Qualitative Research

What is a Paradigm?

A set of beliefs that a researcher uses to guide the research process

It is a worldview rooted in the researcher's training in the research process. It is the researcher's

experiences with the context in which the research process is going to take place.

Assumptions of a paradigm

 Ethics (Axiology): "How will I be as a moral person in the world?"

 Epistemology: "How do I know the world? What is the relationship between the knower

& the known?"

 Ontology: "What is the nature of reality, & the nature of the human being in the world?"

 Methodology: “What is the best means for gaining knowledge about the world?"

Positivism

"A term coined by August Comte (1798-1857) indicating a philosophy of strict empiricism - the

only genuine or legitimate knowledge claims are those that are founded directly on experience.

Comte sought to advance the project of 'positive knowledge' by distinguishing this kind of

dependable empirical knowledge from claims made by theology & metaphysics."

Characteristics of Positivism

 Ontology: Naïve realism: Our senses are our primary windows to the world. We perceive

the world directly.

  Epistemology: The findings we are dealing with are true because they are rooted in

empirical inquiry. Anyone can check them!

 Methodology: Experimentation, validation, verification - quantitative methods

 Aim of inquiry: Primarily “explanation, prediction & control"

 Goodness or quality criteria: “Conventional bench of 'rigor'; internal & external validity,

reliability & objectivity"

Characteristics of Post positivism

 Ontology: "Critical realism – 'real' reality but only imperfectly & probabilistically

apprehendable"

 Epistemology: What we have found may or may not be true. Everything cannot be

verified. What we have discovered is likely to be true.

 Methodology: "Modified experimental [...] may include qualitative methods."

 Aim of inquiry: Primarily “explanation, prediction & control" Goodness or quality

criteria: “Conventional benchmarks of 'rigor'; internal & external validity, reliability &

objective

 Type of narration: “Scientific report"

Constructivism

 "It is a philosophical perspective interested in the ways in which human beings

individually and collectively interprets or constructs the social and psychological world

in specific linguistic, social, and historical contexts."

  "The constructivist paradigm assumes a relativist ontology (there are multiple realities), a

subjectivist epistemology (knower & respondent cocreate understandings), & a

naturalistic

 The natural world) set of methodological procedures."

Characteristics of constructivism

 Ontology: "Relativism – local & specific constructed realities"

 Epistemology: “ Transaction/ subjective; created findings"

 Methodology: "Hermeneutic/ dialectic"

 Aim of inquiry: “Understanding; reconstruction"

 ■ Goodness or quality criteria: “Trustworthiness & authenticity"

 Narration: "Interpretive case studies”

Critical theory

 Focuses on in depth and thorough understanding of the connection between assumptions,

description, and explanations, and challenges current beliefs in doing so. Emerged out of

Marxism

Characteristics of critical theory

 Ontology: "Historical reality ,virtual reality shaped by

 Social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, & gender values crystallized over time.”

 Epistemology: "Transactional/ subjectivist, value mediated findings."

 Methodology: “Dialogic/ dialectic"

  Aim of inquiry: “Critique & transformation; restitution & emancipation"

 Goodness or quality criteria: "Historical situatedness; erosion of ignorance &

misapprehension;

 Narration: "Historical, economic, sociocultural analyses"

What paradigms exist other than Positivism, Constructivism and Critical theory?

Realism:

This paradigm sits between positivism and constructivism. Realists believe there's an external,

objective reality that exists independent of our minds. However, unlike positivists, they

acknowledge the difficulty of fully accessing this reality and the role of interpretation in our

understanding.

 External Reality: Realists in qualitative research believe there's an objective, external

reality that exists independent of our observations and interpretations. However, unlike

positivists, they acknowledge the difficulty of fully accessing this reality.

 Focus on Mechanisms: Realist qualitative research aims to understand the underlying

mechanisms that generate social phenomena. This might involve examining causal

relationships, power dynamics, and structural factors shaping social experiences.

 Multiple Perspectives: While acknowledging an external reality, realists recognize the

role of multiple perspectives in understanding social phenomena. They might use

triangulation (using multiple data sources) to get a more comprehensive picture.

