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Improving Teaching
and Learning through
Internationalisation
Improving Teaching
and Learning through
Internationalisation
By
Betty McDonald
Improving Teaching and Learning through Internationalisation
By Betty McDonald
This book first published 2020
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Copyright © 2020 by Betty McDonald
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN (10): 1-5275-5945-9

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-5945-5
This book is dedicated to Dr. Micah M. McDonald, Marcia E. McDonald-
Howard and Marisa A. McDonald-Hall; my three beautiful, absolutely
adorable and specially gifted children whose sense of personal
responsibility for their own actions ignited the fire and fueled the burning
flames of desire to explore the world through research and writing. Their
spouses and children are part of our treasured heritage.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF EXHIBITS ....................................................................................... ix
PREFACE .................................................................................................. xiii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................. 1

DEFINING INTERNATIONALISATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
1.2 CURRENT RESEARCH IN INTERNATIONALISATION.......................... 11
1.3 TRANSNATIONAL EDUCATION (TNE) ............................................ 16
1.4 TEACHING AND LEARNING............................................................. 19
1.5 CURRENT RESEARCH IN TEACHING AND LEARNING ...................... 28
1.6. CONCLUSION ................................................................................ 48
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................... 50

SALIENT ISSUES IN INTERNATIONALISATION
2.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 50
2.2. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES ........................................................... 57
2.3. PERCEIVED SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF- AWARENESS ................... 66
2.4. SELF-REGULATORY ISSUES .......................................................... 74
2.4.1 Goal Setting .......................................................................... 75
2.4.2 Planning............................................................................... 77
2.4.3 Active Listening ................................................................... 78
2.4.4 Task Engagement and Attention Control ............................. 79
2.4.5 Using flexible learning strategies ......................................... 80
2.4.6 Using effective goal relevant learning strategies .................. 81
2.4.7 Time Management................................................................ 83
2.4.8 Autonomy ............................................................................. 84
2.4.9 Appropriate help-seeking ..................................................... 87
2.4.10 Accepting effective feedback and feedforward .................. 89
2.4.11 Self-Motivation .................................................................. 91
2.5. CURRICULUM INTERNATIONALISATION ....................................... 95
2.6. INCLUSITIVY ............................................................................... 102
2.7. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS ............................................... 104
2.8. INTERNATIONALISATION AT HOME ............................................ 109
2.9. POWER OF MEMORY ................................................................... 115
viii Table of Contents
2.10. FUNDING AND TRANSNATIONAL MOBILITY ............................. 118

2.11. SOCIAL SUPPORT ...................................................................... 121
2.12. E-LEARING............................................................................... 128
2.13. ASSESSMENTS .......................................................................... 131
2.14. CONCLUSION ............................................................................ 135
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................... 138

USEFUL TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES
3.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 138
3.2. VALUES-BASED APPROACHES ................................................... 140
3.3. TRANSFORMATIVE PROCESSES ................................................... 142
3.4 RECOMMENDED ACTIVITIES ....................................................... 148
3.4.1. Set Goals That Motivate You ............................................ 149
3.4.2. Set SMART Goals ............................................................. 150
3.4.3. Set Goals in Writing .......................................................... 150
3.4.4. Make an Action Plan ......................................................... 150
3.4.5. Stick to It ........................................................................... 151
3.4.6. Management ...................................................................... 153
3.5. INTERCULTURAL GROUPWORK ................................................... 156
3.6. RECOMMENDED BEHAVIOURS ................................................... 159
3.6.1. Self Talk ............................................................................ 160
3.6.2. Closed Eyes ....................................................................... 162
3.6.3. Welcoming Failure ............................................................ 163
3.6.4. Questioning ....................................................................... 165
3.6.5. Debriefing ......................................................................... 166
3.7. SELF-EFFICACY APPROACHES .................................................... 172
3.7.1. Index Cards ....................................................................... 173
3.7.2. Anecdotal Records ............................................................ 175
3.7.3. Learning Logs ................................................................... 177
3.7.4.Logbooks ............................................................................ 184
3.7.5. Graphic Organisers ............................................................ 186
3.7.6. Assessments ...................................................................... 192
3.7.7. Reflection ......................................................................... 198
3.8. SOCIAL SUPPORT TIPS................................................................. 212
3.9. CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 215
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 219
INDEX ...................................................................................................... 238

LIST OF EXHIBITS
EXHIBIT 1. 1 INTERNATIONALISATION 1 ...................................................... 1

EXHIBIT 1. 4 INTERNATIONALISATION 4 ..................................................... 7
EXHIBIT 1. 7 INTERNATIONALISATION 7 .................................................... 10
EXHIBIT 1. 8 INTERNATIONALISATION 8 .................................................... 11
EXHIBIT 1. 9 TRANSNATIONAL EDUCATION .............................................. 16
EXHIBIT 1. 10 TEACHING AND LEARNING 1 ............................................... 19
EXHIBIT 1. 11 CONE OF LEARNING ............................................................ 22
EXHIBIT 1. 12 MODEL OF STRATEGIC LEARNING...................................... 23
EXHIBIT 1. 13 PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING .............................................. 25
EXHIBIT 1. 14 KIRKPATRICK’S TRAINING EVALUATION MODEL ............. 26
EXHIBIT 1. 15 APPLICATION OF KIRKPATRICK’S MODEL........................... 27
EXHIBIT 1. 16 RESEARCH IN TEACHING AND LEARNING ........................... 28
EXHIBIT 1. 17 6E + S MODEL OF INSTRUCTION 1 ..................................... 30
EXHIBIT 1. 18 6E + S MODEL OF INSTRUCTION 2 ...................................... 31
EXHIBIT 1. 19 BOPPPS MODEL OF INSTRUCTION ..................................... 32
EXHIBIT 1. 20 PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ....... 36
EXHIBIT 1. 21 ERIKSON’S (1968) STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................. 37
EXHIBIT 1. 22 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT ................................... 40
EXHIBIT 1. 23 DEEP LEARNING ................................................................. 41
EXHIBIT 1. 24 BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL ................... 42
EXHIBIT 1. 25 BANDURA’S NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE
MODELLING ...................................................................................... 44
EXHIBIT 1. 26 SITUATED LEARNING ......................................................... 45
EXHIBIT 1. 27 COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE .............................................. 46
EXHIBIT 1. 28 CONCLUSION 1.................................................................... 48
EXHIBIT 2. 1 ISSUES IN INTERNATIONALISATION ....................................... 50
EXHIBIT 2. 2 DIMENSIONS OF UK PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FRAMEWORK
1 ....................................................................................................... 54
EXHIBIT 2. 3 DIMENSIONS OF UK PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS
FRAMEWORK 2 ................................................................................. 55
x List of Exhibits
EXHIBIT 2. 4 VALUES ............................................................................... 56

EXHIBIT 2. 5 DIFFERENT WAYS OF VIEWING THE WORLD........................... 57
EXHIBIT 2. 6 VISUAL SPATIAL LEARNERS .................................................. 58
EXHIBIT 2. 7 BODILY-KINESTHETIC LEARNERS ......................................... 59
EXHIBIT 2. 8 MUSICAL LEARNERS ............................................................. 60
EXHIBIT 2. 9 INTERPERSONAL LEARNERS .................................................. 61
EXHIBIT 2. 10 INTRAPERSONAL LEARNERS ................................................ 62
EXHIBIT 2. 11 LINGUISTIC LEARNERS ........................................................ 63
EXHIBIT 2. 12 LOGICAL–MATHEMATICAL LEARNERS ................................ 64
EXHIBIT 2. 13 NATURALISTIC LEARNERS................................................... 65
EXHIBIT 2. 14 PERCEIVED SELF-EFFICACY 1 ............................................. 66
EXHIBIT 2. 15 PERCEIVED SELF-EFFICACY 2 ............................................. 67
EXHIBIT 2. 16 CHALLENGE ACCEPTED ..................................................... 68
EXHIBIT 2. 17 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ................................................ 72
EXHIBIT 2. 18 SELF AWARENESS ............................................................... 73
EXHIBIT 2. 19 SELF-REGULATORY ISSUES ................................................ 75
EXHIBIT 2. 20 GOAL SETTING.................................................................... 76
EXHIBIT 2. 21 PLANNING .......................................................................... 77
EXHIBIT 2. 22 ACTIVE LISTENING ............................................................. 78
EXHIBIT 2. 23 TASK ENGAGEMENT AND ATTENTION CONTROL ................ 79
EXHIBIT 2. 24 USING FLEXIBLE LEARNING STRATEGIES ............................ 81
EXHIBIT 2. 25 USING EFFECTIVE GOAL RELEVANT LEARNING STRATEGIES 82
EXHIBIT 2. 26 TIME MANAGEMENT ........................................................... 83
EXHIBIT 2. 27 AUTONOMY ........................................................................ 84
EXHIBIT 2. 28 APPROPRIATE HELP-SEEKING .............................................. 87
EXHIBIT 2. 29 PARTNERSHIP...................................................................... 88
EXHIBIT 2. 30 EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK CYCLE ............................................. 89
EXHIBIT 2. 31 SELF-MOTIVATION ............................................................. 91
EXHIBIT 2. 32 FRAMEWORK FOR LEARNING MOTIVATION WITH EFFECTS ON
SRL .................................................................................................. 93
EXHIBIT 2. 33 CURRICULUM INTERNATIONALISATION .............................. 95
EXHIBIT 2. 34 INCLUSIVITY ..................................................................... 102
EXHIBIT 2. 35 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS...................................... 104
EXHIBIT 2. 36 BIRDS IN COMMUNICATION THROUGH FLIGHT .................. 108
EXHIBIT 2. 37 INTERNATIONALISATION AT HOME ................................... 109
EXHIBIT 2. 38 MIND FULL OR MINDFUL .................................................. 114
EXHIBIT 2. 39 POWER OF MEMORY ......................................................... 115
EXHIBIT 2. 40 FOUR PHASES OF ENCODING .............................................. 116
EXHIBIT 2. 41 MEMORY LOOPS ............................................................... 118
EXHIBIT 2. 42 FUNDING ........................................................................... 119
EXHIBIT 2. 43 TRANSNATIONAL MOBILITY ............................................. 120
Improving Teaching and Learning through Internationalisation xi
EXHIBIT 2. 44 SOCIAL SUPPORTS............................................................. 121

