theory proposes that much of consumer behavior can be explained by the match between a consumer’s self-
concept and the image of typical users of a focal product?
a. The self-congruency theory
b. The self-determination theory
c. The self-verification theory
d. The self-perception theory
e. The self-discrepancy theory
ANSWER: a

THE BILLIONAIRE LIFESTYLE SCENARIO

Philip, Joe, and Ralph are all members of a billionaires club in their city. They are all in their mid-40s, but with
remarkably successful careers. They became billionaires within a very short period of time. Philip, the CEO of his own
real estate venture, started out as a dynamic entrepreneur who managed to make huge profits within two years of starting
his business venture. He believes in living life luxuriously and lavishly. Joe, the CEO of an event management company,
shares the same thought. Joe and Philip splurge on the latest cars and electronic gadgets in the market. They buy designer
clothes, shoes, and watches. They party at the best clubs in the city and are known to order customized suits for
themselves from some of the best designers around the world. They also have a passion for traveling. They take time off
from their work and visit exotic locations around the world, stay in the best hotels, and eat at expensive restaurants. Like
Philip and Joe, Ralph, the CEO of a chain of luxury hotels, used to spend a lot of money on luxury items. Nowadays, he is
no longer interested in living a lavish life and is rather keen on reducing his material consumption. He prefers living a
simple life with his family and rarely indulges himself like he used to do earlier. He feels that being a spendthrift can lead
to financial distress in the future and create problems in his personal life. Instead of partying like the others, he is often
seen at charity events making donations. He wants to be known primarily for his contributions to the society and not for
having an extravagant lifestyle.
119. Refer to the Billionaire Lifestyle Scenario. Philip and Joe buy the latest and the most expensive cars in the market.
They also splurge on designer clothes, shoes and watches. In doing so, which of the following consumer behavior traits
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

are they displaying?
a. Materialism
b. Need for cognition
c. Frugality
d. Downshifting
e. Low self-monitoring
ANSWER: a

120. Refer to the Billionaire Lifestyle Scenario. Philip and Joe mostly wear designer outfits, watches, and shoes. They
also buy the latest and the most expensive cars and electronic gadgets. If Philip and Joe were to engage in flaunting their
material possessions as a way of displaying their social class, their tendency could be described as _____.
a. value consciousness
b. frugality
c. trait vanity
d. trait superstition
e. conspicuous consumption
ANSWER: e

121. Refer to the Billionaire Lifestyle Scenario. Ralph, unlike Joe and Philip, practices _____, as he thinks that high levels
of materialism can adversely affect his debt levels and personal relationships.
a. eliminative materialism
b. downshifting
c. reductionism
d. subjective idealism
e. functionalism
ANSWER: b

122. Refer to the Billionaire Lifestyle Scenario. Ralph’s desire to be known as a philanthropist reflects his _____.
a. low need for cognition
b. low self-monitoring tendency
c. ideal social self
d. extended self
e. actual self
ANSWER: c

123. Define personality and describe three distinct qualities exhibited by personality.
ANSWER: Personality is the totality of thoughts, emotions, intentions, tendencies, and behaviors that a person exhibits
consistently as he or she adapts to the environment. Personality exhibits a number of distinct qualities,
including:
(1) Personality is unique to an individual.
(2) Personality can be conceptualized as a combination of specific traits or characteristics.
(3) Personality traits are relatively stable and interact with situations to influence behaviors.
Students’ answers may vary.

124. Describe the psychoanalytic approach to personality and the way it has been applied in consumer research. Has this
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approach been useful for understanding consumer behavior? Explain.
ANSWER: According to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical approach to personality, human behavior is influenced by an
inner struggle between various systems within the personality system. This approach is applicable to both
motivation and personality inquiry, and it consists of three important components: the id, the superego, and the
ego. The id focuses on pleasure-seeking and immediate gratification. It operates on a pleasure principle that
motivates a person to focus on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. The superego works against the id
by motivating behavior that matches societal norms and expectations. The ego focuses on resolving the
conflicts between the id and the superego and works largely in accordance with the reality principle. Under
this principle, the ego seeks to satisfy the id within the constraints of society. In the early days of consumer
research, researchers applied this approach to try to identify explanations for behavior. This was known as the
motivational research era, but proved disappointing because it did not spawn any compelling, practical
consumer behavior theories or guidelines for marketing actions.

125. Define trait. Differentiate between the nomothetic and idiographic approaches.
ANSWER: A trait is defined as a distinguishable characteristic that describes one’s tendency to act in a relatively
consistent manner.
The nomothetic perspective is a “variable-centered” approach that focuses on particular variables, or traits,
that exist across a number of consumers with the goal of finding common personality traits that can be studied
across people. The idiographic perspective, on the other hand, focuses on the total person and the uniqueness
of his or her psychological makeup. The focus, then, is on understanding the complexity of each individual
consumer. The trait approach takes a nomothetic approach to personality.