 Critical Distance: Researchers strive to maintain a critical distance from their research

subjects and avoid letting their own biases unduly influence their interpretations.
Strengths:

 Rigor: The emphasis on external reality and causal mechanisms can lead to more

rigorous and generalizable research findings.

 Understanding Structures: Realist research can provide valuable insights into the social

structures and power dynamics that shape people's experiences.

 Credibility: Triangulation and critical distance can enhance the credibility of research

findings.

Weaknesses:

 Oversimplification: The focus on objective reality might overlook the subjective

experiences and interpretations of research participants.

 Detachment: Maintaining strict critical distance can create a sense of detachment from

the human aspects of the research topic.

 Limited Scope: The emphasis on structures and mechanisms might neglect the agency

and creativity of individuals and groups.

Participatory Action Research (PAR):

This approach emphasizes collaboration and social justice. Researchers work alongside

participants to understand and address social problems. PAR aims to empower participants and

create positive change.

Core Principles:

 Collaboration: PAR emphasizes collaboration between researchers and participants

throughout the research process. Participants are not just subjects, but active partners in

defining the research question, collecting data, and interpreting findings.

 Social Change: The ultimate goal of PAR is not just to generate knowledge, but to use

research findings to create positive social change within the community being studied.

 Empowerment: PAR aims to empower participants by equipping them with research

skills and fostering critical reflection on their own experiences and the social structures

that shape them.

 Action-Oriented: PAR is not just about studying problems; it's about taking action to

address them. Research activities are designed to be cyclical, with findings informing

action, and the results of that action feeding back into further research and refinement of

strategies.

Qualitative Methods in PAR:

PAR utilizes a variety of qualitative research methods to gather data and facilitate collaboration.

Here are some common examples:

 Interviews: In-depth interviews allow participants to share their lived experiences and

perspectives on the issue being researched.

  Focus Groups: Facilitate group discussions to explore shared experiences and generate

collective insights.

 Photo voice: Participants use photography to document their experiences and

perspectives.

 Participant Observation: Researchers actively participate in the community alongside

participants, gaining a deeper understanding of their context.

Strengths of PAR:

 Relevance: Research directly addresses issues relevant to the community and informs

social change efforts.

 Empowerment: Participants gain valuable research skills and a stronger voice in

advocating for change.

 Rich Data: Collaboration leads to rich, contextualized data that captures the lived

experiences of participants.

Challenges of PAR:

 Power Dynamics: Maintaining a truly equitable partnership between researchers and

participants can be challenging, especially when there are pre-existing power imbalances.

 Time Commitment: The collaborative nature of PAR requires a significant time

investment from both researchers and participants.

 Evaluation: Measuring the impact of social change efforts initiated through PAR

research can be complex.

When to Use PAR:

 When you want to address a social problem in collaboration with the community

affected.

 When you want to empower participants and give them a voice in shaping their own

future.

 When you're interested in research that has a direct impact on social change.

Feminist Research:

This paradigm critiques traditional research methods that often overlook or marginalize women's

experiences. Feminist research uses methods that center women's voices and perspectives,

promoting social change and gender equality.

Core Principles:

 Gender Focus: Feminist research centers on women's experiences, knowledge, and

perspectives. It aims to understand gender oppression, inequalities, and how they impact

women's lives.

 Social Justice: A core goal is to promote social justice and challenge patriarchal

structures within society. This might involve advocating for policy changes or raising

awareness of gender-based inequalities.

  Reflexivity: Feminist researchers are constantly aware of their own positionality and how

their gender, race, and class background might influence their research. They strive for

transparency and accountability in their research process.

 Empowerment: Similar to PAR, feminist research aims to empower women by giving

them a voice and platform to share their experiences.

Qualitative Methods Employed:

Feminist researchers utilize a variety of qualitative methods, often choosing those that allow for

rich descriptions of women's lived experiences. Here are some common examples:

 In-Depth Interviews: Create a safe space for women to share their stories in detail.

 Focus Groups: Facilitate discussions where women can share their experiences and learn

from each other.

 Narrative Analysis: Examines women's personal narratives to understand their

experiences of gender and power.