EXHIBIT 2. 45 LEARNING SPACE.............................................................. 123
EXHIBIT 2. 46 EFFECTS OF CLASSROOM TEACHING VARIABLES ............... 124
EXHIBIT 2. 47 E-LEARNING ..................................................................... 128
EXHIBIT 2. 48 ASSESSMENTS ................................................................... 131
EXHIBIT 2. 49 ASSIDERE ......................................................................... 132
EXHIBIT 2. 50 EDUCATIONAL PROCESS.................................................... 133
EXHIBIT 2. 51 CONCLUSION 2.................................................................. 135
EXHIBIT 3. 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES ............................. 138
EXHIBIT 3. 2 VALUES-BASED APPROACHES ............................................ 140
EXHIBIT 3. 3 TRANSFORMATIVE PROCESS 1 ............................................ 143
EXHIBIT 3. 4 THE HABIT CHANGING FRAMEWORK ................................. 144
EXHIBIT 3. 5 IDENTIFYING THE ROUTINE ................................................. 145
EXHIBIT 3. 6 EXPERIMENTING WITH REWARDS ....................................... 146
EXHIBIT 3. 7 ISOLATING THE CUE............................................................ 146
EXHIBIT 3. 8 HAVING A PLAN .................................................................. 147
EXHIBIT 3. 9 SELECTED SELF-REGULATORY ACTIVITIES ........................ 148
EXHIBIT 3. 10 FOCUSED AND DIFFUSE MODES ANALOGY ....................... 154
EXHIBIT 3. 11 SANDWICH TECHNIQUE 1.................................................. 155
EXHIBIT 3. 12 SANDWICH TECHNIQUE 2.................................................. 155
EXHIBIT 3. 13 INTERCULTURAL GROUPWORK ......................................... 156
EXHIBIT 3. 14 FIVE STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT .......................... 157
EXHIBIT 3. 15 RECOMMENDED BAHAVIOURS .......................................... 159
EXHIBIT 3. 16 SELF TALK ........................................................................ 160
EXHIBIT 3. 17 CLOSED EYES ................................................................... 162
EXHIBIT 3. 18 WELCOMING FAILURE ....................................................... 163
EXHIBIT 3. 19 PLAN, DO, CHECK AND ACT ............................................. 164
EXHIBIT 3. 20 QUESTIONING ................................................................... 165
EXHIBIT 3. 21 DEBRIEFING ...................................................................... 166
EXHIBIT 3. 22 REFLECTIVE JOURNAL ..................................................... 169
EXHIBIT 3. 23 SELF MONITORING AND SELF EVALUATION ....................... 171
EXHIBIT 3. 24 SELF-EFFICACY APPROACHES ........................................... 172
EXHIBIT 3. 25 INDEX CARDS ................................................................... 173
EXHIBIT 3. 26 ANECDOTAL RECORDS ...................................................... 176
EXHIBIT 3. 27 SUMMARY SHEET FOR ANECDOTAL RECORDS ................. 176
EXHIBIT 3. 28 LEARNING LOGS................................................................ 178
EXHIBIT 3. 29 LEARNING LOG ENTRY 1 ................................................. 179
EXHIBIT 3. 30 LEARNING LOG ENTRY 2 ................................................. 179
EXHIBIT 3. 31 LEARNING LOG ENTRY 3 .................................................. 180
EXHIBIT 3. 32 LEARNING LOG ENTRY 4 .................................................. 180
EXHIBIT 3. 33 SUMMARY OF LESSONS LEARNED...................................... 183
xii List of Exhibits
EXHIBIT 3. 34 LEARNING LOG 1 .............................................................. 183

EXHIBIT 3. 35 LEARNING LOG 2 ............................................................. 183
EXHIBIT 3. 36 LOGBOOK ......................................................................... 184
EXHIBIT 3. 37 ASSESSMENT OF LOGBOOKS ............................................. 186
EXHIBIT 3. 38 GRAPHIC ORGANISER 1..................................................... 186
EXHIBIT 3. 39 GRAPHIC ORGANISER 2 .................................................... 188
EXHIBIT 3. 42 GRAPHIC ORGANISER 5..................................................... 192
EXHIBIT 3. 43 ASSESSMENTS ................................................................... 192
EXHIBIT 3. 44 AGREED UPON RUBRIC ...................................................... 194
EXHIBIT 3. 45 JOURNALING ASSESSMENT ............................................... 195
EXHIBIT 3. 46 REFLECTION ..................................................................... 198
EXHIBIT 3. 47 REFLECTION EXERCISE IN QUESTION FORMAT ................. 201
EXHIBIT 3. 48 REFLECTION EXERCISE IN TABULAR FORMAT .................. 202
EXHIBIT 3. 49 REFLECTION EXERCISE IN COMPLETION FORMAT ............ 203
EXHIBIT 3. 50 REFLECTION EXERCISE IN LINED FORMAT........................ 204
EXHIBIT 3. 51 REFLECTION EXERCISE IN GRAPHIC FORMAT ................... 205
EXHIBIT 3. 52 REFLECTION INSTRUMENT IN SHAPE FORMAT .................. 206
EXHIBIT 3. 53 INTERNATIONALISATION IN ACTION .................................. 207
EXHIBIT 3. 54 COLLABORATIVE REFLECTION ......................................... 208
EXHIBIT 3. 55 COLLABORATIVE GROUP REFLECTION............................. 209
EXHIBIT 3. 56 TASKS FOR COLLABORATIVE REFLECTION ....................... 210
EXHIBIT 3. 57 SCAFFOLDING ................................................................... 211
EXHIBIT 3. 58 SOCIAL SUPPORT .............................................................. 212
EXHIBIT 3. 59 SOCIAL SUPPORT TIPS ...................................................... 213
EXHIBIT 3. 60 CONCLUSION.................................................................... 215
PREFACE
‘Internationalisation is like creating a round-toed shoe that fits people with all
types of feet. It is not as comfortable as a perfectly fitted shoe and doesn’t fit
snugly, but can be worn by many people.’
—David DeBry
It is without doubt that the world has become a global village where
footprints of interdependence and connectiveness supersede those of
independence and isolation. Fueled and accelerated by globalisation, one
key agenda item of great importance to most Higher Education (HE)
institutions across the planet is internationalisation; the zeitgeist of the 21st
Century. The international HE landscape continues to change astronomically
with time as mobility increases. Hence, a thorough understanding of the
conditions for student learning and deep educational change in HE is
mandatory if internationalisation is to effectively impact teaching and
learning practices. Such understanding is one of the main highlights of this
present book that is part of my series called Improving Teaching and
Learning through … My other books in this series address topics like
Disruptive Thinking, Assessment, Synoptic Assessment, Self-Regulation,
Revision, Remediation, and Reflection.
A number of HE institutions are purposely changing in response to

increasing geopolitical and economic imperatives to ‘become international’
(Robson, 2016). More and more countries around the globe are buying into
the idea of attracting international students. Every year I have more
international students added to my online teaching and doctoral supervision
portfolio! Kahane (2009) noted that the diversity of 21st century higher
education can provide rich opportunities for developing ‘a more globalised
sense of responsibility and citizenship’ (p. 49). Moreover, learners can be
better prepared for an interdependent and interconnected world.
Today more than ever before, increasing numbers of perspicacious academics

have also seen the need to explore new cross-cultural frontiers in their
search for novel ideas and perspectives outside their place of residence and
seek international employment upon course completion. With the
astronomical explosion of information by virtue of the presence of the
Internet and associated software, getting and staying in contact have become
xiv Preface
increasingly easy so that exchanges among persons are no longer restricted

by geographic boundaries.
Needless to say, especially over the past few decades, my mere personal
observation has shown an exponential expansion particularly in the tertiary
education sector. Such expansion is in keeping with fulfilling the needs of
local, national and regional markets; the generation of economic growth; the
development of human capital; stimulation of innovation and research;
international collaborations, co-operation and partnerships; capacity building;
to mention a few. In their report in an article entitled ‘The shape of things
to come: higher education global trends and emerging opportunities to 2020’,
The British Council reported education is the fifth largest service export
sector in the UK economy (p. 10), with speculations that other countries like
Australia and New Zealand have similar experiences.
In fact, teaching and learning have taken on new meaning as more and more
individuals see the critical need to explore international arenas in order to
make their disciplines relevant in today’s world. Most educational
institutions have made internationalisation an integral part of their agendas,
with the understanding that isolation and insularity could only serve to
weaken their existence and render their current efforts null and void in this
21st Century.
Through a ‘critically reflective interdisciplinary discussion’, this book seeks

to underscore the significance of internationalisation in raising and
maintaining education standards in general and more so improving teaching
and learning in particular. Educational, cultural, social and spatial
perspectives are discussed at length. Needless to say, education is often
seen as a significant contributor to economic development and future
sustainability in a competitive age of ever decreasing resources, marked by
climatic and geopolitical changes worldwide. Administrators, managers,
practitioners and students in HE would find invaluable tips (especially in
Chapter Three) to help make their international experiences more rewarding
and fulfilling.
Most educational institutions especially at the tertiary level regard

internationalisation as critical for the survival in a rapidly changing global
environment. Quality assurance needs to be benchmarked internationally if
continuous improvement must be achieved and maintained. Such institutions
are concerned with outward and inward student mobility ratios; promoting
internal diversity; ‘global relevance’; and raising quality standards by
competitively attracting the best and brightest staff, faculty and students
Improving Teaching and Learning through Internationalisation xv
worldwide, who hopefully would generate much needed revenue in the face
of dwindling government and international funding. Inevitably, through
resultant global partnerships and diversity, knowledge explosion will be
evident despite decreased investment in higher education across numerous
countries around the globe.
The British Council in its article entitled ‘The shape of things to come:
higher education global trends and emerging opportunities to 2020’, ‘details
the impact of demographic and economic drivers on the changing higher
education landscape in the next decade’ (p. 3). Providing a ‘rigorous analysis
of prevailing trends that are shaping higher education globally’, the article
looks into the next decade to determine how opportunities will develop.
Emerging markets for international students and fastest growing education
systems for international collaboration in teaching [and by extension
learning] and research are essential predictions disclosed. I hasten to add
that according to Cohen, Yemeni and Sadeh (2013) the international dimension
can be complicated as the “other” or “foreigner” can refer to those who are
not of the country’s majority population or to other nationalities from
outside the country. The definition of an “international” versus “local”
dimension is thus more complex among heterogenic, segregated populations’
(p. 4).
Quotations from well known persons in the public domain purposefully

scattered throughout this book serve to anchor the reader in preparation for
the contents of the corresponding sections. Experience has shown that such
quotations effectively serve as an essential form of genuine motivation and
accordingly may be successfully echoed to learners when appropriate.
Interspaced in the text are numerous shareware graphics operating under