126. Briefly describe any five important traits found in consumer research that influence consumer behavior.
ANSWER: Students’ answers may vary.
Value Consciousness: It represents the tendency for consumers to focus on
(1)
maximizing what is received from a transaction as compared to what is given.
Materialism: It refers to the extent to which material goods are important in a
(2) consumer’s life. It consists of three separate dimensions: possessiveness,
nongenerosity, and envy.
Innovativeness: It refers to the degree to which a consumer is open to new ideas and
(3) quick to adopt buying new products, services, or experiences early in their
introduction.
Need for Cognition: It refers to the degree to which consumers tend to engage in
(4)
effortful cognitive information processing.
(5) Competitiveness: It refers to an enduring tendency to strive to be better than others.

127. Define brand personality and explain its significance.

ANSWER: Brand personality refers to human characteristics that can be associated with a brand. Brand personalities can
be described across five dimensions including competence, excitement, ruggedness, sincerity, and
sophistication. Brand personalities represent opportunities for companies to differentiate their products and
propagate it as a part of its overall image. Brand personalities also provide marketers with opportunities to
build strong brand relationships with consumers, especially when they have an understanding of their
customer’s personality. The brand personality concept has proven to be valuable even for consumer
researchers. However, current research reveals that understanding a brand’s personality is not enough. Rather,
the appeal of the brand’s personality should be considered. Brand personality appeal refers to a brand’s ability
to appeal to consumers based on the human characteristics associated with it. A brand’s personality should be
perceived as having strong degrees of favorability, originality, and clarity. When consumers view a brand’s
personality in these terms, they are more likely to purchase the brand in question.

128. Explain why lifestyles are important to the study of consumer behavior and describe how consumer lifestyles are
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Chapter 6: Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept

measured.
ANSWER: Consumer lifestyles refer to the ways consumers live and spend their time and money. Personality and
lifestyles are closely related topics. Lifestyles can be referred to as context-specific personality traits. The term
psychographics refers to the way consumer lifestyles are measured. These techniques use quantitative methods
that can be used in developing lifestyle profiles. Psychographic analysis involves surveying consumers using
AIO statements, which are used to gain an understanding of consumers’ activities, interests, and opinions.
Consumer segments very often contain consumers with similar lifestyles, and several classification schemes
have identified lifestyle segments. For example, the VALS (Values and Lifestyles0 classifies consumers into
eight segments based on resources available to the consumer and three primary motivations (ideal motivation,
achievement motivation, and self-expression motivation). PRIZM (Potential Rating Index by ZIP Market) uses
a geodemographic technique that combines data on consumer expenditures and socioeconomic variables with
geographic information in order to identify commonalities in consumption patterns of households in various
regions.

129. Describe the role of self-concept in consumer behavior and describe the various types of self-concepts.
ANSWER: Self-concept refers to the totality of thoughts and feelings that an individual has about him- or herself. It can
be thought of as the way a person defines or gives meaning to his or her own identity, as in a type of self-
schema. A consumer will have a number of “concepts” about him- or herself that may emerge over time and
surface in different social situations.
Consumers are motivated to act in accordance with their self-concepts. As such, consumers often use products
as ways of revealing their self-concepts to others. According to a symbolic interactionism perspective,
consumers agree on the shared meaning of products and symbols. These symbols can become part of the self-
concept if the consumer identifies with them strongly.

The different types of self-concepts are:

Actual self: It refers to how a consumer currently perceives him- or herself (that is,
(1)
who I am).
Ideal self: It refers to how a consumer would like to perceive himself (that is, who I
(2)
would like to be in the future).
Social self: It refers to the belief that a consumer has about how he or she is seen by
others. It is also called the “looking-glass” self because it denotes the image that a
(3)
consumer has when he or she looks into the mirror and imagines how others see him
or her.
Ideal social self: It represents the image that a consumer would like others to have
(4)
about him or her.
(5) Possible self: It presents an image of what the consumer could become.
Extended self: It represents the various possessions that a consumer owns that helps
(6)
him or her form perceptions about him- or herself.

130. Explain self-congruency theory and its relevance to consumer behavior.

ANSWER: Self-congruency theory proposes that much of consumer behavior can be explained by the congruence (match)
between a consumer’s self-concept and the image of typical users of a focal product. Marketers can use
congruency theory by segmenting markets into groups of consumers who perceive high self-concept
congruence with product-user imagery. In this way, brands become vehicles for self-expression.

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