 Ethnography: Provides a deep immersion into the lives and experiences of women in a

particular setting.

Feminist Approaches:

There's not one monolithic "feminist research" approach. Here are some key variations:

 Feminist Standpoint Theory: Argues those women’s experiences, marginalized by

traditional research, offer valuable insights into social structures.

  Feminist Postmodernism: Challenges the idea of objective knowledge and emphasizes

the constructed nature of gender identities.

 Feminist Empiricism: Seeks to combine feminist goals with rigorous qualitative

methods to produce credible evidence of gender inequalities.

Strengths of Feminist Research:

 Empowerment: Gives voice to women and promotes social change.

 Rich Data: Qualitative methods capture the complexities of women's experiences.

 Challenge to Power Structures: Critiques traditional research that often marginalizes

women's perspectives.

Challenges of Feminist Research:

 Balancing Reflexivity and Objectivity: Maintaining a balance between personal

experiences and producing objective research findings can be challenging.

 Essentialism: Avoiding generalizations about all women and acknowledging the

diversity of women's experiences.

 Gaining Access: Accessing marginalized communities and gaining the trust of women

participants can be difficult.

Difference between transcendental and hermeneutic phenomenology

Transcendental Phenomenology (Husserl):

  Focuses on uncovering the universal structures of consciousness that underlie all

experience.

 Aims to "bracket" out (temporarily set aside) our assumptions and biases to get to the

essence of the experience itself.

 Uses a method called "epoché" (Greek for "suspension") to achieve this bracketing.

 Seeks universal truths about consciousness.

Hermeneutic Phenomenology (Heidegger):

 Emphasizes the role of interpretation in understanding experience.

 Views experience as always already shaped by our historical and cultural context.

 Focuses on how we make meaning of our experiences in the world we live in.

 Less concerned with universal structures and more interested in the particularities of

individual experiences.

Comparison of Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis, Content Analysis and

Thematic Analysis

Focus:

 IPA: Deep understanding of individual experiences and the lived world from a

phenomenological perspective (focusing on lived experience).

 Content Analysis: Manifest content of the data, like frequencies of specific words or categories.

Can be quantitative or qualitative.

 Thematic Analysis: Identifying patterns and themes across the data, exploring the "what" and

potentially the "why" behind them.

Process:

 IPA: More structured than pure phenomenology, uses semi-structured interviews, detailed

analysis focusing on individual cases and then moving to identify commonalities across

participants.

 Content Analysis: Coding data based on a pre-determined coding scheme or developing codes

from the data itself. Can involve counting frequencies or using more qualitative coding

approaches.

 Thematic Analysis: Flexible approach, involves coding data and then iteratively developing and

refining themes based on the data. Can be inductive (themes emerge from data) or deductive

(themes based on existing theory).

Outcomes:

 IPA: Rich descriptions of individual experiences and the essence of the phenomenon under

study.

 Content Analysis: Quantification of specific content or identification of dominant themes.

 Thematic Analysis: A range of themes that capture the key patterns and meanings in the data.

How to choose?

The best method for your research depends on your research question and the type of data you

have.
 Use IPA if you want to understand the lived experiences of individuals in detail.

 Use content analysis if you're interested in quantifying specific content or identifying dominant

themes.

 Use thematic analysis for a flexible approach to identify themes across your data.

Comparison of Research Designs

Qualitative Research Designs:

 Focus: Understanding experiences, meanings, and social phenomena from the

participants' perspective.

 Data Collection: Interviews, focus groups, observations, document analysis.

 Analysis: Thematic analysis, narrative analysis, discourse analysis.

Types:

 Ethnography: Deep immersion in a cultural setting to understand the way of life of a

particular group. (Strengths: Rich data, contextual understanding. Weaknesses: Time-

consuming, researcher bias).

 Phenomenology: Explores lived experiences of a phenomenon from the participants'

perspectives. (Strengths: In-depth understanding, rich data. Weaknesses: Limited

generalizability, subjective).

 Case Study: Intensive investigation of a single individual, group, or event. (Strengths:

Detailed understanding, useful for unique cases. Weaknesses: Limited generalizability

can be subjective).
  In-depth Interviews: One-on-one conversations that allow participants to share their

experiences in detail.