The Creative Commons license that not only break the possible monotony
usually experienced by many readers, but serve to engage and stimulate
thought and in many known instances bring comic relief. These exhibits
serve to capture and undoubtedly hold the attention of readers and help them
to focus on the contents of the various sections at hand. The apparent
preponderance of exhibits at first sight serve to reinforce ideas so that
readers are better able to internalise those ideas and concepts discussed. At
a cursory glance, what may well be easily misconstrued as too many
exhibits, would be much better interpreted as a novel, innovative and
unusual presentation, with a variation of conventional format, that is meant
to have the reader truly appreciate the well known saying, ‘a picture is worth
a thousand words’!
xvi Preface
With sincerest gratitude, I acknowledge the contributions of all stakeholders

who continue to uphold internationalisation as the catalyst for pushing the
frontiers of lifelong education to the benefit of all concerned. To all my
colleagues, faculty, students, supporters and well wishers, I say a great, big
thank you. Enjoy!
Professor Betty McDonald, Ph.D, FHEA

CHAPTER ONE
DEFINING INTERNATIONALISATION
‘The Earth is round but, for most purposes, it’s sensible to treat it as flat.’
—Theodore Levitt
1.1 Introduction
‘Think globally, act locally.’
—Akio Morita
Exhibit 1. 1 Internationalisation 1
According to Wihlborg and Robson (2018), ‘internationalisation has become

an agenda of growing strategic importance to Higher Education (HE)
institutions across the world, driven by the influences of globalisation’ (p.
8). Robson (2016) observed that ‘HE institutions are changing rapidly in
response to increasing geopolitical and economic imperatives, to ‘become
international’. Internationalisation is immediately relevant to higher education
institutions, for reasons of quality promotion, competitiveness and their
relevance to contemporary society … Internationalisation is thus closely
2 Chapter One
linked to institutional development and strategy, and should be the concern

of the institution’s governing body and top management (Crowther, 2015,
p. 40). Some institutions have chosen to use the term Comparative
Education to encompass all matters pertaining to Internationalisation.
Connell (2013) and Matthews (2014) noted that governments have

instituted national policies that treat internationalisation as a vehicle for
growth and income generation in the HE sector. In fact, as posited by the
researchers, more and more governments treat HE as a service industry
primarily because of competing economic obligations. Accordingly,
internationalisation strategies tend to focus predominantly on student and
staff outward and inward transnational mobility with its corresponding
increase in their recruitment and the intentional development of
international partnerships for research and publications. It is not surprising
that success of HE institutions is premised on metrics reflecting the
foregoing factors, thereby creating and sustaining a ‘prestige culture’ (West
& Rice, 2012). Numerous researchers like Blackmore, Blackwell and
Edmondson (2016); Knobel, Simões and de Brito Cruz (2013) were careful
to point out that a prestige culture has arisen that dictates whether
universities are perceived to be ‘excellent’ or ‘world class’ in terms of
research, teaching and the student experience.
It is not surprising that Robson and Wihlborg (2019) noted Connell’s

poignant comment, ‘A first-order effect of the neoliberal turn is to
instrumentalise research and teaching. Research that benefits a corporate or
organisational interest, or fits a politician’s definition of national priorities,
is encouraged’ (p. 128). Moreover, subscribing to a perspective grounded in
philosophies that privilege individual development (by positioning the
learner in HE as autonomous especially in many ‘Western’ contexts) further
underscores the need for internationalisation that promises to provide
‘freedom’ of thought and actions.
Beginning from a rather simplistic stance, Merriam-Webster’s dictionary

defines internationalisation as the noun form of the word internationalise
which means to place (something) under international control; to make
(something) involve or affect two or more countries. Internationalisation
may be regarded as the process of planning and implementing products and
services so that they can easily be adapted to specific local languages and
cultures, a process called localisation. For Sanderson (2004), becoming
internationalised is to be a ‘personal journey of deconstruction and
reconstruction’ (p. 16). In other words, each individual has the personal
responsibility to ‘deconstruct’ and ‘reconstruct’ if s/he is to be able to
Improving Teaching and Learning through Internationalisation 3
appreciate the real value of internationalisation. Varying degrees of effort

may be required but what is certain to me is that automaticity would never
address, far more solve, the inherent challenges of internationalisation.
In a sense, internationalisation may be regarded as spanning the knowledge

base of any discipline. This includes not only learning and teaching
materials (content and strategies used) but global values and trends of the
discipline. Educational policies, research and employability skills are also
included. It is through internationalisation that learners acquire intercultural
knowledge, skills and competencies that are expected to enable them to
participate globally in the competitive job market. Accordingly, learning
outcomes need to make reference to intercultural competencies as well as
professional practice as it is exercised in different parts of the world.
Additionally, learning materials need to be selected in such a manner that

consideration is duly given to the myriad of ways that knowledge is
constructed in different cultures. Needless to say, assessments must reflect
not only local or regional practices but also international norms.
Unfortunately, the Higher Education sector where most internationalisation
is evident is seriously challenged by increasingly profound economic,
social, religious and cultural issues. Among those are unfavourable
demographic trends, immigration, ethnic and religious tensions as well as
troubling financial crises.
4 Chapter One
In describing internationalisation, Joseph, Marginson and Yang (2005)

referred to global convergence and encounters where differences bring
transformations in people’s living practices…This is true of all walks of life,
but particularly true of education (p. 3). Yang (2005) affirmed that a nation’s
history, indigenous populations, culture and resources shape its relationships
with other countries. My personal experience living and working in
countries other than the place of my birth and upbringing confirm that even
at the individual level, this observation holds true and to some extent, helps
to shape our relationship with individuals from countries other than our
own. For example, as a nation we have been swamped with thousands of
illegal immigrants from neighbouring countries and this has caused no end
of tensions and conflicts among locals and immigrants, thereby exacerbating
long held prejudices and evidently reshaping the kinds of relationships we
currently have. In a similar way, Trahar (2011) pointed out the gulf
‘between the marketing strategies employed by such organisations as the
British Council, which promotes opportunities for mutual understanding
offered by the fresh and enriching perspectives of international students and
the experiences of academics and students’ (p. 8). Yet Knight (2004) posited
that internationalisation is ‘the process of integrating an international,
intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery
of post-secondary education’ (p.11); a definition that articulates
internationalisation as a process, with international and intercultural
dimensions of the curriculum.
Interestingly, Shaffer et al. (2017) conceptualised internationalisation as a

‘process where cross-cultural challenges are addressed, deliberative
pedagogies are developed, and curriculum and the broader higher education
experience is enriched to encourage individual and collective agency and
engagement with the complex challenges facing society’ (p. 127). These
researchers were careful to note that there are cultural challenges that must
be spoken to and in that vein, the curriculum intentionally needs to address
contemporary complex societal issues. Personal experience from working
with an Erasmus + Project demonstrates how very well cross cultural
challenges are effectivley addressed to ensure that goals are achieved and
all participants are fully engaged in the project.
Often or perhaps formerly referred to as globalisation by many (despite

being different (OECD, 1999, p. 14), researchers have differentiated
between globalisation and internationalisation. For instance, Altbach and
Knight (2007) contended that globalisation is the context of economic and
academic trends that are part of the reality of the 21st century.
Internationalisation includes the policies and practices undertaken by
academic systems and institutions – and even - individuals – to cope with

the global academic environment… Globalisation may be unalterable but
internationalisation involves many choices (p. 290 - 291). The researcher
Vaira (2004) unhesitatingly posited that the ‘centrality of higher education
institutions in the globalised world’ mandates the relationships between
globalisation and higher education to be ‘acuter, perplexing and open to
multiple and divergent accounts’ (p. 484).
In discussion on new approaches to research, Robson (2011) referred to

internationalisation as a multidimensional, dynamic and potentially
transformative process in Higher Education (HE). The literature seems to
suggest that internationalisation of HE took preeminence in Europe during
the 1990s. As a matter of interest, Mok and Lee (2003) postulated another
term, ‘glocalisation’ which “can be divided into the terms ‘global’ and
‘localization’: a global outlook adapted to local conditions” (p. 35).
Meanwhile Teichler (2004) defined internationalisation as ‘the totality of

substantial changes in the context and inner life of HE relative to an
increasing frequency of border-crossing activities amidst a persistence of
national systems’ (p. 22). He was careful to highlight salient similarities
among the terms internationalisation, Europeanisation and globalisation by
noting a similar trend or policy direction away from internal, more or less
simple ‘closed national’ systems of HE, to a more complex system
involving more participants over a longer distance including crossing
borders. Additionally, Teichler noted that the three terms make reference
6 Chapter One
to the ‘changing context that poses a challenge for HE or to changes which

occur within HE itself’ (p. 7).
As far as Mok (2003) was concerned, internationalisation of higher

education involved ‘market-related strategies such as…encouraging
academics and universities to engage in business and market-like activities
to generate revenue’ (p. 123), including the recruitment of international
students. This researcher also viewed internationalisation of higher
education as serving the interests of reducing the financial burden of the
state. Interestingly, Kreber (2009) proposed that the word ‘internationalisation’
communicates ‘an ethos of mutuality and practices geared at strengthening
cooperation…By encouraging greater internationalisation across teaching,
research and service activities, the quality of higher education can be
enriched’ (p. 2-3).
Moreover, ‘internationalisation, Europeanisation and globalisation each

address the process of internationalisation with a different emphasis’ (p. 22).
Teichler identified two important respects in which internationalisation,
Europeanisation and globalisation differ. Whilst internationalisation tends
to address ‘an increase of border-crossing activities amidst a more or less
persistence of national systems of HE’ (p. 7), globalisation tends to assume
that borders and national systems get blurred or might disappear. To
Teichler, Europeanisation may be considered as a regional version of either
internationalisation and globalisation, although Race (1997) believed
Europeanisation is more the regional version of internationalisation than of
globalisation.
Teichler (2004) further noted that while internationalisation is often

discussed in relation to physical mobility, academic cooperation, academic
knowledge transfer and international education, Europeanisation frequently
refers to ‘cooperation and mobility and covers issues like integration,
convergence of contexts, structures and substance’ (p. 7). The researcher
pointed out that Europeanisation is often addressed when reference is made
to cooperation and mobility and also covers issues like integration,
convergence of contexts, structures, substance and segmentation between
regions of the world’ (p. 7). Finally, he claimed that globalisation is
frequently associated with competition, market-steering, trans-national
education and commercial knowledge transfer as supported by a number of
other researchers like El-Khawas (1994); Lenn (1999); Middlehurst (2000)
and Sadlak (2001).
Wihlborg and Robson (2018) posited that internationalisation is often

associated with success in terms of research funding; international student
and staff recruitment; and coauthorship with international research partners,
which help to determine the position of HE institutions in influential global
university rankings like Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) and the Times Higher
Education World rankings. The researchers also noted that The Council of
Europe urges member states to enrol students from third world countries;
facilitate exchange and mobility of students and staff, projects and
knowledge; and engage in academic and research cooperation, in an effort
to nurture ‘an international culture’. As mentioned earlier, Robson (2016)
noted that HE institutions are changing rapidly in response to increasing
geopolitical and economic imperatives, to ‘become international’.
Trahar (2013) differentiated between internationalisation and globalisation.

This researcher viewed internationalisation as the ‘growth of relations
between nations and between national cultures (in that sense internationalisation
has a long history)’, and globalisation as ‘reserved for the growing role of
world systems’ (p. 7). Trahar quoted Marginson (2000) who declared that
these ‘world systems are situated outside and beyond the nation state, even
while bearing the marks of dominant national cultures, particularly
American culture’ (p. 24).
In summarising her discourse on internationalisation of the curriculum:

concepts and working practices, Trahar quoted Altbach and Knight (2007)
as follows: ‘globalisation is the context of economic and academic trends
8 Chapter One
that are part of the reality of the 21st century. Internationalisation includes
the policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and institutions
– and even - individuals – to cope with the global academic environment…
Globalisation may be unalterable but internationalisation involves many
choices (p. 290 -291).
Some experts speak of a sequential approach whereby internationalisation

occurs incrementally from knowledge of the foreign market to capatalising
on the benefits of it. This approach involves a focus on deliberately making
information known to the world whose content adapts to the requirements
and demands of a global audience. Clearly, quality assurance and quality
control are inevitable areas of concern if acceptable standards are to be
maintained across the board.
International students are regarded as those students who are from a country
other than the one in which they are currently studying. The reasons for
choosing to study away from home are as varied as the individual
international students themselves: the desire to be independent; the need to
be away from poverty and possibly unpleasant domestic situations; the urge
to experience life in a different country; the yearning to meet new people
and address global problems; the longing for social mobility; the unending
search for viable opportunities; the craving to be emotionally tied to others
with non similar upbringing; the desire to be at the forefront of technology;
etc. to mention a few in current literature.
It is no small wonder that according to Marmolejo (2010) and Noorda

(2014), internationalisation is commonly positioned as a ‘positive and
important element in the development of Higher Education’ (HE). De Wit
and Hunter (2015) maintained that internationalisation is not a goal in itself,
but a means to enhance the quality of HE. For this reason, Wihlborg and
Robson (2018) maintained that ‘moving outside the purely instrumental and
transmission-based view of education that has informed many
internationalisation strategies to date and instead to view the phenomena
through the lens of becoming knowledgeable in a globalised world’ (p. 10)
should yield much valuable information. The researchers posited that
merely focusing principally on economic imperatives would result in a loss
of numerous opportunities available from internationalisation. Some salient
advantages of internationalisation include students and staff educational and
research enrichment experiences. Needless to add, internationalisation can
undoubtedly catalyse valuable HE contributions to society at large. If we
are to experience systemic change in internationalisation of HE, Wihlborg
and Robson recommend reconceptualising knowledge, research and
teaching ‘through a more holistic, cross-disciplinary and transversal
approach’ (p. 10). Accordingly, the researchers advised a readjustment of
research approaches that would address ‘new types of challenges and their
implications for internationalisation strategies’ (p. 10).
Taking another stance, Teichler (2004) questioned whether globalisation of

higher education should be viewed as a manifestation of "turbo-capitalism"
10 Chapter One
or as a move towards "global understanding" (p. 5). He viewed

internationalisation as the ‘growing border-crossing activities between
national systems of higher education’ and posited that it is ‘losing ground
to globalisation which he described as ‘border-crossing activities of blurred
national systems which is often employed to depict world-wide trends and
growing global competition’ (p. 5). In his journal article entitled ‘The
changing debate on internationalisation of higher education’ Teichler
speaks to issues of knowledge transfer with specfic reference to the many
tensions between snowballing diversity in higher education and related
struggles to facilitate student prior studies recognition. The researcher
acknowledged diversity of steering and management policies regarding
internationalisation and globalisation. Despite numerous opportunities he
did not hesitate to point out inherent in internationalisation is the possible
destruction of cultural heritage; diminishment of language diversity;
reduction of variety of academic cultures and structures; quality decline; and
‘imperialist take-overs’.
Finally, another dimension of internationalisation and globalisation,

proposed by Otten (2003), is that of the ‘regional/local level of…domestic
multiculturalism’ (p. 13). This appears to be a more local perspective
embedded in the term “cosmopolitanism” as proposed by Caglar (2006, p.
40). Interestingly, within the context of international higher education
Cuccioletta (2001/2002) referred to ‘cosmopolitan citizenship…that
recognises that each person of that nation-state possesses multiple

identities’ (p. 4), which link the individual to his/her own cultural heritage
and the culture of the host country.
Groves, Montes and Carvalho (2017) posited that internationalisation of HE

has a political objective, especially in Europe. These researchers evidenced
their proclamation by pointing to programmes like Erasmus programme and
the ‘Mobility Strategy 2020 for the European Higher Education Area’ that
are thought to be excellent models for good practice, from the viewpoint of
student as well as staff- mobility (Teichler, 2009).
Regardless of one’s perception concerning internationalisation, Wisdom

dictates the obvious benefits that learners can accure from equipping
themselves with an international focus in every area of their lives. From
simply actively engaging with international students in their local settings
to purposefully becoming familiar with international trends and issues
globally, learners can enormously enhance their personal profiles and be of
assistance to others. Let’s now move directly to some current research in
internationalisation in order to provide a better context for this present book.
1.2 Current Research in Internationalisation

‘Globalisation has changed us into a company that searches the world, not
just to sell or to source, but to find intellectual capital - the world's best
talents and greatest ideas.’
—Jack Welch
12 Chapter One
In this section we seek to provide you with contemporary, cutting-edge

research on internationalisation. Nevertheless, we hasten to say that like
every other specialisation researching internationalisation has its challenges.
Accordingly, Robson and Wihlborg (2019) in a series of papers ‘explore
and critique the conceptual and methodological challenges and possibilities
of researching internationalisation. They transcend institutional, disciplinary
and national boundaries, and aim to offer new research approaches,
analytical tools and frameworks, and a robust critique of ideas around
internationalising higher education in Europe and beyond’ (p. 127).
Wihlborg and Robson (2018) noted that importantly there is also a need to
‘readjust our research approaches to address new types of challenges, and
their implications for internationalisation strategies. To bring about systemic
change in the internationalisation of HE, the ways we conceptualise
knowledge, research and teaching need to be reconsidered through a more
holistic, cross-disciplinary and transversal approach’ (p. 10). The researchers
recommended ‘moving outside the purely instrumental and transmission-
based view of education that has informed many internationalisation
strategies to date and instead to view the phenomena through the lens of
becoming knowledgeable in a globalised world’ (p. 10).
In their outstanding report entitled ‘The shape of things to come: higher

education global trends and emerging opportunitites to 2020’, code named
‘Going Global 2020’, the British Council released the results of their
research that looked at four key trends in international higher education, viz.
(i) international student mobility flows in the next decade and the
demographic and economic factors impacting on them; (ii) the emergence
of new models of global higher education partnerships – this includes
teaching partnerships and provision of degrees off-shore; (iii) patterns in
research output and its growing internationalisation; and (iv) commercial
research activities that higher education institutions in different countries
engage in as a response to decreased investment in higher education across
a growing number of countries.
According to the British Council (Going Global 2020) demographic and

economic drivers will impact the changing higher education landscape in
the next decade. For instance, well established relationships have been
identified between gross domestic product (GDP) growth and tertiary
education enrolments. The British Council confirms that such a relationship
is noticeably robust for those emerging economies whose GDP per capita is
less than US$10,000 and ‘where a small increase in the GDP contributes to
a significant rise in the enrolment rate’ (Going Global 2012, p. 3). Their
research has found a significantly strong correlation between student and

trade flows in certain countries, for example Canada, Japan, China, South
Korea and India, where the correlation is above 70 per cent.
The British Council has also noted that the impact of a country’s research
base is another factor which is progressively more determining the country’s
international relevance. Using research citation as a representation for
quality, one report from The British Council supports an impressive body
of empirical evidence that internationally produced research is of higher
quality than local research. Interestingly, this is not because internationally
produced research provides solutions to global challenges and benefits more
than one nation. Their study found that ‘80 per cent of countries’ research
impact is determined by their research collaboration rate’ (Going Global
2012, p. 3).
The foregoing report identified internationally experienced researchers as

having the most highly cited research articles, based on records from
International Comparative Performance of the UK Research Base, The
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (2011). Also recognised
were countries like Switzerland, the Netherlands, the Nordic countries, the
UK and US that generate the highest average citation impact per document.
As naturally expected, demand for international collaboration is indicative

of high quality especially at the institutional level. It is no small wonder that
Harvard, followed by Toronto and Oxford, produces the highest number of
collaborative research articles as reported by The British Council in their
report Going Global 2012 (p. 6). Additionally, as observed, with at least
eight universities having an average research citation impact of more than
80 per cent above the global average, the ‘UK has and will continue to be a
desirable global collaboration partner’(p. 6). The British Council perceived
a strong correlation between citations per document and international
research collaboration rates. The Council noted a significant positive
association while being very careful to point out that statistically such
observation is not proof of causality. Nevertheless, the fact is that for 2010,
‘80 per cent of the variation in citations per document across countries is
‘explained’ by international research collaboration rates’ (p. 6).
Furthermore, The British Council reported that Nobel prizes are increasingly
being won by researchers working in a country other than their country of
birth and more than 60 per cent of the Nobel prize winners in 2010 and 2011
had studied or carried out research abroad. Startling details emerging
showed that ‘44 per cent (8/18) of the Nobel Prize winners in 2010 and 2011
14 Chapter One
won the prize for work in a country other than their country of birth. From
2008 to 2011, the proportion was 33 per cent; 1997 to 2011, the proportion
was 29 per cent; approximately 29 per cent in the 1960s and approximately
15 per cent in the 1920s’ (Going Global 2012, p. 3).
It might be useful here to indicate that emerging from the UK Prime