 Focus Groups: Group discussions where participants share perspectives and build on

each other's ideas.

 Observation: Researchers observe participants in their natural settings, recording their

behaviors and interactions.

Quantitative Research

 Focus: Testing hypotheses and measuring variables to understand relationships and make

generalizations.

 Data Collection: Surveys, experiments, existing datasets.

 Analysis: Statistical analysis to test hypotheses and identify relationships between

variables.

Types:

 Experimental Design: Manipulates variables to assess their causal effects on other

variables. (Strengths: Strong internal validity, causality. Weaknesses: Artificial setting,

limited generalizability).

 Quasi-Experimental Design: Similar to experiments but lacks random assignment of

participants, limiting causal inferences. (Strengths: Useful when experiments are not

feasible. Weaknesses: Weaker internal validity, difficulty establishing causality).

  Survey Research: Collects data from a large sample of participants using questionnaires

or interviews. (Strengths: Generalizable findings, efficient data collection. Weaknesses:

Limited depth of data, potential for bias).

Choosing the Right Design:

The choice between qualitative and quantitative research designs depends on your research

question:

 For exploring experiences, meanings, and social phenomena: Qualitative designs are

better suited.

 For testing hypotheses and measuring relationships: Quantitative designs are more

appropriate.

Mixed Methods Design:

 Combines qualitative and quantitative elements within a single study to gain a more

comprehensive understanding of the research question. (Strengths: Benefits from both

qualitative and quantitative approaches. Weaknesses: Increased complexity, data

integration challenges).

Content Analysis

One day last summer, my friend Rahim Khan called from Pakistan. He asked me to come

see him. Standing in the kitchen with the receiver to my ear, I knew it wasn't just Rahim Khan on

the line. It was my past of unatoned sins. After I hung up, I went for a walk along Spreckels Lake

on the northern edge of Golden Gate Park. The early-afternoon sun sparkled on the water where

dozens of miniature boats sailed, propelled by a crisp breeze. Then I glanced up and saw a pair of
kites, red with long blue tails, soaring in the sky. They danced high above the trees on the west

end of the park, over the windmills, floating side by side like a pair of eyes looking down on San

Francisco, the city I now call home. And suddenly Hassan's voice whispered in my head: _For

you, a thousand times over. Hassan the hare lipped kite runner.

Research Question

What is the emotional tone of the passage?

Meaningful Unit

Rahim Khan's call from Pakistan shattered my San Francisco peace. It wasn't just him on the

line, it was my unatoned past. With the receiver down, I walked by Spreckels Lake, the sun

sparkling on miniature boats. Kites, red with blue tails, danced high above, like watchful eyes

over the city I call home. Hassan's voice echoed, "For you, a thousand times over."

Condensed Meaningful Unit

A phone call disrupts the narrator's present, dragging him back to face past mistakes

Code

Troubled past, inner turmoil, disturbing memory of an old friend

Category

Guilt

Theme

Internal struggle with guilt and regret

 Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis

Research Question

How is the social life of old women living alone?

Transcription

In this step the researcher transcribes every word spoken during the interview.

Reading and Re-reading

In this step the researcher will read the transcription again and again to familiarize himself with

the data.

Reflexive Journal

In this step the researcher makes his personal notes which include his own feelings,

presumptions and biases regarding the research as well as initial understanding of the data.

Coding

Phenomenological Coding Transcription Interpretive Coding

Mentions of being alone, I usually spend most of my Lack of Social Interaction

lacking social interaction. time alone a home watching

my favorite shows

References to deceased friend Specially after my best friend Loss of Loved Ones

died struggling with cancer

Expressions of desire for I wish to go out more often Yearning for Connection
companionship. my I don’t have people in my

social circle who truly

understand me

Difficulties using technology As I am old, I am not used to Technological Challenges

to connect with others. these advanced technologies

such as video calls as well.

Positive aspects of spending I am trying to regain my Finding Meaning in Solitude

time alone (e.g., pursuing energy by spending time with

hobbies). myself and doing things that I

always wanted to do but could

not find time to do so.

Theme

Theme of this interview can be Social Isolation.