Minister’s Initiative 2, The Teaching International Students (TIS) project,
was a joint initiative of the Higher Education Academy and the United
Kingdom Council for International Student Affairs. The aim was to provide
guidance for academics on how to provide for the diverse learning needs of
international students that would benefit all of them.
Needless to say, significant and ongoing investment in education is required

in order to maintain a high standard of ethnorelative (as opposed to
ethnocentric) teaching and research that not only caters for the needs of
domestic and international student audiences on one hand, but also resolves
global research challenges on the other. Interestingly, Going Global 2012
was careful to highlight ‘the scope for more effective application of research
excellence into commercial activities which are an under used resource for
generating inward investment and research income from local and global
companies’ (p. 4). ‘Practices of engagement’ between the higher education
system and industry in different countries and observations of international
comparisons speak for themselves. One simply has to record the number of
really successful parternerships between educational institutions and
industry in any given country. Accordingly, The British Council aggressively
supports internationalisation of education in a varitey of ways like by
actively engaging in policy debates in the United Kingdom (UK) and
abroad; supporting the UK sector in its internationalisation work; attracting
the brightest students and scholars to the UK to study and carry out research;
seizing opportunities to deliver a UK education overseas; and providing
support on the ground for teaching and research partnerships’(Going Global
2012, p. 3).
Generating revenue is yet another powerful reason in favour of

internationalisation. In fact, The British Council has noted that ‘global
tertiary enrolments and mobile students [have] followed closely world trade
growth and far outpaced world Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth over
the past 20 years. Increasingly, this expansion is being seen by governments
as means to deliver on national priorities and contribute to economic
growth’ (p. 6). The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (2013)
reported that the UK is the second most popular destination in the world for
PhD. researchers, to the extent that such students contribute more than £8
billion annually to the UK economy.
According to Courtois (2017), one strategic objective of internationalisation

is definitely mobility. The researcher surveyed current practices of Irish
universities as they attempt to increase student participation in international
exchange programmes. One of her burning concerns was equality in the
Irish HE context as she focused on organising and managing exchange
schemes across six sites. She draws data from a wide variety of sources:
documentary analysis of institutional and national strategies; statistical
analysis of university partnerships and student flows; semistructured
interviews; and also a qualitative questionnaire with returning exchange
programme students as well as returning exchange administrative and
academic staff.
Courtois (2017) claimed that ‘increased participation, while a positive

outcome, obscures a growing differentiation in the types of exchange
programmes and destinations’ (p. 99). She posited that there is stratification
among exchange participants leading to ‘differentiated experiences and
outcomes’, exacerbated by ‘pressures of cost-saving, corporatisation and the
employability discourse’. Furthermore, such ‘stratification’ could ‘amplify
other forms of stratification pervading the higher education sector’ (p. 99).
Having studied various kinds of exchange models, Courtois suggested
moving away from an ‘academic focus towards a more easily manageable
model better suited to the massification underway’ (p. 99). In other words,
for less cognitively able students of HE institutions, who by virtue of the
rigourous selection process may have been relegated to academically
devalued ‘second best’ programmes, there could be ‘credit mobility’ which
would allow such students to be equal participants in the overall benefits of
exchanges. This means that there is differentiation according to levels of
academic and programme integration. Should this suggestion be accepted,
by Irish higher education institutions apparent lost of pedagogic opportunities
could be minimised considerably.
Incidentally, Marginson (2013) did note that as systems become more

stratified because of HE expansion there is a tendency to aggravate social
inequality access to the most ‘valuable positional opportunities’. As an
advisor of several international students who have bravely taken it upon
themselves to seek private personal sponsorship, and have automatically
foregone the competitive institutional sponsorship, I can testify to the value
of ‘credit mobility’ proposed by Courtois.
16 Chapter One
Teichler (2004) observed three areas of learning and research related to

internationalisation, viz. knowledge transfer (books, electronic media,
physical mobility-conferences, study abraod, academic staff exchange, joint
curricula and research projects, trans-national education); international
education and research (international relations, foreign languages, etc.); and
border-crossing communication and discourse (experiencing different
culture, theories, methodologies field knowledge, etc.).
Noteworthy, in Maringe and Woodfield’s (2013) ‘Mapping of Rationales of

Internationalisation’ table their ‘pedagogical rationale’ for internationalisation
highlight ‘content, teaching principles and approaches, assessment, support
for learning and the student experience’ (p. 15). The said researchers
suggested developing guidelines for preparing international curricula and
providing workshops for ‘enhancing the pedagogical preparedness of staff
to deal with aspects of international curricula’ as an important key strategy
for internationalisation.
1.3 Transnational Education (TNE)

‘Diversification and globalisation are the keys to the future.’
—Fujio Mitarai
Exhibit 1. 9 Transnational Education
Universities UK (a company limited by guarantee with charitable status and

is financed mainly through subscription from its member institutions)
defined Transnational Education (TNE) as ‘education delivered in a country
other than the country in which the awarding institution is based, e.g.
students based in country Y studying for a degree from a university in
country Z. UK HE TNE refers to UK degree programmes delivered outside
of the UK.’ Interestingly, TNE is defined as an export product by The
Global Alliance for TNE. There are a myriad of ways for transnational
conduct of education: distance education (with or without local support),
twinning programmes, articulation programmes, branch campuses, dual/joint
awards, validations, and franchising arrangements. Defined in a similar
manner, TNE is delivering education where, ‘the learners are located in a
country different from the one where the awarding institution is based’
(Council of Europe, 2002). ‘Code of Good Practice in the Provision of
Transnational Education’ Directorate General IV. DGIV/EDU/HE (2002)
8.
O’Mahony (2014) defined TNE as ‘award- or credit-bearing learning

undertaken by students who are based in a different country from that of the
awarding institution’. The researcher was very careful to point out that
traditional distinctions between home and abroad need to be clearly defined.
Beelen and Jones (2015) were careful to observe that O’Mahony’s
foregoing definition poses questions for Internationalisation at Home, since
an international student enrolled in an offshore university campus may
neither be at home, nor in the country of the awarding university. They
proffer the example of an Indonesian student studying in Singapore on an
Australian degree programme or a Vietnamese student studying in Malaysia
at the campus of a UK university. Hence, Beelen and Jones caution that
students ‘must not be forgotten in the drive to internationalise the
curriculum’.
As mentioned earlier, TNE may be delivered via online, distance learning

that may or may not have local support; local delivery partnerships like
twinning arrangements, franchised delivery, dual and joint degrees,
dual/joint awards, validation and quality arrangements, etc.; or through the
physical presence of the host country in another country (e.g. study centres,
branch campuses, flying faculty, etc.). Both full time and part time study are
accommodated in TNE. There are no restrictions to the academic areas
delivered nor are there limitations to levels of study (undergraduate,
postgraduate taught and postgraduate research).
For students pursuing a foreign qualification without moving from their

country of residence, TNE is particularly attractive. Employers and
governments looking at options for human resource development, including
multinational or global corporations with a geographically dispersed
workforce may also find TNE equally attractive. Additionally, education
providers in search of ways for expansion of their export markets are also
attracted to the possibilities opened up by transnational education. In other
words, TNE can be a win-win for all stakeholders – students, tertiary
18 Chapter One
providers and host governments and economies – if delivered effectively

(Going Global 2012, p. 21).
TNE may be used by some universities to support wider and more extensive
research and academic collaboration. In their report entitled Going Global
2012, The British Council claimed that other universities may also seek to
mitigate against the perceived threat of a decline in inbound international
students – for example as a result of recent and predicted future growth in
domestic tertiary systems (both quantity and quality) in key inbound student
markets such as China, India, Malaysia and other major economies such as
Brazil and Russia.
Observatory on Borderless Higher Education reported that globally there

are some 200 branch campuses presently existing around the world, serving
around 120,000 students, with 37 more set to open by 2013. Among them,
UAE (with 37 campuses) is the most popular host country, and the US (with
78 campuses worldwide) appears to be far the most popular source country.
In 2010–11, there were more than 500,000 students studying entirely
overseas for a degree delivered in full or in part by a UK institution (Going
Global 2012, p. 21).
The British Council noted that across countries there are very different
policy frameworks in place to support and promote TNE, both in terms of
outbound domestic students and inbound overseas students. The Council
observed that such policy frameworks can be opaque, contradictory and
sometimes a source of significant frustration. India, for example is cited as
a country that has so far failed to provide a clear set of guidelines on what
higher education developments and partnerships it will and will not allow.
Another example cited was China where the government often requires
overseas institutions to engage in partnerships with local providers. This
policy is in place to protect and improve the quality standards in their
domestic education market. Other countries, like Brazil and Indonesia, have
legislative frameworks that do not enable overseas providers to make best
use of TNE initiatives.
Knobel, Simões and de Brito Cruz (2013) commented that international

cooperation had become ‘almost a mandatory practice for any individual,
research group or country that would seek visibility on the science and
technology scene’. They disclosed that some very obvious benefits of
mobility like building capacity; knowledge and experience exchange; and
access to facilities unavailable in the home institution could be the prime
focus of many institutions. At this stage we move on to discuss teaching and

learning so we can have a better understanding of some of the proposed
strategies that may be used to improve teaching and learning through
internationalisation.
1.4 Teaching and Learning

‘Internationalisation in HE – a multifaceted palette of opportunities.’
—Wihlborg and Robson
Referenced in https://www.cambridgescholars.com/a-step-by-step-guide-for-using-
uploaded-resources-for-a-fully-online-course
Exhibit 1. 10 Teaching and Learning 1
Exhibit 1.10 presents a number of action verbs, activities and iPad

Applications that may be utilised to address various levels in the cognitive
domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy: remember, understand, apply, analyse,
evaluate, create. As intimated earlier, in order to fully appreciate the part
played by internationalisation in improving teaching and learning, we need
to discuss, in very general terms what we mean by teaching and learning.
20 Chapter One
To begin with, many variables are involved in teaching and learning and
these variables interact in different ways to cause learners to accomplish
their individual goals as they incorporate new knowledge, skills, behaviours
and attitudes to their present learning experiences.
My experience in teaching in different countries around the world, bears

testimony to the fact that teaching and learning are conceptualised in a
myriad of different contexts. This may be true even for different
geographical areas in the same country. For example, in certain rural areas
I have observed that by and large, learners are often passive intakers of
information and knowledge, whilst in more urban areas of the same country
learners are not afraid to interrupt the discourse and share their experiences.
In fact, in certain metropolitan cities, I found that certain international
students from minority groups went to the other extreme to be intentionally
vocal at every possible opportunity! Whatever is the existing situation,
Robson (2011) is convinced that the personal and professional transitions
of individuals and communities are essential to achieve the transformative
potential of internationalisation, not only for individuals but also HE
institutions as well as the societies they serve.
Teaching
‘The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior
teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires.’
—William Arthur Ward
The Old English tæcan, that is of Germanic origin means ‘show, present,
point out.’ That word is related to ‘token’ which comes from an Indo-
European root shared by Greek deiknunai ‘show,’ deigma ‘sample.’
Essentially, in teaching there is a transference of ideas or skills from one
person to another.
Another Old English word for teach (læran), which eventually became the
modern word “learn,” means receiving knowledge, rather than giving it.
Hence, it is easy to see that teaching and learning are inextricably bound as
the former assumes that the latter will occur. Wang and Wang (2015)
posited that teaching and learning are goal-directed, mindful, and effortful
enterprises.
With reference to internationalisation, clarity about teaching and learning is

of vital importance because how both teachers and learners in different parts
of the world understand teaching and learning will significantly influence
what they do with any given learning experience. Teaching should involve
(1) setting out with the intention of someone learning something and (2)
considering people’s feelings, experiences and needs (Hirst, 1974). Another
way of viewing the teaching/lerning nexus may be summarised in the
popular saying, ‘teaching is only teaching if people can take on what is
taught.’ In one sense, everyone at some point in time may be considered a
teacher since he imparts knowledge to or instructs (someone) as to how to
do something or causes (someone) to learn or understand something by
example or experience. Because of this apparent universality of what a
teacher is, considerable confusion may arise in determining who exactly is
fully qualified to teach.
‘To instruct someone… is not a matter of getting him to commit results to

mind. Rather, it is to teach him to participate in the process that makes
possible the establishment of knowledge. We teach a subject not to produce
little living libraries on that subject, but rather to get a student to think
mathematically for himself, to consider matters as an historian does, to take
art in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is a process not a product’
(Bruner, 1966, p. 72).
Teaching is ‘the process of attending to people’s needs, experiences and

feelings, and making specific interventions to help them learn particular
things’ (Smith, 2012, Para. 3). Built into this definition is a consideration
for people’s needs and wishes, not only present but also in the future;
reflection on what might be good for all, including the entire world in which
we live; and making plans for appropriate interventions. Some noteworthy
interventions may be providing a listening ear; questioning; giving relevant
information when appropriate; explaining phenomena; demonstrating in a
step-by-step manner a skill or process; testing understanding and capacity;
and facilitating learning activities like note taking, record keeping,
discussions, assignment writing, simulations and practice, to mention a few.
In order to provide a better understanding of what is involved in teaching,

Smith (2012) explicates the who, what, why and how of teaching. The
teacher’s ability to inculcate and strengthen intellectual and social skills
such as independent learning, thinking, and inquiry; problem solving,
critical thinking, creativity, lifelong curiosity, scepticism, making informed
judgments and articulateness are at the heart of outstanding teaching.
22 Chapter One
Learning
‘Our perspectives on learning matter: what we think about learning
influences where we recognise learning.’
—Wenger
Exhibit 1. 11 Cone of Learning
A process of hypothesis testing, based on probabilistic models is the way in

which Wang and Wang (2015) viewed learning. The researchers insisted
that children learn through play, observation, and explicit teaching. Children
are ‘constantly testing and adjusting their hypotheses based on data
collected from spontaneous experimentation, observation of other people’s
intervention, as well as knowledge and intentional attribution in teaching’
(p. 38). Wang and Wang reasoned that ‘domain-general cognitive abilities
of self-regulation and executive function help children succeed in school by
setting learning goals, focusing their attention on the learning tasks at hand,
resisting temptations, and regulating their emotions.’ The researchers were
careful to point out that because children’s learning strategies show great
variability, both within and across individuals, ‘education should provide
children with opportunities of supported exploration and experimentation,
intentional demonstration and instruction, as well as guided discovery’ (p.
38).
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/self-regulated-
learning.
Exhibit 1. 12 Model of Strategic Learning

24 Chapter One
Driscoll (2000) defined learning as ‘a persisting change in human

performance or performance potential…[which] must come about as a
result of the learner’s experience and interaction with the world’ (p. 11).
Embodied in the foregoing definition of learning are many of the attributes
usually associated with behaviorism, cognitivist, constructivism and
connectivism. These are directly related to the epistemological traditions of
objectivism, pragmatism and interpretivism. For instance, in objectivism
reality is objective and external so that knowledge is gained through
experiences which is a stance similar to behaviourism. In pragmatism reality
is interpreted and knowledge is negotiated through thinking and experience
which is a stand similar to cognitivism. Finally, in interpretivism reality is
internal and knowledge is constructed which is a position similar to
constructivism.
As far as Siemens (2005) was concerned, learning is a process that occurs

within ‘nebulous environments of shifting core elements’ – not entirely
under the control of the individual. As actionable knowledge, Siemens
contended that learning can reside outside of ourselves, for example, within
an organisation or a database and may be focused on connecting specialised
information sets. Siemens posited that it is the connections that enable us to
learn more and that is even more important than our current state of
knowing.
A number of useful theories on teaching and learning have emerged over

the years that impact internationalisation directly or indirectly. While it is
impossible to discuss most of those theories here, it would be useful to
consider a few salient ones. The shift from the cognitive paradigm where
learning was regarded merely as a mental process to the constructivist
paradigm where learning was viewed as the result of knowledge individually
constructed has significant implications for internationalisation. No longer
were learners viewed as passive recipients of information but they now had
a crucial part to play in order to sensibly construct personal meaning of
information provided to satisfy their goals. In addition to certain inherited
qualities, cultural and social backgrounds, etc. learners have to consider
their personal cognitive endowments, multiple intellignences, learning
styles and learning preferences, together with a range of other variables like
goal setting, self-efficacy, self-concept, self-esteem, motivation, etc. that
influence internationalisation.
In her discussion on internationalisation, Trahar focused on three broad,

commonly used perspectives on learning, viz. reception model; constructivist
model; co-constructivist model.
Reception
Constructivist
Co-constructivist
Exhibit 1. 13 Perspectives on learning
Behaviourism is reflected in the reception model. Here, knowledge

comprises a fixed set of ideas or skills that can be transmitted from an
educator to a learner. The latter is seen as a passive recipient and the
educator as the transmitter of information and knowledge. In this realm,
active learning is understood in terms of acquired skills and competencies.
Unfortunately, learners are regarded as challenging if they are not able to
receive the information provided. Trahar suggested that behaviourism
‘permeates higher education discourse in the form of aims, objectives,
learning outcomes. Teaching is considered to be successful when the
outcomes match the aims and objectives that have been established’ (p. 14).
In the constructivist model learners are not mere absorbers of knowledge or

information but they play a very active part in their own learning,
constructing their own meaning as they engage in relevant activities and
interactions with others. Here the educator is not the dispenser of
information but serves as facilitator of learning.
In the co-constructivist model, otherwise referred to as social constructionist

model the educator as well as the learner are indeed very active social
participants interacting with others in a cordial, non threatening atmosphere.
The significant point here is that meaning-making learning occurs through
dialogue, communication and collaboration with others as each person
brings his/her experience to the table.
26 Chapter One
In both teaching and learning, some form of training (especially for

employability and internationalisation) normally occurs. Kirkpatrik’s
(1959) model involving four levels of training evaluation, designed to
objectively measure the effectiveness of training are referenced below.
Exhibit 1. 14 Kirkpatrick’s Training Evaluation Model
Level 1: Reaction
Measuring how engaged people were; how actively they contributed; and
how they reacted to the training can help in understanding how well they
received the training. People need to feel that training is valuable.
Level 2: Learning
This level focuses on measuring what trainees have and have not learned. It
also measures what they think they will be able to do differently as a result
of the said training. How confident trainees are that they can perform tasks;
how motivated they are to make changes; how training has developed their
skills, attitudes, knowledge, confidence and commitment are also worth
measuring.
By identifying what you want to evaluate it is easier to measure how much

your trainees have learned. This means that even before the training begins,
knowledge, skill levels and attitudes of trainees must be tested. When the
training is finished, there is need to test trainees a second time to measure
what they have learned. Oftentimes, interviews or verbal assessments prove
to be valuable.
Exhibit 1. 15 Application of Kirkpatrick’s Model
Level 3: Behavior/competencies
Effectively measuring behavior is a long term process that may take place
over weeks or months following a given initial training. At this level how
well people apply their training may be better understood. Bearing in mind
that oftentimes behavior can only change when conditions are favorable,
this level can also disclose exactly where people might need help.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model recommends developing processes

(referred to as ‘required drivers’) that encourage, reinforce and reward
positive changes in behavior. For example, whenever a team member uses
a new skill effectively, s/he needs to be recognised and the said behaviour
highlighted.
28 Chapter One
Kirkpatrick suggests that one of the best ways to measure behavior is to

conduct observations and interviews. Integrating the use of new skills into
tasks would allow people to have an opportunity to demonstrate what they
know.
Level 4: Results
The final results of training are analysed at this level. Individual and
organisational outcomes that are useful for the business and also for team
members are included here. One major challenge may well be identifying
which outcomes, final results or benefits are most closely linked to the given
training, and to determining effective ways to measure these outcomes in
the long term.
1.5 Current Research in Teaching and Learning

‘An organization's ability to learn, and translate that learning into action
rapidly, is the ultimate competitive advantage.’
—Jack Welch
Exhibit 1. 16 Research in Teaching and Learning

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23. Stanzas 23 and 24 name the twelve Berserkers, the sons of
Arngrim and Eyfura, the story of whom is told in the Hervararsaga
and the Orvar-Oddssaga. Saxo Grammaticus tells of the battle
between them and Hjalmar and Orvar-Odd. Line 1 does not appear
in the manuscript, but is added from the list of names given in the
sagas. The Berserkers were wild warriors, distinguished above all by
the fits of frenzy to which they were subject in battle; during these fits
they howled like wild beasts, foamed at the mouth, and gnawed the
iron rims of their shields. At such times they were proof against steel
or fire, but when the fever abated they were weak. The etymology of
the word berserk is disputed; probably, however, it means “bear-
shirt.”
24. The manuscript omits the first half of line 1, here supplied from
the Orvar-Oddssaga. Bolm: probably the island of Bolmsö, in the
Swedish province of Småland. In the manuscript and in most
editions stanza 24 is followed by lines 3–4 of stanza 22. Some
editors reject line 5 as spurious.
25. In the manuscript line 1 stands after line 4 of stanza 29. Probably
a stanza enumerating Jormunrek’s sons has been lost. Many editors
combine lines 3–4 of stanza 22 and lines 2–4 of [226]stanza 25 into
one stanza. Jormunrek: the historical Ermanarich, king of the Goths,
who died about 376. According to Norse tradition, in which
Jormunrek played a large part, he slew his own sons (cf.
Guthrunarhvot and Hamthesmol). In the saga Jormunrek married
Sigurth’s daughter, Svanhild. Stanzas 25–27 connect Ottar’s descent
with the whole Volsung-Sigurth-Jormunrek-Gjuki genealogy. The
story of Sigurth is the basis for most of the heroic poems of the
Edda, of the famous Volsungasaga, and, in Germany, of the
Nibelungenlied. On his battle with the dragon Fafnir cf. Fafnismol.
26. Volsung: Sigurth’s grandfather and Othin’s great-grandson.

Hjordis: daughter of King Eylimi, wife of Sigmund and mother of
Sigurth. Othlings: cf. stanza 11.
27. Gunnar, Hogni, and Guthrun: the three children of the
Burgundian king Gjuki and his wife Grimhild (Kriemhild); Guthrun
was Sigurth’s wife. Gotthorm, the third brother, who killed Sigurth at
Brynhild’s behest, was Grimhild’s son, and thus a step-son of Gjuki.
These four play an important part in the heroic cycle of Eddic poems.
Cf. Gripisspo, introductory note. [227]
28. In the manuscript and in many editions these two lines stand
between stanzas 33 and 34. The change here made follows Bugge.
The manuscript indicates no gap between stanzas 27 and 29.
Hvethna: wife of King Halfdan of Denmark.
29. The manuscript and many editions include line 1 of stanza 25

after line 4 of stanza 29. The story of Harald Battle-tooth is told in
detail by Saxo Grammaticus. Harald’s father was Hrörek, king of
Denmark; his mother was Auth, daughter of Ivar, king of Sweden.
After Ivar had treacherously destroyed Hrörek, Auth fled with Harald
to Russia, where she married King Rathbarth. Harald’s warlike
career in Norway, and his death on the Bravalla-field at the hands of
his nephew, Sigurth Ring, son of Randver and grandson of
Rathbarth and Auth, were favorite saga themes.
30. At this point begins the fragmentary and interpolated “short

Voluspo” identified by Snorri. The manuscript gives no indication of
the break in the poem’s continuity. Eleven: there [228]are various
references to the “twelve” gods (including Baldr); Snorri
(Gylfaginning, 20–33) lists the following twelve in addition to Othin:
Thor, Baldr, Njorth, Freyr, Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall, Hoth, Vithar, Vali, Ull
and Forseti; he adds Loki as of doubtful divinity. Baldr and Vali: cf.
Voluspo, 32–33.
31. The fragmentary stanzas 31–34 have been regrouped in various

ways, and with many conjectures as to omissions, none of which are
indicated in the manuscript. The order here is as in the manuscript,
except that lines 1–2 of stanza 28 have been transposed from after
line 2 of stanza 33. Bur’s heir: Othin; cf. Voluspo, 4.
32. Freyr, Gerth, Gymir: cf. Skirnismol. Aurbotha: a giantess, mother
of Gerth. Thjazi and Skathi: cf. Lokasenna, 49, and Harbarthsljoth,
19.
33. Cf. Voluspo, 44 and 27.
34. Heith (“Witch”) and Hrossthjof (“Horse-thief”): the only other

reference to the giant Hrimnir (Skirnismol, 28) makes no mention of
his children. [229]
35. This stanza is quoted by Snorri (Gylfaginning, 5). Of Vitholf

(“Forest Wolf”), Vilmeith (“Wish-Tree”) and Svarthofthi (“Black Head”)
nothing further is known. Ymir: cf. Voluspo, 3.
37. According to Snorri (Gylfaginning, 27) Heimdall was the son of

Othin and of nine sisters. As Heimdall was the watchman of the
gods, this has given rise to much “solar myth” discussion. The
names of his nine giantess mothers are frequently said to denote
attributes of the sea.
38. The names of Heimdall’s mothers may be rendered “Yelper,”

“Griper,” “Foamer,” “Sand-Strewer,” “She-Wolf,” “Sorrow-Whelmer,”
“Dusk,” “Fury,” and “Iron-Sword.” [230]
39. It has been suggested that these lines were interpolated from
Guthrunarkvitha II, 22. Some editors add the refrain of stanza 36.
Swine’s blood: to Heimdall’s strength drawn from earth and sea was
added that derived from sacrifice.
40. In the manuscript this stanza stands after stanza 44. Regarding
Heimdall’s kinship to the three great classes of men, cf. Rigsthula,
introductory note, wherein the apparent confusion of his attributes
with those of Othin is discussed.
42. Probably a lacuna before this stanza. Regarding the wolf Fenrir,
born of Loki and the giantess Angrbotha, cf. Voluspo, 39 and note.
Sleipnir: Othin’s eight-legged horse, born of the stallion Svathilfari
and of Loki in the guise of a mare (cf. Grimnismol, 44). The worst:
doubtless referring to Mithgarthsorm, another child of Loki. The
brother of Byleist: Loki; cf. Voluspo, 51. [231]
43. Nothing further is known of the myth here referred to, wherein
Loki (Lopt) eats the cooked heart of a woman and thus himself gives
birth to a monster. The reference is not likely to be to the serpent, as,
according to Snorri (Gylfaginning, 34), the wolf, the serpent, and Hel
were all the children of Loki and Angrbotha.
44. Probably an omission, perhaps of considerable length, before

this stanza. For the description of the destruction of the world, cf.
Voluspo, 57.
45. Cf. Voluspo, 65, where the possible reference to Christianity is

noted. With this stanza the fragmentary “short Voluspo” ends, and
the dialogue between Freyja and Hyndla continues.
46. Freyja now admits the identity of her boar as Ottar, who [232]with
the help of the “memory-beer” is to recall the entire genealogy he
has just heard, and thus win his wager with Angantyr.
47. Heithrun: the she-goat that stands by Valhall (cf. Grimnismol,

25), the name being here used simply of she-goats in general, in
caustic comment on Freyja’s morals. Of these Loki entertained a
similar view; cf. Lokasenna, 30.
48. Oth: cf. stanza 6 and note, and Voluspo, 25 and note. Lines 3–4,
abbreviated in the manuscript, are very likely repeated here by
mistake.
49. The manuscript repeats once again lines 3–4 of stanza 47 as the
last two lines of this stanza. It seems probable that two lines have
been lost, to the effect that Freyja will burn the giantess alive “If
swiftly now | thou dost not seek, / And hither bring | the
memory-beer.” [234]
[Contents]
SVIPDAGSMOL
The Ballad of Svipdag
[Contents]
Introductory Note
The two poems, Grougaldr (Groa’s Spell) and Fjolsvinnsmol (the
Ballad of Fjolsvith), which many editors have, very wisely, united
under the single title of Svipdagsmol, are found only in paper
manuscripts, none of them antedating the seventeenth century.
Everything points to a relatively late origin for the poems: their
extensive use of “kennings” or poetical circumlocutions, their
romantic spirit, quite foreign to the character of the unquestionably
older poems, the absence of any reference to them in the earlier
documents, the frequent errors in mythology, and, finally, the fact that
the poems appear to have been preserved in unusually good
condition. Whether or not a connecting link of narrative verse joining
the two parts has been lost is an open question; on the whole it
seems likely that the story was sufficiently well known so that the
reciter of the poem (or poems) merely filled in the gap with a brief
prose summary in pretty much his own words. The general
relationship between dialogue and narrative in the Eddic poems is
discussed in the introductory note to the Grimnismol, in connection
with the use of prose links.
The love story of Svipdag and Mengloth is not referred to elsewhere

in the Poetic Edda, nor does Snorri mention it; however, Groa, who
here appears as Svipdag’s mother, is spoken of by Snorri as a wise
woman, the wife of Orvandil, who helps Thor with her magic charms.
On the other hand, the essence of the story, the hero’s winning of a
bride ringed about by flames, is strongly suggestive of parts of the
Sigurth-Brynhild traditions. Whether or not it is to be regarded as a
nature or solar myth depends entirely on one’s view of the whole
“solar myth” school of criticism, not so highly esteemed today as
formerly; such an interpretation is certainly not necessary to explain
what is, under any circumstances, a very charming romance told, in
the main, with dramatic effectiveness.
In later years the story of Svipdag and Mengloth became popular

throughout the North, and was made the subject of many Danish and
Swedish as well as Norwegian ballads. These have greatly assisted
in the reconstruction of the outlines of the narrative surrounding the
dialogue poems here given.
[Contents]
[235]
I. GROUGALDR
Groa’s Spell
Svipdag spake:
1. “Wake thee, Groa! | wake, mother good!

At the doors of the dead I call thee;
Thy son, bethink thee, | thou badst to seek
Thy help at the hill of death.”
Groa spake:
2. “What evil vexes | mine only son,

What baleful fate hast thou found,
That thou callest thy mother, | who lies in the
mould,
And the world of the living has left?”
Svipdag spake:
3. “The woman false | whom my father embraced

Has brought me a baleful game;
For she bade me go forth | where none may fare,
And Mengloth the maid to seek.”
Groa spake:
4. “Long is the way, | long must thou wander,

But long is love as well;
Thou mayst find, perchance, | what thou fain
wouldst have,
If the fates their favor will give.”
[236]
Svipdag spake:
5. “Charms full good | then chant to me, mother,

And seek thy son to guard;
For death do I fear | on the way I shall fare,
And in years am I young, methinks.”
Groa spake:
6. “Then first I will chant thee | the charm oft-tried,

That Rani taught to Rind;
From the shoulder whate’er | mislikes thee shake,
For helper thyself shalt thou have.
7. “Then next I will chant thee, | if needs thou must

travel,
And wander a purposeless way:
The bolts of Urth | shall on every side
Be thy guards on the road thou goest.
8. “Then third I will chant thee, | if threatening

streams
The danger of death shall bring: [237]
Yet to Hel shall turn | both Horn and Ruth,
And before thee the waters shall fail.
9. “Then fourth I will chant thee, | if come thy foes

On the gallows-way against thee:
Into thine hands | shall their hearts be given,
And peace shall the warriors wish.
10. “Then fifth I will chant thee, | if fetters

perchance
Shall bind thy bending limbs:
O’er thy thighs do I chant | a loosening-charm,
And the lock is burst from the limbs,
And the fetters fall from the feet.
11. “Then sixth I will chant thee, | if storms on the

sea
Have might unknown to man:
Yet never shall wind | or wave do harm,
And calm is the course of thy boat.
12. “Then seventh I chant thee, | if frost shall seek

To kill thee on lofty crags:
The fatal cold | shall not grip thy flesh,
And whole thy body shall be.
[238]
13. “Then eighth will I chant thee, | if ever by night

Thou shalt wander on murky ways:
Yet never the curse | of a Christian woman
From the dead shall do thee harm.
14. “Then ninth will I chant thee, | if needs thou

must strive
With a warlike giant in words:
Thy heart good store | of wit shall have,
And thy mouth of words full wise.
15. “Now fare on the way | where danger waits,

Let evils not lessen thy love!
I have stood at the door | of the earth-fixed stones,
The while I chanted thee charms.
16. “Bear hence, my son, | what thy mother hath

said,
And let it live in thy breast;
Thine ever shall be | the best of fortune,
So long as my words shall last.”
[239]
II. FJOLSVINNSMOL
The Lay of Fjolsvith
17. Before the house | he beheld one coming

To the home of the giants high.
Svipdag spake:
“What giant is here, | in front of the house,

And around him fires are flaming?”
Fjolsvith spake:
18. “What seekest thou here? | for what is thy
search?
What, friendless one, fain wouldst thou know?
By the ways so wet | must thou wander hence,
For, weakling, no home hast thou here.”
Svipdag spake:
19. “What giant is here, | in front of the house,

To the wayfarer welcome denying?”
[240]
Fjolsvith spake:
“Greeting full fair | thou never shalt find,

So hence shalt thou get thee home.
20. “Fjolsvith am I, | and wise am I found,

But miserly am I with meat;
Thou never shalt enter | within the house,—
Go forth like a wolf on thy way!”
Svipdag spake:
21. “Few from the joy | of their eyes will go forth,

When the sight of their loves they seek;
Full bright are the gates | of the golden hall,
And a home shall I here enjoy.”
Fjolsvith spake:
22. “Tell me now, fellow, | what father thou hast,

And the kindred of whom thou camst.”
Svipdag spake:
“Vindkald am I, | and Varkald’s son,

And Fjolkald his father was.
23. “Now answer me, Fjolsvith, | the question I

ask,
For now the truth would I know: [241]
Who is it that holds | and has for his own
The rule of the hall so rich?”
Fjolsvith spake:
24. “Mengloth is she, | her mother bore her

To the son of Svafrthorin;
She is it that holds | and has for her own
The rule of the hall so rich.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
For now the truth would I know:
What call they the gate? | for among the gods
Ne’er saw man so grim a sight.”
Fjolsvith spake:
26. “Thrymgjol they call it; | ’twas made by the

three,
The sons of Solblindi;
And fast as a fetter | the farer it holds,
Whoever shall lift the latch.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What call they the house? | for no man beheld
‘Mongst the gods so grim a sight.”
Fjolsvith spake:
28. “Gastropnir is it, | of old I made it

From the limbs of Leirbrimir;
I braced it so strongly | that fast it shall stand
So long as the world shall last.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What call they the tree | that casts abroad
Its limbs o’er every land?”
Fjolsvith spake:
30. “Mimameith its name, | and no man knows

What root beneath it runs;
And few can guess | what shall fell the tree,
For fire nor iron shall fell it.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What grows from the seed | of the tree so great,
That fire nor iron shall fell?”
Fjolsvith spake:
32. “Women, sick | with child, shall seek

Its fruit to the flames to bear;
Then out shall come | what within was hid,
And so is it mighty with men.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What cock is he | on the highest bough,
That glitters all with gold?”
Fjolsvith spake:
34. “Vithofnir his name, | and now he shines

Like lightning on Mimameith’s limbs;
And great is the trouble | with which he grieves
Both Surt and Sinmora.”
[244]
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What call they the hounds, | that before the house
So fierce and angry are?”
Fjolsvith spake:
36. “Gif call they one, | and Geri the other,

If now the truth thou wouldst know;
Great they are, | and their might will grow,
Till the gods to death are doomed.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
May no man hope | the house to enter,
While the hungry hounds are sleeping?”
Fjolsvith spake:
38. “Together they sleep not, | for so was it fixed

When the guard to them was given;
One sleeps by night, | the next by day,
So no man may enter ever.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
Is there no meat | that men may give them,
And leap within while they eat?”
Fjolsvith spake:
40. “Two wing-joints there be | in Vithofnir’s body,

If now the truth thou wouldst know;
That alone is the meat | that men may give them,
And leap within while they eat.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What weapon can send | Vithofnir to seek
The house of Hel below?”
Fjolsvith spake:
42. “Lævatein is there, | that Lopt with runes

Once made by the doors of death;
In Lægjarn’s chest | by Sinmora lies it,
And nine locks fasten it firm.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
May a man come thence | who thither goes,
And tries the sword to take?”
[246]
Fjolsvith spake:
44. “Thence may he come | who thither goes,

And tries the sword to take,
If with him he carries | what few can win,
To give to the goddess of gold.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What treasure is there | that men may take
To rejoice the giantess pale?”
Fjolsvith spake:
46. “The sickle bright | in thy wallet bear,

Mid Vithofnir’s feathers found;
To Sinmora give it, | and then shall she grant
That the weapon by thee be won.”
Svipdag spake:

ask,
What call they the hall, | encompassed here
With flickering magic flames?”
[247]
Fjolsvith spake:

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This book first published 2020

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright © 2020 by Betty McDonald

ISBN (10): 1-5275-5945-9

LIST OF EXHIBITS ....................................................................................... ix

PREFACE .................................................................................................. xiii

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................... 50

2.10. FUNDING AND TRANSNATIONAL MOBILITY ............................. 118

CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................... 138

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 219

INDEX ...................................................................................................... 238

EXHIBIT 1. 1 INTERNATIONALISATION 1 ...................................................... 1

EXHIBIT 2. 4 VALUES ............................................................................... 56

EXHIBIT 2. 44 SOCIAL SUPPORTS............................................................. 121

EXHIBIT 3. 34 LEARNING LOG 1 .............................................................. 183

A number of HE institutions are purposely changing in response to

Today more than ever before, increasing numbers of perspicacious academics

increasingly easy so that exchanges among persons are no longer restricted

Through a ‘critically reflective interdisciplinary discussion’, this book seeks

Most educational institutions especially at the tertiary level regard

Quotations from well known persons in the public domain purposefully

Interspaced in the text are numerous shareware graphics operating under

With sincerest gratitude, I acknowledge the contributions of all stakeholders

Professor Betty McDonald, Ph.D, FHEA

According to Wihlborg and Robson (2018), ‘internationalisation has become

linked to institutional development and strategy, and should be the concern

Connell (2013) and Matthews (2014) noted that governments have

It is not surprising that Robson and Wihlborg (2019) noted Connell’s

Beginning from a rather simplistic stance, Merriam-Webster’s dictionary

appreciate the real value of internationalisation. Varying degrees of effort

In a sense, internationalisation may be regarded as spanning the knowledge

Additionally, learning materials need to be selected in such a manner that

In describing internationalisation, Joseph, Marginson and Yang (2005)

Interestingly, Shaffer et al. (2017) conceptualised internationalisation as a

Often or perhaps formerly referred to as globalisation by many (despite

academic systems and institutions – and even - individuals – to cope with

In discussion on new approaches to research, Robson (2011) referred to

Meanwhile Teichler (2004) defined internationalisation as ‘the totality of

to the ‘changing context that poses a challenge for HE or to changes which

As far as Mok (2003) was concerned, internationalisation of higher

Moreover, ‘internationalisation, Europeanisation and globalisation each

Teichler (2004) further noted that while internationalisation is often

Wihlborg and Robson (2018) posited that internationalisation is often

Trahar (2013) differentiated between internationalisation and globalisation.

In summarising her discourse on internationalisation of the curriculum: