41 - Enhancing Scrap Reduction in Electric Motor Manufacturing For Theautomotive Industry A Case Study Using The PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) Approach

applied
sciences
Article
Enhancing Scrap Reduction in Electric Motor Manufacturing for
the Automotive Industry: A Case Study Using the PDCA
(Plan–Do–Check–Act) Approach
Miguel-Ángel Rangel-Sánchez 1 , José-De-Jesús Urbina-González 1 , José-Luis Carrera-Escobedo 2,3 ,
Omar-Alejandro Guirette-Barbosa 2,3 , Virgilio-Alfonso Murillo-Rodríguez 3 , José-María Celaya-Padilla 2 ,
Héctor-Antonio Durán-Muñoz 4, * and Oscar Cruz-Domínguez 1,3, *
1 Department of Industrial Engineering, Tecnológico Nacional de Mexico, Campus Fresnillo,

Avenida Tecnológico # 16, Solidaridad, Fresnillo, Zacatecas 99010, Mexico;
miguelangelrangelsanchez103@gmail.com (M.-Á.R.-S.); jose.ug@fresnillo.tecnm.mx (J.-D.-J.U.-G.)
2 Postgraduate Department, Universidad Autónoma de Fresnillo, Carretera Federal Panamericana, Lindavista,
Ejidal 4, Fresnillo, Zacatecas 99039, Mexico; jcarrera@upz.edu.mx (J.-L.C.-E.);
omarguirette@upz.edu.mx (O.-A.G.-B.); jose.celaya@uaz.edu.mx (J.-M.C.-P.)
3 Department of Industrial Engineering, Universidad Politécnica de Zacatecas, Plan de Pardillo Sn,
Parque Industrial, Fresnillo, Zacatecas 99059, Mexico; vmurillo@upz.edu.mx
4 Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Alameda García Cadena 414,
Centro, Zacatecas, Zacatecas 98000, Mexico
* Correspondence: hectorduranm@hotmail.com (H.-A.D.-M.); ocruz@upz.edu.mx (O.C.-D.)
Featured Application: The PDCA (Plan–Do–Check–Act) cycle, coupled with supplementary

quality tools like 5W + 2H (Who, What, When, Where, Why, How, How much), three-legged five-
Citation: Rangel-Sánchez, M.-Á.; why analysis, control charts, and capability analysis, serves as a potent strategy in the automotive
Urbina-González, J.-D.-J.; Carrera- sector for scrap reduction.
Escobedo, J.-L.; Guirette-Barbosa,
O.-A.; Murillo-Rodríguez, V.-A.; Abstract: The automotive industry is increasingly focused on waste management, elimination, and
Celaya-Padilla, J.-M.; Durán-Muñoz, reduction to achieve sustainability and cost reduction. This focus drives the industry towards resource-
H.-A.; Cruz-Domínguez, O.
efficient operations that minimize environmental impact while exceeding customer expectations.
Enhancing Scrap Reduction in Electric
Meeting these demands necessitates the adoption of more efficient production methodologies, such
Motor Manufacturing for the
as the PDCA cycle. This work presents a case study that illustrates the application of the PDCA
Automotive Industry: A Case Study
methodology to minimize scrap generation due to process variability in a multinational company
Using the PDCA (Plan–Do–Check–
Act) Approach. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14,
that manufactures electric motors for the automotive industry. The aim was to demonstrate how
2999. https://doi.org/10.3390/ the PDCA methodology can improve quality standards by minimizing scrap generated during the
app14072999 manufacture of electrical armatures. Notably, the organization in this case study set a waste target of
0.7%, which was significantly exceeded. Finally, the implementation of this methodology can deliver
Academic Editors: Roham Sadeghi
significant economic benefits, with a total annual cost reduction of approximately USD 135,000.
Tabar and Kristina Wärmefjord
Received: 8 February 2024 Keywords: plan–do–check–act (PDCA); scrap; quality tools

Revised: 28 March 2024
Accepted: 29 March 2024
Published: 3 April 2024
1. Introduction
The management and disposal of waste presents a significant and growing challenge,
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
particularly in densely populated areas of developed nations. Managing municipal solid
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
waste (MSW) collection and disposal remains one of the major challenges facing urban
This article is an open access article environments globally [1]. Waste reduction should be a key objective for all companies
distributed under the terms and seeking to achieve sustainability and minimize costs. This imperative has grown more
conditions of the Creative Commons pronounced amid increasingly stringent market demands. Today’s customers expect
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// tailored, high-quality products and services delivered swiftly and consistently. To meet
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ these demands, companies are increasingly focusing on resource-efficient operations that
4.0/). minimize environmental impact while still surpassing customer expectations [2]. Meeting
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14072999 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27
Appl. Sci. Sci.
Appl. 2024, 14, x14,
2024, FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 2 of2 27
of 27
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 2 of 27
these demands, companies are increasingly focusing on resource-efficient operations that
these
minimizedemands, companies
environmental are increasingly
impact while stillfocusingfocusing oncustomer
surpassing resource-efficient
expectations operations
[2]. Meetingthat
these demands,
these
minimize demands, companies
companies
environmental are
impact increasingly
are increasingly
while still focusing
surpassing on on
resource-efficient
resource-efficient
customer expectationsoperations
operations
[2]. thatthat
Meeting
these evolving demands requires the adoption of more flexible flexible production
production processes as
minimize
minimize
these environmental
evolving environmental
demands impactimpact
requires while thestill
while surpassing
still
adoption surpassing customer
of more customer
flexible expectations
expectations
production [2]. Meeting
[2]. Meeting
processes as
well.
well. The
The elimination
elimination of
of non-value-adding
non-value-adding activities
activities within
within the
the production
production workflows
workflows is
is
these
well. evolving
these evolving
The demands
demands
elimination of requires
requires the
non-value-adding adoption
the adoption of more
of
activities more flexible
withinflexible
the production
production
production processes
processes
workflows as is
as
essential
essential for realizing
for realizing this
this objective [3–5].
objective [3–5].activities The automotive
The automotive sector
sector has been at
has been workflowsthe forefront
at the forefront
well. The
well.
essential Theelimination
elimination
for realizing of non-value-adding
of non-value-adding
this objective [3–5]. activities
The automotive within
within the
sector production
the production
has been workflows
at thethat is
forefront is
of
of developing
developing and
and deploying
deploying tools
tools to
to pinpoint,
pinpoint, analyze, and
analyze,sector
and mitigate
mitigate factors
factors that could
could
essential
ofessentialfor
developing realizing
for realizing this
and deploying objective
this objective [3–5].
tools[6]. The
[3–5]. Theautomotive
automotive sector has been
has
to pinpoint, analyze, and mitigate factors that couldbeenat the
at forefront
the forefront
lead
lead to
to competitive
competitive disadvantages
disadvantages [6].
oflead
developing
of developing
to
This and
competitive
case deploying
and
study deploying
disadvantages
illustrates tools
tools
theto[6].pinpoint,
to pinpoint,
application analyze,
analyze, andand mitigate
mitigatefactors
factors that could
that could
lead to This case study
competitive illustrates the
disadvantages [6]. application of of the
the PDCA
PDCA methodology
methodology to to minimize
minimize
leadThis
scrap to competitive
case study
generation disadvantages
illustrates
resulting from the [6].
process application
variability of the
in aaPDCA methodology
multinational company to minimize
engaged
scrap
This generation
case study resulting
illustrates from the process
applicationvariability
of the inPDCA multinational
methodology company
to minimizeengaged
in the This case
manufacture study of illustrates
electric motorsthe application
for the of in
the
automotive PDCA
industry. methodology
Variations towithin
minimize
scrap
in the
scrap
generation
manufacture
generation
resulting
of electric
resulting
from
from
process
motors for
process
variability
the automotive
variability
a multinational
in ainepoxy industry. Variations
multinational
company
company within the
engaged
engaged the
inscrap
“armature”
the generation
manufacture resulting
subassembly,of electric from
which motorsprocess
involve for variability
lamination,
the automotive a multinational
coating,
industry. andcompany
Variations magnetic engaged
within wire
the
“armature”
in“armature”
the manufacture subassembly,
of electric which
motors involve
forfor lamination,
thelamination,
automotive epoxy
industry. coating, and
Variations magnetic
within wire
the
in the
winding manufacture of electric motors the automotive industry. Variations within the
winding (Figures
“armature” (Figures 1–3),
1–3), were
subassembly,
subassembly, were
which
examined.
which
examined. involve
involve
Throughout
Throughout
lamination,
the
the period
epoxy
period
epoxy
from
from January
coating,
coating, January
and
to
and magnetic September
to September
magnetic
wire
wire
“armature”
2022, subassembly, which involve lamination, epoxy coating, and magnetic wire
2022, an
winding
winding an average
(Figures
average
(Figures
scrap
1–3),
scrap
1–3), were
rate
were
rate of
of 2.92%
examined.
examined.
was
2.92%Throughout
was identified
Throughout
identified thefrom
the
period
from
period
aa total
from production
total
from
January to September
production
January to
output
output of
September of
winding
1,173,538
2022, (Figures
units.
an average 1–3),
Figure were
4
scrap4 rate examined.
depicts
of 2.92% the Throughout
monthly
was identified scrap the period
data
from from
documented January
a total production by to
the September
company
output of
1,173,538
2022, an an units.
average Figure
scrap depicts
rate of of the
2.92% monthly
waswas scrap
identified data
from documented
a total by the
production company
output dur-
of of
2022,
during
1,173,538 thisaverage
timeframe.
units. scrap
Figure rate
4 depicts the2.92%monthly identified
scrap data from
documenteda total production
by the company outputdur-
ing thisunits.
1,173,538 timeframe.
Figure 4 depicts the monthly scrap data documented by the company dur-
1,173,538 units.
ing this timeframe. Figure 4 depicts the monthly scrap data documented by the company dur-
inging
thisthis
timeframe.
timeframe.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Lamination
Lamination sub-process.
sub-process.
Figure 1. Lamination sub-process.
Figure 1. Lamination
Figure sub-process.
1. Lamination sub-process.
Figure 2. Epoxy coating addition sub-process.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Epoxy
Epoxy coating
coating addition
addition sub-process.
sub-process.
Figure 2. Epoxy
Figure coating
2. Epoxy addition
coating sub-process.
addition sub-process.
Figure 3. Sub-process of magnetic wire winding.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Sub-process
Sub-process of
of magnetic
magnetic wire
wire winding.
winding.
Figure 3. Sub-process
Figure of magnetic
3. Sub-process wire
of magnetic winding.
wire winding.
Figure 4. Scrap per month (January–August 2022).

Figure 4. Scrap per month (January–August 2022).
Figure 4. Scrap
Figure
Figure perper
4.4.Scrap
Scrap month
per (January–August
month
month 2022).
(January–August
(January–August 2022).
2022).
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 3 of 27
2. Literature Review
2.1. Understanding the PDCA Methodology: Core Principles and Applications
The PDCA methodology is a well-established and widely used tool for continuous
improvements. Its origin can be traced back to Dr. W. Edwards Deming’s lecture in Japan
in 1950. However, Walther Shewhart had previously applied the scientific method in 1939
using his own three-phase cycle, namely specification–production–inspection. Dr. Deming
further developed this concept in 1950, proposing a cycle that included design, production,
market launch, market testing, and product redesign. The Japanese interpretation of Dr.
Deming’s “Deming wheel” during his 1950 and 1951 lectures ultimately led to the creation
of the PDCA cycle as we know it today [7]. The PDCA cycle, a graphical representation of
the eponymous methodology, has been used since then as a dynamic model focused on
achieving customer satisfaction and supports quality improvement through four distinct
phases, namely plan, do, check, and act [8]. It makes use of statistical and administra-
tive tools to tangibly improve the performance of a company’s processes, products, and
services [9]. At its essence, PDCA entails developing a detailed action plan that outlines
specific objectives and anticipates potential challenges. The “Do” phase involves executing
planned actions, followed by a comprehensive assessment of outcomes in the “Check”
phase. If the results prove favorable, the “Act” phase requires permanent integration of
the changes into the process, with an ongoing emphasis on further refinement [10]. These
attributes make the PDCA cycle a valuable tool for diverse industries, particularly the
demanding automotive sector, where systematic approaches to boost productivity are
crucial [11].
2.2. PDCA’s Synergy with Quality Tools and Continuous Improvement Initiatives
PDCA demonstrates remarkable synergy with various tools and methodologies de-
signed for continuous improvement. Its adaptable nature enables it to function as a core
framework for complex methodologies or to complement other approaches within hybrid
models [12–16]. This section highlights the efficacy of PDCA when combined with other
tools through the following specific examples:
• Scrap reduction: Studies like those conducted by Amaral et al. [17] demonstrate
the successful application of PDCA alongside a SIPOC (Suppliers, Inputs, Process,
Outputs, Customers) matrix, chart control, 5S (Sort, Straighten, Shine, Standardize,
Sustain), and visual management in an automotive electromechanical component man-
ufacturer. This implementation led to significant waste reduction through improved
quality and productivity. Additionally, Silva et al. [18] demonstrated its practical
application in minimizing can loss within a beverage company, ultimately resulting in
significant waste reduction through improved quality and productivity.
• Process optimization: Research by Singh Sidhu et al. [19] and Tahiduzzaman et al. [20]
highlights the role of PDCA in implementing 5S and other lean tools within agricul-
tural and manufacturing contexts, ultimately leading to decreased cycle time and
increased profitability.
• Environmental management: Garza-Reyes et al. [21] proposed utilizing PDCA for
systematic implementation of environmental VSM (value stream mapping) studies,
while Goyal et al. [22] reported a case study employing Kaizen and PDCA to reduce
material waste.
• Defect reduction: Isniah et al.’s research [23] focused on reviewing existing literature
from 2015 to 2020 on the use of the PDCA cycle as a tool for improvement in organiza-
tions. This study showed that a total of 16% of all references found are related to defect
reduction, using the PDCA cycle in conjunction with other tools such as KAIZEN,
seven basic statistical tools, statistical process control, and PFMEA (Process Failure
Mode Effect Analysis).
The literature in this field also highlights that, despite the effectiveness that the PDCA
cycle has demonstrated in improving organizational operations, there is still a lack of
knowledge about how to apply it to obtain competitive advantages [24,25].
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 4 of 27
2.3. Variations of the PDCA Cycle

One of the versions of the PDCA cycle is PDSA (Plan, Do, Study, Act). PDCA is used
for more straightforward improvement scenarios, and PDSA is applied in more complex
scenarios—when the metrics being checked and the environmental conditions surrounding
those metrics require more extensive reflection [9,26,27]. Another version of the PDCA
cycle is OPDCA (Observe, Plan, Do, Check, Act). The added “O” stands for observation
or, as some versions say, “Grasp the current condition”. The emphasis on observation
and the current condition is very important in lean manufacturing/the Toyota Production
System [28]. The next version is EPACA (Evaluate, Plan, Action, Check, Amend). This
approach stresses that the most significant organizational improvements are achieved by
effectively implementing corrective and preventive actions [26]. Finally, PDAC (Plan, Do,
Act, Challenge) is an advanced form of the PDCA cycle directed at taking on new challenges
in the scope of improvement of the organization by setting ambitious goals [26].
2.4. PDCA Integration with Quality Management Systems

The popularity of the PDCA cycle extends beyond other improvement methodologies;
it is deeply ingrained in most major quality management systems. Standards such as
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 9001, ISO 14001, and ISO 45001 have
readily embraced and integrated it. This section explores the integration of PDCA within
various quality management systems, as follows [29–31]:
• ISO 9001: The ISO 9001:2015 standard [32] leverages the PDCA cycle to illustrate how
its clauses 4 to 10 can be systematically grouped and implemented (Figure 5). This
serves as a powerful testament to the PDCA cycle’s effectiveness and versatility in
driving continuous improvement within quality management systems [33–35].
• Adaptability: Research by Chiarini and Cherafi [36] demonstrated this adaptability
by developing an implementation guideline for manufacturing companies. This
guideline, rooted in the PDCA model, effectively integrates ISO 9001 requirements
with Industry 4.0 technologies. It showcases how PDCA can bridge the gap between
established quality management systems and the latest technological advancements.
• Service industry: Habibie and Kresiani [28] meticulously analyzed the ISO/IEC (Inter-
national Electrotechnical Commission) 17025:2017 standard clause by clause, exploring
its connection to the PDCA concept within the process approach framework. Their
findings suggest that ISO/IEC 17025:2017 incorporates the principles of the PDCA
model. The standard’s specific clauses address each stage within the overall framework
of a laboratory’s quality management system (Figure 6).
• IATF (International Automotive Task Force) 16949: This standard requires organiza-
tions to have a documented problem-solving process to prevent recurrence in clause
10.2.3. Subclause c) of this clause specifies that this includes root cause analysis, the
methodology used, analysis, and results [37]. The 8Ds technique is documented in
the literature as a widely accepted technique for meeting this requirement [38,39].
The PDCA cycle has served as a reference due to its strong relationship with the
8Ds, as it has functioned as an advanced approach to decision-making and problem-
solving [40,41].
driving continuous improvement within quality management systems.
• Adaptability: Research by Chiarini and Cherafi [30] demonstrated this adaptability
by developing an implementation guideline for manufacturing companies. This
guideline, rooted in the PDCA model, effectively integrates ISO 9001 requirements
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 5 of 27
with Industry 4.0 technologies. It showcases how PDCA can bridge the gap between
established quality management systems and the latest technological advancements.
• Service industry: Habibie and Kresiani [28] meticulously analyzed the ISO/IEC (In-
ternational Electrotechnical Commission) 17025:2017 standard clause by clause, ex-
ploring its connection to the PDCA concept within the process approach framework.
Their findings suggest that ISO/IEC 17025:2017 incorporates the principles of the
PDCA model. The standard’s specific clauses address each stage within the overall
framework
Figure
Figure of a laboratory’s
5.5.Representation
Representationofofthe
theISO quality management
ISO9001:2015
9001:2015 structureininthe
structure system
the (Figure
cycle. 6).
PDCAcycle.
PDCA
Figure 6. Mapping
MappingofofISO/IEC
ISO/IEC17025:2017
17025:2017clauses toto
clauses thethe
PDCA cycle
PDCA forfor
cycle quality management
quality in
management
laboratories.
in laboratories.
• Hipot
2.5. IATF(High-Potential) Failures in Electric
(International Automotive Armatures
Task Force) 16949: This standard requires organiza-
tions to have a documented problem-solving
Hipot testing is a crucial quality control procedure process to prevent
for electric recurrence
armatures, in clause
ensuring their
10.2.3.
ability Subclause
to withstand c) of this clause
operational voltagespecifies
stressesthat this includes
without breakdown.root cause analysis,
However, the
failures
duringmethodology used,
hipot tests can beanalysis,
costly andand results [31]. Therequiring
time-consuming, 8Ds technique is documented
root cause analysis andin
the literature
corrective actions. as a widely
This sectionaccepted
reviews technique for meeting
recent research this encountered
on failures requirement [32,33].
during
hipotThe PDCA
testing cycle has
of electric served as a reference due to its strong relationship with the 8Ds,
armatures.
• Partial discharge (PD) an
as it has functioned as advanced
activity: PDsapproach to decision-making
are localized and problem-solv-
dielectric breakdowns within the
ing [34,35].system, often indicated by increased current leakage during hipot tests. Chai
insulation
et al. [42] explored the use of advanced PD detection techniques to identify and locate
2.5. Hipot (High-Potential)
PD sources in electricFailures in Electric
motor stator Armatures
windings, aiding in early failure prediction. Diab
et al. [43]
Hipot provided
testing detailed
is a crucial experimental
quality specifications
control procedure for involving PD measurements
electric armatures, ensuring
theirmethods
ability toand PD dataoperational
withstand post-processing
voltageAlgorithms. The obtained
stresses without resultsHowever,
breakdown. are drawn as
fail-
ures aduring
usefulhipot
and timely reference
tests can be costlythatand
enhances the understanding
time-consuming, requiringofroot
the cause
insulation PD
analysis
process in actions.
and corrective SiC (silicon-carbide)-based
This section reviews power
recentelectronics applications.
research on failures encountered dur-
•ing hipot
Automated hipot failure detection:
testing of electric armatures. Research by Agnes [44] introduced a new concept
• developed
Partial discharge (PD) activity: PDs are localized dielectricused
for high-voltage testing in electrical apparatus in railway
breakdowns systems,
within the
which supports predictive maintenance. This device conducts insulation tests between
insulation system, often indicated by increased current leakage during hipot tests.
contacts and the ground wherein contacts must withstand the test voltage for a speci-
Chai et al. [36] explored the use of advanced PD detection techniques to identify and
locate PD sources in electric motor stator windings, aiding in early failure prediction.
Diab et al. [37] provided detailed experimental specifications involving PD measure-
ments methods and PD data post-processing Algorithms. The obtained results are
drawn as a useful and timely reference that enhances the understanding of the insu-
lation PD process in SiC (silicon-carbide)-based power electronics applications.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 6 of 27
fied time; it also tests several apparatus at the same time, improving efficiency in the
maintenance sector.
• Moisture ingress: Moisture absorption in the insulation degrades its dielectric prop-
erties and increases the risk of hipot test failures. Ghani et al. [45] examined the
effect of moisture content on the breakdown strength of stator coil insulation under
various temperatures.
• Advanced detection and mitigation techniques: Recent research has focused on de-
veloping advanced methods for detecting and mitigating hipot test failures in electric
armatures. These include (a) non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques. Research
by Nageshwar et al. [46] reviewed the main aging and failure mechanisms of stator
winding and methods for extending the useful life of the machine. The symptoms
of each failure mechanism were discussed, and an overview of various electrical
diagnostic techniques for condition assessment of stator winding insulation was pre-
sented. (b) Machine Learning for Anomaly Detection. Research by Ferras et al. [47]
explored the application of machine learning algorithms to data for different possible
types of anomalies in electric motors, such as uncoupled, overloaded, unbalanced,
misaligned, and normal anomalies. The obtained results show how these algorithms
can be effective in classifying the different types of anomalies and that the two mod-
els that presented the best accuracy values were k-nearest neighbor and multi-layer
perceptron.
3. Research Design
The focal point of this research is to address the reduction in scrap generated during
hipot testing within the subassembly manufacturing process of electric motors. The hipot
test, conducted on site, involves subjecting the magnetic wire winding to a high-voltage
withstand test. The primary objective of this test is to detect any weak insulation points [48].
During the test, an exceptionally high-voltage charge, surpassing the normal operating
voltage, is applied between the conductors and their insulation. The examination tracks
the leakage current flowing through the insulation, essentially assessing the product’s
ability to endure high-voltage stresses safely. Any insulation leakage triggers an alarm at
the armature-level hipot tester, indicating improper continuity, a situation that should not
occur. Therefore, it is imperative to identify the root causes of defects originating from this
testing phase. It is essential to isolate the factor or combination of factors responsible for
these defects; these can be found in the following sub-processes:
• Lamination: This sub-process is responsible for generating the armature body, which
is made of 60 layers of steel material called laminations. This number of laminations
can vary until enough are stacked to achieve the armature stack length specification
(Figure 1). Each lamination comes to the company under study from a stamping
process performed by an external supplier. The first and last laminations that make
up the armature are the same as the rest that are in the middle of them. For the union
between the laminations to the shaft, a pressing device is used that introduced a
shaft under pressure in the center of the laminations, which have a star-shaped cut,
achieving a tight fit. For additional fixation, the device then makes a rivet on both
sides of the laminations’ center at the end of the process.
• Epoxy coating: This sub-process is responsible for generating electrical insulation by
applying an epoxy resin in powder form along the entire interior of the armature body,
covering from the first lamination to the last. Then, through a curing process, the
powder is heated to form a solid layer (Figure 2).
• Wire winding: This sub-process involves a continuous series of winding from each
bar on the commutator, which loops around the stack teeth and connects to the next
bar on the commutator, using the stack slots to insert the wire winding from one side
of the armature to the other (Figures 2 and 3). It is in this winding that the magnetic
fields are generated for the speed that the motor will have. To perform this operation,
an automatic winding machine is used in which the operator prepares the correct
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 7 of 27

of turns need to be entered into the machine’s computer; the rest of the process is
automatic (Figure 3).
Ultimately,
cable thiscoil
sizes and study aims
heads. to improve
Afterward, onlyquality standards
the required by minimizing
dimensions scrap gen-
and the number
erated during armature manufacturing. The selected methodology, guided
of turns need to be entered into the machine’s computer; the rest of the process by the appli-
is
cation of PDCA for defect
automatic (Figure 3). and rejection reduction [43–45], consists of the following four
primary steps: this study aims to improve quality standards by minimizing scrap gen-
Ultimately,
•erated
Literature review: manufacturing.
during armature This phase involved analyzing
The selected publishedguided
methodology, articlesbyfeaturing
the appli-case
studies demonstrating the PDCA cycle in practice, as well as examining
cation of PDCA for defect and rejection reduction [49–51], consists of the following the four
individ-
ual PDCA
primary steps: phases, exploring the interconnections between PDCA and other improve-
• ment methodologies,
Literature review: Thisand investigating
phase its relationships
involved analyzing publishedwith quality
articles management
featuring case
systems.
studies demonstrating the PDCA cycle in practice, as well as examining the individual
• Case study
PDCA development:
phases, exploring theThis stage focusedbetween
interconnections on constructing
PDCA and the specific
other case relevant
improvement
for this research study.
methodologies, and investigating its relationships with quality management systems.
•• Case
Results analysis:
study Following
development: Thisthe implementation
stage of the PDCA
focused on constructing cycle, case
the specific the obtained
relevant re-
sults
for were
this exhaustively
research study. analyzed.
•• Results
Conclusionsanalysis: Following the implementation
and recommendations: Based on theoffindings,
the PDCA cycle, conclusions
concrete the obtainedwere
results were exhaustively analyzed.
formulated, and practical recommendations for further improvement were provided.
• Conclusions and recommendations: Based on the findings, concrete conclusions were
formulated,
4. Case Study and practical recommendations for further improvement were provided.
TheStudy
4. Case following subsection describes the methodology applied in the present case
study.
The following subsection describes the methodology applied in the present case study.
4.1. The Method

Method Employed
Employedininthis
thisStudy
StudyIsIs Illustrated
Illustrated in in Figure
Figure 7 7
The present
The presentstudy
studyused
usedthe
thePDCA
PDCAcycle,
cycle, which
which consists
consists of the
of the following
following fourfour phases:
phases:
(1) plan,
plan, (2)
(2) do,
do,(3)
(3)check,
check,and
and(4)
(4)act.
act.The
Thefollowing subsections
following subsectionselaborate howhow
elaborate eacheach
PDCA
PDCA
phase was
was applied
appliedininthis
thisstudy.
study.
7. Research
Figure 7.
Figure Researchmethod.
method.
Phase 1:
4.1.1. Phase 1: Plan
Plan
In
In this
thisphase,
phase,the
theproblem definition
problem was
definition defined
was using
defined the 5W
using the +5W
2H+approach. Table Table
2H approach. 1
presents the obtained information.
1 presents the obtained information.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 8 of 27
Table 1. Aspects of the company’s current situation were categorized according to the 5W + 2H
approach.
PDCA Quick Response

Problem description by customer/location of the problem: During hipot testing, armatures fail
due to cable contact with laminations when windings are introduced. This creates continuity
between the cable and metal part.
What is the problem? > Use 5W + 2H to determine the current situation (C/S).
Customer view
• What happened? The hipot test armature fails due to cable contact with the lamination
during winding, likely caused by sharp lamination edges and damaging the cable.
• Why is it a problem?
1. Customer impact: engine inoperative;
2. Logistic impact: missed customer demand;
3. Impact on part assembly: poor performance;
4. Technical impact: armature non-compliance with hipot values;
5. Reliability impact: armatures fail to meet standards;
6. Severity: potential short circuit and motor burnout due to induced current.
• When did it start? The issue began in January 2022 and persisted to September 2022.
• Who detected it? The issue was detected by a certified hipot station operator.
• Where was it detected? The issue was detected at the hipot tester station.
• How was it detected? The issue was detected through a machine alarm indicating failure to
reach or exceed the test parameter values.
• How many defective parts? There were 1,173,538 defective pieces identified from January to
September 2022.
Company View
• What is the difference between defective and non-defective parts?

The difference between defective and non-defective parts is as follows:
Non-defective part: Successfully completes the hipot test without triggering any alarms. The
cable does not come into contact with the laminations during the test.
Defective part: Fails hipot test, triggering an alarm. The cable makes contact with the laminations
during the test, leading to failure indication.
• Were the parts produced in the standard process? Yes, the parts were manufactured
according to the standard process.
• When were they manufactured by the company? The parts were manufactured from January
to September 2022.
• Who made it? The data regarding the manufacturer are not provided in this article due to
confidentiality reasons.
• Other applications: The parts were not used in any other applications.
• Defect detection: The defect occurred during the normal process at the hipot testing station.
• Previous occurrences: This particular failure mode has not been reported previously, either
internally by the company or by customers.
Based on the information in Table 1, the problem of continuity between the winding
and metal likely stems from a multifactorial issue. All factors ultimately converge on
the presence of an undesirable direct connection, typically due to insulation failure. This
failure can be attributed to various factors, notably the inadvertent insertion of the wire
into the epoxy coating during the winding process, leading to contact with the laminate.
The lamination itself features a sharp edge that damages the cable, further facilitating this
contact. For visual reference, please see the magnified image of defective and non-defective
parts in Figure 8.
Table 2 outlines the application of the three-legged five-why analysis method, which
facilitated a comprehensive investigation into the root causes of the error. This approach
enabled the study to explore three distinct perspectives—specifics, detection, and systemic
issues—in order to gain a thorough understanding of the underlying cause surrounding
the error.
lamination itself features a sharp edge that damages the cable, further facilitating this con-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 9 of 27
tact. For visual reference, please see the magnified image of defective and non-defective
parts in Figure 8.
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure8.8.Examples
Examplesofof(a)
(a)defective
defectiveand
and(b)
(b)non-defective
non-defectiveparts.
parts.
Table 2. Three-legged
Table 2 outlines five-why analysis.of the three-legged five-why analysis method, which
the application
facilitated a comprehensive investigation into the root causes of the error. This approach
Issue Description:
enabled the study to explore three distinct perspectives—specifics, detection, and sys-
The production
temic issues—inline for the
order to armature subassembly
gain a thorough came to a halt due
understanding to failures
of the in the hi-pot
underlying causetests.
sur-
Details: During
rounding the specific process of checking armature resistance and varistor function and
the error.
conducting a hipot test,
The following the machine
conclusions weretriggered
drawnthe alarm
from due
the to atwo
first detected defective
phases of thepart,
proposed
prompting a subsequent investigation.
methodology:
The high-potential tester’s alarm blared, alerting operators of a part that failed the crucial
(a) The armature production line frequently halts due to hipot issues, resulting in costly
insulation test.
stoppages and the generation of scrap. Unwanted continuity in the pieces renders
Why?
them unusable in electric motors, necessitating their disposal.
(b)TheThin
high-potential
or uneventest detected
epoxy unintended
coating, crucialleakage current, indicating
for preventing a direct electrical
contact between the cablepath
and
between the armature
lamination, cable and
is identified as the laminated core.
a significant factor contributing to the hipot failures.
(c)Why?
The validation process for the epoxy coating addition process is deemed unreliable.
The2.
Table stress event compromised
Three-legged the epoxy coating, leading to a breach in cable insulation and
five-why analysis.
contact with the lamination.
Why?
Issue Description:
TheNon-uniform
productioncoating
line fordistribution
the armature subassembly
during came to
the manufacturing a haltresulted
process due to failures in the hi-
in a significant
potdecrease
tests. in epoxy thickness on the lamination walls.
Details:
ROOTDuring
CAUSEthe specific process of checking armature resistance and varistor function
andNon-uniform
conductingcoating
a hipot test, the machine
distribution during thetriggered the alarm
manufacturing processdue
ledto
toaa detected
significantdefective
decrease
part, prompting
in epoxy a subsequent
thickness investigation.
on the lamination walls.
TheDetection
high-potential tester’s alarm blared, alerting operators of a part that failed the crucial
insulation
Why? test.
Why?
The tester measured a detachment force (the resistance to peeling), falling within the acceptable
Therange
high-potential
with a minimum test detected unintended
value of 58.8399 leakage current, indicating a direct electrical
N (6 kgf).
path between the armature cable and the laminated core.
Why?
Why?
For the adhesion test, the armature sample must be tilted to an angle between 80◦ and 90◦ from
Thethe
stress event
vertical compromised
to simulate the stressthe epoxy coating,
conditions leading
experienced by thetocable
a breach
duringin cable insulation
winding.
and contact with the lamination.
ROOT CAUSE
Why?
For the adhesion test, the armature sample must be tilted to an angle between 80◦ and 90◦ from
Non-uniform coating
the vertical to simulatedistribution during the
the stress conditions manufacturing
experienced process
by the cable resulted
during winding.in a signifi-
cant decrease in epoxy thickness on the lamination walls.
Systemic
ROOT CAUSE
Why?
This failure mode was not identified as a potential risk in the PFMEA or addressed in the
control plan.
ROOT CAUSE
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 10 of 27
The following conclusions were drawn from the first two phases of the proposed
methodology:
(a) The armature production line frequently halts due to hipot issues, resulting in costly
stoppages and the generation of scrap. Unwanted continuity in the pieces renders
them unusable in electric motors, necessitating their disposal.
(b) Thin or uneven epoxy coating, crucial for preventing contact between the cable and
lamination, is identified as a significant factor contributing to the hipot failures.
(c) The validation process for the epoxy coating addition process is deemed unreliable.
Given these findings, the “Do“ phase should prioritize improvement strategies aimed
at ensuring the insulation of the lamination and wire winding.
4.1.2. Phases 2 and 3: Do and Check

In phases 2 and 3, the focus is on implementing improvements and verifying their effec-
tiveness. Key improvement opportunities to address the identified insulation breakdown
between the cable and lamination include the following:
• Conducting peel strength analysis to assess the adhesive strength of the epoxy coating;
• Validating the epoxy coating addition process;
• Adjusting the voltage at the epoxy coating curing station to optimize curing conditions
for better insulation;
• Testing different thicknesses of the epoxy coating to determine the optimal balance
between insulation effectiveness and production efficiency;
• Evaluating the impact of rotating the lamination faces 180◦ on the compatibility of the
armature body with the epoxy coating.
Additionally, a Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) test was conducted to analyze
the thermal behavior and curing properties of the epoxy coating, aiming to provide further
process optimization efforts.
Epoxy Coating Peel Test

The epoxy coating peel test serves as a crucial element of process validation, assessing
the additive strength of the epoxy coating to the laminated shell. It simulates the forces
exerted by the cable during the winding process, offering insights into the coating’s ability
to resist detachment
advised undershould
that the armature real-world conditions.
be positioned at The test involves
an angle betweenapplying controlled
80° and 90° during
tensile
the test. This ensures the pushing tip contacts the most sensitive area, whereconducted
force to detach the epoxy coating from the laminations. This procedure is the cable
using
exerts athe
specialized
maximum machine
force. similar to the one depicted in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Machine for epoxy coating peel test.
The peel test specification stipulates a detachment force of 58.8399 N (6 kgf). However,
conducting the test with the armature in a vertical position (Figure 10a) resulted in a
significantly higher force of 416.78 N (42.5 kgf). Upon consulting with the company’s
headquarters in China, it was revealed that this vertical orientation was incorrect. They
advised that the armature should be positioned at an angle between 80◦ and 90◦ during the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 11 of 27
test. This ensures the pushing tip contacts the most sensitive area, where the cable exerts
Figure 9.the maximum
Machine force.
for epoxy coating peel test.
(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) Force
Figure in vertical
10. (a) Force inorientation for epoxyfor
vertical orientation coating
epoxydetachment; (b) peel strength
coating detachment; of epoxy of epoxy
(b) peel strength
coating atcoating
80°–90°. ◦
at 80 –90 .◦
Re-running the test with

Re-running the with
the test armature tilted, as recommended,
the armature led to a dramatic
tilted, as recommended, de-
led to a dramatic
crease indecrease
detachment force for the
in detachment same
force sample—from
for the 416.78 N416.78
same sample—from to 51.9752
N to N (42.5 kgf,
51.9752 to kgf, to
N (42.5
5.3 kgf).5.3
This result
kgf). clearly
This resultfalls below
clearly fallsthe specified
below threshold
the specified (Figure 10b).
threshold The
(Figure previously
10b). The previously
employed employed
incorrectincorrect testing procedure
testing procedure likely why
likely explains explains why the
the epoxy epoxy
coating coatingin-
exhibited exhibited
creased increased susceptibility
susceptibility to cracking toand
cracking and chipping.
chipping.
Validation
Validation of theCoating
of the Epoxy Epoxy Coating
AdditionAddition
Process Process
To comprehensively
To comprehensively validatevalidate the production
the production process process and consistent
and ensure ensure consistent
output output
quality, a process parameter matrix was documented, encompassing all
quality, a process parameter matrix was documented, encompassing all critical parame- critical parameters
ters for for
eacheach phase
phase (laminating
(laminating andand degreasing,cooling,
degreasing, cooling,epoxy
epoxyaddition,
addition,and
and cleaning).
cleaning). Table 3
details the specific parameters, as well as their maximum, minimum, and
Table 3 details the specific parameters, as well as their maximum, minimum, and average average values.
values.
Table 3. Parameter matrix of production process phases.
Table 3. Parameter matrix of production process phases.
Transfer
Laminating and Degreasing
Time
Worm Transfer
Voltage Resistor Temperature Laminating and Degreasing Resistor Temperature Air
Parameter Gear Time Resistor Temperature (Middle)
Across Heating Resistor (Start) (End) Pressure
Velocity
Units rpm kV ◦C ◦C ◦C kPa
Max 15 2.7 33 129 202 0.55
Min 14.63 2.7 30 112 166 0.55
Average 14.68 2.7 32.14 123 187 0.55
Epoxy addition
Coat 1 Coat 2 Electrostatic
Parameter Feeder Pressure Vacuum Pressure Guide Rail 1 Distance Guide Rail 2 Distance
Pressure Pressure Box
Units kPa kPa kPa ◦C mm mm kV
Max 0.1 0.1 0.16 0.1 3.5 2 61
Min 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.1 3.5 2 61
Average 0.08 0.08 0.151 0.1 3.5 2 61
Epoxy
Epoxy Curing
Addition
Water Voltage Resistor Temperature Resistor Temperature
Parameter Resistor Temperature (Start)
Pressure Across Heating Resistor (Middle) (End)
Units kPa kV ◦C ◦C ◦C
Max 0.4 3 39 212 272

Min 0.4 3 37 163 264
Average 0.4 3 38.28 192.14 271.42
Parameter Across Heat- perature perature Temperature
Pressure
ing Resistor (Start) (Middle) (End)
Units kPa kV °C °C °C
Max 0.4 3 39 212 272
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999
Min 0.4 3 37 163 26412 of 27
Average 0.4 3 38.28 192.14 271.42
Figure
Figure11
11illustrates
illustratesthe
theepoxy
epoxycoating
coatingcuring
curingprocess
processfor
forarmatures,
armatures,highlighting
highlightingthe
the
critical temperature points through each phase.
critical temperature points through each phase.
Figure11.
Figure 11.Epoxy
Epoxycuring
curingstation.
station.
To identify potential areas for process improvements, an initial assessment was con-
ducted.identify
To potentialaimed
The assessment areas for process improvements,
to determine an initial
if the parameters listedassessment was con-
in Table 3 exhibited
ducted. The assessment aimed to determine if the parameters listed in Table 3 exhibited
statistical control over critical output characteristics at different process phases. Control
statistical
charts werecontrol over critical
generated output characteristics
for individual measurements. at Figures
different12–15
process phases. Control
demonstrate stable
charts were generated
and predictable for individual
processor behavior formeasurements.
the laminatingFigures 12–15 demonstrate
and degreasing and epoxy stable
curing
and predictableLines
temperatures. processor behavior
and dots for the12–15
in Figures laminating and the
represent degreasing
following: andcentral
epoxyline
curing
(𝑋
temperatures. Lines and dots in Figures 12–15 represent the following: central line ( X
represents the mean of the process data; each dot represents and individual data point
represents the mean of the process data; each dot represents and individual data point
collected from the process. Control limits (UCL—Upper Control Limit and LCL—Lower
collected from the process. Control limits (UCL—Upper Control Limit and LCL—Lower
Control Limit) represent the statistically expected range of variation in the process. The
Control Limit) represent the statistically expected range of variation in the process. The
absence of data points outside the control limits, trends or other patterns of statistical in-
absence of data points outside the control limits, trends or other patterns of statistical
stability indicates consistent process performance. This stable foundation allows for the
instability indicates consistent process performance. This stable foundation allows for the
development of reliable improvement plans. [46].
development of reliable improvement plans. [52].
Figure12.
Figure 12.Individual
Individualcontrol
controlchart
chartfor
forarmature
armature temperature
temperature at at
thethe start
start of of laminating
laminating andand degreas-
degreasing
ing◦ C).
(in (in °C).
Figure 13. Individual control chart for armature temperature at the end of laminating and degreas-
Figure 12. Individual control chart for armature temperature at the start of laminating and degreas-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 13 of 27
Figure
ing 12. Individual control chart for armature temperature at the start of laminating and degreas-
(in °C).
ing (in °C).
Figure 13. Individual control chart for armature temperature at the end of laminating and degreas-
Figure
Figure
ing 13. Individual
13.
(in °C). Individualcontrol
controlchart
chartfor
forarmature
armaturetemperature atat
temperature the end
the of of
end laminating and
laminating degreasing
and degreas-
ing◦(in
(in C). °C).
Individual control chart for armature temperature at the start of epoxy curing (in ◦°C).
Figure 14. Individual C).
Figure 14. Individual control chart for armature temperature at the start of epoxy curing (in °C).
Figure 15. Individual control chart for armature temperature

temperature at
at the
the end
end of
of epoxy
epoxy curing (in ◦°C).
curing (in C).
Additionally,
Additionally, process
processcapability
capabilitymeasures
measureswere
wereobtained
obtainedforfor
critical output
critical character-
output charac-
istics like epoxy thickness and detachment force from both sides of the armature.
teristics like epoxy thickness and detachment force from both sides of the armature. Figure 16
Figure
and Table 4 reveal high process capability in meeting epoxy thickness specifications, consis-
16 and Table 4 reveal high process capability in meeting epoxy thickness specifications,
tently achieving values within the 100–500 micron range. However, Figure 17 and Table 5
consistently achieving values within the 100–500 micron range. However, Figure 17 and
highlight a significant challenge, namely low process capability in meeting the 58.8399 N
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Table 5 highlight a significant challenge, namely low process capability15inofmeeting
27 the
(6 kgf) specification for epoxy detachment force. This deficiency is particularly pronounced
58.8399 N (6 kgf) specification for epoxy detachment force. This deficiency is particularly
on the short side of the armature reinforcement (Figure 18).
pronounced on the short side of the armature reinforcement (Figure 18).
Table 4. Process capability measures for epoxy coating thickness.
Short-Side Armature
Potential (Within)
Process Data: Overall Capability
Capability
LSL (lower specification limit) 100 Pp 2.63 Cp 28.41
UPL (upper specification limit) 500 PPL 1.92 CPL 20.70
Sample mean 245.714 PPU 3.34 CPU 36.12
Sample N 35 Ppk 1.92 Cpk 20.70
Overall StDev (standard deviation) 25.3546
StDev (within)
(a) 2.34668 (b)
Performance:
Figure 16.Figure
Process
16.capability histograms
Process capability for epoxy
histograms forcoating thickness:
epoxy coating (a) short-side
thickness: armature;
(a) short-side (b) (b) long-
armature;
long-side armature. Observed Expected Overall Expected Within
side armature.
PPM < LSL 0 0 0
Table 5. Process
PPM >capability
USL measures for epoxy detachment
0 force. 0 0
PPM total
Process Data: 0 0
Overall Capability 0
Long-Side ArmatureShort-
Short-Side Ar- Long-Side Long-Side Arma- (Within)
Potential
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 14 of 27
ppl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Table 4. Process capability measures for epoxy coating thickness. 15 of 27
Short-Side Armature
Process Data: Overall Capability Potential (Within) Capability
LSL (lower
100 Pp 2.63 Cp 28.41
specification limit)
UPL (upper
500 PPL 1.92 CPL 20.70
Overall StDev
25.3546
(standard deviation)
StDev (within) 2.34668
Performance:
(a) (b)
Observed
Figure 16. Process capability histograms for epoxyExpected
coating Overall Expected
thickness: (a) short-side Within (b)
armature;
long-side armature.
PPM < LSL 0 0 0
PPM > USL 0 0 0
Table 5. Process capability measures for epoxy detachment force.
PPM total 0 0 0
Process Data:
Long-Side Armature Overall Capability
Short-
Short-Side Ar- Long-Side Overall Capability
Process data: Long-Side
Potential Arma-
(Within) Capability
Side Ar-
LSL (lower mature Armature ture
100 Pp mature
3.76 Cp 25.57
LSL 58.8399 58.8399 PPL 0.37 1.07
UPL (upper
Sample mean 96.0496
500134.436 PPL Ppk 2.680.37 CPL1.07 18.26
Sample N 35 35 Potential (within) capability
Overall StDev 33.3546 23.6373 CPL 0.69 1.05
StDev (within) 17.9247 23.9849 Cpk 0.69 1.05
Overall StDev
Performance: 17.7518
(standard deviation)
Observed Expected Overall Expected Within
StDev (within) 2.60743
Short- Long- Short-
Performance: Short-Side Ar- Long-Side Long-Side Arma-
Side Ar- Side Ar- Side Ar-
mature Armature ture
mature mature Observed Expected Overall matureExpected Within
PPM < LSLPPM < LSL0 0 132,301.04
0 691.52
0 18,952.24 811.290
Total PPM PPM > USL0 0 132,301.04
0 691.52
0 18,952.24 811.29 0
PPM total 0 0 0
(a) (b)
Figure 17. Figure
Process17.
capability histograms
Process capability for epoxyfordetachment
histograms force: (a)
epoxy detachment short-side
force: armature;
(a) short-side (b) (b) long-
armature;
long-side armature.
side armature.
Adjusting the Voltage at the Epoxy Coating Curing Station to Optimize

Curing Conditions
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 15 of 27
Table 5. Process capability measures for epoxy detachment force.

Long-Side Short-Side Long-Side
Short-Side Armature
Armature Armature Armature
LSL 58.8399 58.8399 PPL 0.37 1.07
Sample
96.0496 134.436 Ppk 0.37 1.07
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWmean 16 of 27
Overall
33.3546 23.6373 CPL 0.69 1.05
StDev
To investigate the cause of low detachment force, two targeted experiments were
StDev
conducted. In the first experiment, the voltage at the curing
17.9247 23.9849 Cpk station was
0.69increased 1.05
from 3
kV(within)
to 3.1 kV to explore whether enhanced curing could harden the epoxy and prevent
cable penetration, a potential contributor to hipot failures. This test involved sampling 30
Performance:
pieces, with separate detachment
Observed force measurements for both the short
Expected Overall and long
Expected sides of
Within
the armature, referring to the rotation axis as defined in Figure 18. In the second experi-
Short-Side Long-Side Short-Side Long-Side Short-Side Long-Side
ment, the thickness of the epoxy
Armature coating was
Armature increasedArmature
Armature from 0.250 Armature
mm to 0.350 Armature
mm, aim-
ing to provide a stronger physical barrier against cable abrasion. Again, detachment force
PPM < LSL 0 0 132,301.04 691.52 18,952.24 811.29
was measured on both sides of a sample of 30 pieces.
Total PPM 0 0 132,301.04 691.52 18,952.24 811.29
Figure 18. The two sides of the armature.

Figure 18. The two sides of the armature.
Adjusting the Voltage at the Epoxy Coating Curing Station to Optimize Curing Conditions
Table 6 shows the
To investigate theresults
causeofofa low meandetachment
difference test fortwo
force, breaking forceexperiments
targeted before and after
were
the voltage change experiment in the curing station. The aim was
conducted. In the first experiment, the voltage at the curing station was increased to evaluate the following
from
hypotheses:
3 kV to 3.1 kV to explore whether enhanced curing could harden the epoxy and prevent
H0. µbefore
cable voltage change = µafter voltage change.
penetration, a potential contributor to hipot failures. This test involved sampling
H1. µbefore voltage
30 pieces, with change ≠ µafter voltage change.
separate detachment force measurements for both the short and long sides of
the armature, referring to the rotation axis as defined in Figure 18. In the second experiment,
Table 6. Mean difference test results for breaking force before and after increasing voltage in the
the thickness of the epoxy coating was increased from 0.250 mm to 0.350 mm, aiming to
curing station: (a) short-side armature; (b) long-side armature.
provide a stronger physical barrier against cable abrasion. Again, detachment force was
measured on both(a) sides of a sample of 30 pieces. (b)
Table 6 shows the results of a mean difference test for breaking force SE before and
after theNvoltage
Mean StDev
change SE Mean
experiment in the curing N Mean
station. StDev
The aim was toMean
evaluate the
following hypotheses:
C9 35 96.0 33.4 5.6 C10 35 134.4 23.6 4.0
C11 30 58.5 28.0 5.1
H0. µbefore voltage change = µafter voltage change . C12 30 141.3 58.4 11
C9 = Data before 1st experiment C10 = Data before 1st experiment
C11 = Data after 1st experiment
H1. µbefore voltage change ̸= µafter voltage change . C12 = Data after 1st experiment
Difference = µ (C9)—µ (C11) Difference = µ (C10)—µ (C12)
Estimate for difference: 37.54 Estimate for difference: −6.9
95% CI for difference: (22.31, 52.76) 95% CI for difference: (−30.0, 16.2)
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs ≠) T-Test of difference = 0 (vs ≠)
T-Value = 4.93 T-Value = −0.61
p-Value = 0.000 DF = 62 p-Value = 0.548 DF = 37
The data considered for the statistical calculation (N in Table 6) were those obtained
from the samples taken from the process before and after adjusting the voltage in the cur-
ing station. A significance level (α) of 0.05 was considered for the test. Since the means and
standard deviations of the populations are unknown, the t-test was chosen. As a result of
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 16 of 27
Table 6. Mean difference test results for breaking force before and after increasing voltage in the
curing station: (a) short-side armature; (b) long-side armature.
(a) (b)
SE SE
N Mean StDev N Mean StDev
Mean Mean
C9 35 96.0 33.4 5.6 C10 35 134.4 23.6 4.0
C11 30 58.5 28.0 5.1 C12 30 141.3 58.4 11
C9 = Data before 1st experiment C10 = Data before 1st experiment
C11 = Data after 1st experiment C12 = Data after 1st experiment
Difference = µ (C9)—µ (C11) Difference = µ (C10)—µ (C12)
Estimate for difference: 37.54 Estimate for difference: −6.9
95% CI for difference: (22.31, 52.76) 95% CI for difference: (−30.0, 16.2)
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs ̸=) T-Test of difference = 0 (vs ̸=)
T-Value = 4.93 T-Value = −0.61
The data considered for the statistical calculation (N in Table 6) were those obtained
from the samples taken from the process before and after adjusting the voltage in the curing
station. A significance level (α) of 0.05 was considered for the test. Since the means and
standard deviations of the populations are unknown, the t-test was chosen. As a result
of the test and according to the p-value in Table 6a, it can be concluded that there is no
statistical evidence to accept the null hypothesis, since the p-value is below α. Therefore,
there was a change in the mean breaking force of the short side of the armature after the
voltage change. However, based on the data shown in the mean values (mean in Table 6),
the change generates a decrease in the breaking force, which contradicts the intended
outcome. The p-value in Table 6b suggests that there was no change in the breaking
force of the long side of the armature after the voltage change. However, a significant
change in the data dispersion was observed, as shown by the values of the corresponding
standard deviations (StDev in Table 6). To evaluate the effectiveness of this modification
in consistently meeting the specification, the company in this case study employs the
Ppk index. This index leverages extensive data collected over time to factor out external
influences on the process. It relies on the standard deviation of the entire data set (σ = S) as
an estimate for process variation, as shown in Equation (1). In this case, with only one lower
specification limit and aiming for higher detachment force values, a higher Ppk indicates
better process capability.
µ − EI

Ppk = (1)
3σL
where:
µ = the average of the data obtained from the variable under study (the force necessary
to detach the epoxy coating from the armature) in N;
EI = the detachment specification (in N);
σL = the long-run standard deviation (in N).
Compliance analysis based on Figure 19 and Table 7 clearly demonstrates that the
implemented curing process modification fails to meet the specification. Both the short-side
Ppk of 0 and the long-side Ppk of 0.47 fall significantly short of the company’s mini-
mum acceptable value of 1.32. However, it is important to consider the following crucial
clarification: prior to these experiments, peel strength measurements (see Section Epoxy
Coating Peel Test) were conducted incorrectly, potentially inflating the observed capaci-
ties. Therefore, while the current data show reduced capability compared to those earlier
measurements (Table 5), they provide a more accurate picture of the process performance.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14,Sci.
Appl. x FOR
2024,PEER REVIEW
14, 2999 18 of 27
17 of 27
(a) (b)
Figure 19. Figure
Histograms of detachment
19. Histograms force capability
of detachment response toresponse
force capability curing station voltage
to curing increase:
station voltage increase:
(a) short-side armature; (b) long-side armature.
Testing Different Thicknessesforce

Table 7. Detachment of the Epoxyresponse
capability Coatingto
tocuring
Find the Optimal
station voltageBalance
increase.between
Insulation and Production Efficiency
Process Data:
To potentially address the low detachment force observed Overall Capability
earlier, a second test in-
creased the epoxy coatingShort-Side
thickness.Armature Long-Side
The thickness Short-Side
was raised from its original 0.250 mmLong-Side
to 0.350 mm while maintaining the previously tested curing voltage of 3.1 kV. Table Armature
Armature Armature 8
shows the LSL
results of a mean difference
58.8399 test for breaking
58.8399 force before
PPL and after0changing 0.47
the epoxy layer
Samplethickness.
58.5133 141.347 Ppk 0 0.47
mean
Table 8. Mean difference test results for breaking force before and after increasing the epoxy coating
thickness: (a) short-side armature; (b) long-side armature.
Overall
28.0494 58.3937 CPL −0.01 0.45
StDev (a) (b)
NStDev Mean StDev SE Mean N Mean StDev SE Mean
17.6576 61.4867 Cpk −0.01 0.45
C3 30(within)
58.5 28.0 5.1 C4 30 141.3 58.4 11
C5 30Performance:
61.3 15.5 2.8 C6 30 114.4 27.0 4.9
C3 = Data before 2nd experiment
Observed C4 Expected
= Data before
Overall2nd experiment
Expected Within
C5 = Data after 2nd experiment
Short-Side Long-Side
C6 = Data
Short-Side
after 2nd
Long-Side
experiment
Short-Side Long-Side
Difference = µ (C3)—µ
Armature(C5) Armature DifferenceArmature
Armature = µ (C4)—µArmature
(C6) Armature
Estimate for
PPM < LSL difference: −2.75
500,000 33,333.33 Estimate
504,644.93 for difference:
78,835.22 26.9
507,378.31 89,818.74
95% CI for difference: (−14.53, 9.04) 95% CI for difference: (3.2, 50.7)
PPM total 500,000 33,333.33 504,644.93 78,835.22 507,378.31 89,818.74
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs ≠) T-Test of difference = 0 (vs ≠)
T-Value = −0.47 T-Value = 2.29
Testing Different Thicknesses of the Epoxy Coating to Find the Optimal Balance between
p-Value = 0.641 DF = 45
Insulation and Production Efficiency p-Value = 0.027 DF = 40
To potentially address the low detachment force observed earlier, a second test in-
The aim is tothe
creased statistically evaluate
epoxy coating whether
thickness. there
The was a change
thickness was raisedafterfrom
this its
modification,
original 0.250 mm to
taking the0.350initial data obtained in the previous adjustment (the voltage
mm while maintaining the previously tested curing voltage of 3.1 kV. change) as refer-
Table 8 shows
ence. Thethe significance level and type of test were the same as those used
results of a mean difference test for breaking force before and after changing to evaluate thethe epoxy
previous layer
change. As a result of the test and according to the p-value in Table 8a, it can be
thickness.
concluded thatThe there
aimisisstatistical evidence
to statistically to accept
evaluate the null
whether therehypothesis,
was a change since the this
after p-value
modification,
is not below α. Therefore, there was not a change in the mean breaking force of
taking the initial data obtained in the previous adjustment (the voltage change) as reference. the short
side of the The armature afterlevel
significance the epoxy
and typecoating
of testadjustment.
were the same However,
as thosea used
slighttoincrease
evaluatewasthe previous
observed change.
based onAs mean values (Table 8a). The p-value in Table 8b suggests
a result of the test and according to the p-value in Table 8a, it that there
can was
be concluded
a change thatin the breaking
there forceevidence
is statistical of the long side of
to accept thethe armature
null hypothesis,aftersince
adjustment
the p-valueof the
is not below
epoxy coating. Increasing
α. Therefore, the was
there epoxynotthickness
a changeproved
in the promising,
mean breaking resulting
forceinofboosted
the shortPpk side of the
values onarmature
both sides; thethe
after short sidecoating
epoxy increased from 0 to 0.05
adjustment. (Table a9 slight
However, and Figure
increase 20),was
andobserved
the long side,
basedfrom 0.47 to
on mean 0.69 (Table 8a).
values 9 andTheFigure
p-value20).inWhile
Table encouraging,
8b suggests that these values
there was a change
still fall short of the company’s minimum acceptable Ppk of 1.32, indicating further
in the breaking force of the long side of the armature after adjustment of the epoxy coating. opti-
mizationsIncreasing
are needed. the epoxy thickness proved promising, resulting in boosted Ppk values on both
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 18 of 27
sides; the short side increased from 0 to 0.05 (Table 9 and Figure 20), and the long side, from
0.47 to 0.69 (Table 9 and Figure 20). While encouraging, these values still fall short of the
company’s minimum acceptable Ppk of 1.32, indicating further optimizations are needed.
Table 8. Mean difference test results for breaking force before and after increasing the epoxy coating
thickness: (a) short-side armature; (b) long-side armature.
(a) (b)
SE SE
Mean Mean
C3 30 58.5 28.0 5.1 C4 30 141.3 58.4 11
C5 30 61.3 15.5 2.8 C6 30 114.4 27.0 4.9
C3 = Data before 2nd experiment C4 = Data before 2nd experiment
C5 = Data after 2nd experiment C6 = Data after 2nd experiment
Estimate for difference: −2.75 Estimate for difference: 26.9
95% CI for difference: (−14.53, 9.04) 95% CI for difference: (3.2, 50.7)
T-Value = −0.47 T-Value = 2.29
Table 9. Detachment force capability response to epoxy coating thickness increase.

Short-Side Armature
LSL 58.8399 58.8399 PPL 0.05 0.69
Sample
61.2592 114.412 Ppk 0.05 0.69
mean
Overall
15.5159 26.9718 CPL 0.05 0.67
StDev
StDev
15.2593 27.5506 Cpk 0.05 0.67
(within)
Performance:
Observed Expected Overall Expected within
Armature Armature Armature Armature Armature Armature
PPM < LSL 500,000 33,333.33 43,8046.75 19,681.94 437,013.53 21,843.95
PPM total 500,000 33,333.33 43,8046.75 19,681.94 437,013.53 21,843.95
Observed Expected Overall Expected within
Long- Long-
Short-Side Short-Side Short-Side Ar- Long-Side Ar-
Side Ar- Side Ar-
Armature Armature mature mature
mature mature
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 PPM < LSL 500,000 33,333.33 43,8046.75 19,681.94 437,013.53 21,843.95 19 of 27
PPM total 500,000 33,333.33 43,8046.75 19,681.94 437,013.53 21,843.95
(a) (b)
Figure 20.Figure
Histograms of detachment
of detachment response to
force capability epoxy coating
response thickness
to epoxy coating increase:
thickness increase:
Evaluating the Impact

Evaluating theofImpact
Rotating the Lamination
of Rotating Faces 180°
the Lamination on the
Faces ◦ on the Compatibility
180Compatibility of the of the
Armature Body with
Armature Body with the Epoxy Coatingthe Epoxy Coating
Maintaining
Maintaining the voltagetherange
voltage rangekV)
(3.0–3.1 (3.0–3.1 kV) and
and epoxy epoxy thickness
thickness (0.200–0.350
(0.200–0.350 mm), a mm), a
third experiment focused on the lamination rotation based on
third experiment focused on the lamination rotation based on the observed higher break the observed higher break
force on the long side. Rotating the laminations 180 ◦ consists of flipping all laminations
force on the long side. Rotating the laminations 180° consists of flipping all laminations to
the otherto thethroughout
side other sidethethroughout the of
entire length entire length of Analysis
the armature. the armature.
revealed Analysis revealed the
the lamina-
lamination
tion has two distincthas twoone
sides: distinct sides:
flat and one onewithflat and one
a raised with
edge a raised
(burr) where edge
the (burr) where the
detach-
detachment force is applied. Figure 21a shows a lamination side
ment force is applied. Figure 21a shows a lamination side with a prominent burr, while with a prominent burr,
while Figure 21b depicts a burr-free side. These burrs caused
Figure 21b depicts a burr-free side. These burrs caused insufficient insulation, allowing insufficient insulation,
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWallowing cable insertion to reach the lamination and creating an electrical path between 20 of 27the
cable insertion to reach the lamination and creating an electrical path between the cable
cable and the metal
and the metal (continuity). (continuity).
(a) (b)
Figure 21. 21.
Figure Lamination faceface
Lamination (a) with burr
(a) with andand
burr (b) (b)
without burr.
without burr.
This situation
This situationis particularly
is particularly evident
evident on on
thetheshort side
short of the
side armature
of the armature because
because thethe
faceface
withwiththetheburr is positioned
burr is positioned towards
towards thethesidesidewhere
wherethethecommutator
commutator barbaris located
is located
(Figure
(Figure22).22).
TheThecommutator
commutator hashasto be accurately
to be accurately associated
associated by by
thethestack
stackslots whenever
slots whenever
pushed
pushed on ontoptop
of the shaft
of the because
shaft because thethe
wires from
wires fromevery
everycoilcoil
willwill
appear
appearfromfrom thethe
slots, as as
slots,
wellwell as attaching
as attaching to the
to the commutator
commutator bars.
bars. ThisThis is where
is where thethe winding
winding experiences
experiences a higher
a higher
force,
force, as as it where
it is is where thethe coilturns
coil turnsare aregenerated.
generated.This Thisgenerates
generates higher pressure,
pressure, pushing
pushingthe
thewire
wireagainst
againstthe theepoxy
epoxycoating.
coating.The Thepresence
presenceofofa aburrburrononthisthisside
sideofof
thethelaminations
laminations may
further contribute to these stresses, potentially explaining the
may further contribute to these stresses, potentially explaining the occurrence of hipot occurrence of hipot failures,
and highlights
failures, the need
and highlights the for
needa solution to burr
for a solution toformation during
burr formation lamination.
during Rotating
lamination. Ro- all
the all
laminations ◦
180 proved to be atosuccessful solution. This is because the long side of
tating the laminations 180° proved be a successful solution. This is because the long
sidethe
ofarmature
the armature lackslacks
a collector, resulting
a collector, in less
resulting in tension on the
less tension oncable winding
the cable windingcompared
com- to
the to
pared short side. Figure
the short side. Figure3 illustrates the perspective
3 illustrates the perspective of the
oflong sideside
the long of the armature.
of the armature. It can
be observed that the cable is only routed from one slot to another.
It can be observed that the cable is only routed from one slot to another. Despite the pres- Despite the presence
enceof of
a burr
a burr duedueto to
thethe rotation
rotation of all thethe
of all laminations,
laminations, there
thereis no tension
is no tensionto press
to pressthethe
cable
against the epoxy coating. This helps to prevent hipot failures.
cable against the epoxy coating. This helps to prevent hipot failures. A t-test for mean A t-test for mean differences
differences was performed using the same parameters as the previous tests performed in
this study. A sample of 27 armatures showed a significant change in the mean detachment
force on the short side compared to the last change (epoxy layer thickness adjustment).
This conclusion can be explained by the p-value shown in Table 10. This significant im-
provement suggests superior adhesion, potentially eliminating the previously encoun-
tating all the laminations 180° proved to be a successful solution. This is because the long
side of the armature lacks a collector, resulting in less tension on the cable winding com-
pared to the short side. Figure 3 illustrates the perspective of the long side of the armature.
It can be observed that the cable is only routed from one slot to another. Despite the pres-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 ence of a burr due to the rotation of all the laminations, there is no tension to press20the of 27
cable against the epoxy coating. This helps to prevent hipot failures. A t-test for mean
differences was performed using the same parameters as the previous tests performed in
this
wasstudy. A sample
performed of 27
using thearmatures showedas
same parameters a significant
the previous change in the meanindetachment
tests performed this study. A
force on the
sample short
of 27 side compared
armatures showed atosignificant
the last change
change(epoxy layer thickness
in the mean detachmentadjustment).
force on the
This conclusion
short can betoexplained
side compared by the(epoxy
the last change p-value shown
layer in Table
thickness 10. This significant
adjustment). im-
This conclusion
provement suggests
can be explained bysuperior adhesion,
the p-value shown inpotentially eliminating
Table 10. This theimprovement
significant previously encoun-
suggests
tered hipotadhesion,
superior failures. potentially eliminating the previously encountered hipot failures.
Commutator
Figure 22.22.
Figure Detailed view
Detailed of of
view thethe
commutator and
commutator itsits
and winding, together
winding, with
together the
with stack.
the stack.
Table
Table10.
10.Mean
Meandifference
differencetest
test results for breaking
results for breakingforce
forcebefore
beforeand
and after
after rotating
rotating thethe lamination
lamination faces
faces ◦180°: (a) short-side armature; (b) long-side armature.
180 : (a) short-side armature; (b) long-side armature.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
SE SE
Mean Mean
C5 30 61.3 15.5 2.8 C6 30 114.4 27.0 4.9
C7 27 291.4 73.3 14 C8 27 105.2 23.1 4.5
C5 = Data before 3rd experiment C6 = Data before 3rd experiment
C7 = Data after 3rd experiment C8 = Data after 3rd experiment
Estimate for difference: −230.2 Estimate for difference: 9.23
95% CI for difference: (−259.7, −200.7) 95% CI for difference: (−4.09, 22.54)
T-Value = −16.00 T-Value = 1.39
In addition to the positive outcomes observed on the short side, inverting the lamina-
tion also produced favorable results for the long side as well. The test conducted on the
long side, as shown in Table 10b, revealed no statistical evidence to reject the hypothesis
of equal means before and after inverting the faces of the laminations. This indicates that
there was even a small change in the mean breaking force values on the long side. This can
be explained because this improvement was mainly focused on improving the breaking
force on the short side.
Inverted lamination proved to be highly beneficial, as evidenced by the marked
improvement in terms of meeting specifications. Table 11 and Figure 23 illustrate a notable
increase in the short side’s Ppk, which surged from 0.05 to 1.06, bringing it closer to the
minimum target of 1.32. Conversely, Table 11 and Figure 23 also indicate that the long
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 21 of 27
side experienced negligible change. However, the overall result is that both sides now
demonstrate significantly enhanced process capability.
Table 11. Detachment force capability response to epoxy coating thickness increase.

Short-Side Armature
LSL 58.8399 58.8399 PPL 1.06 0.67
Sample
291.441 105.186 Ppk 1.06 0.67
mean
Overall
73.2918 23.1488 CPL 1.26 0.65
StDev
StDev
61.6931 23.741 Cpk 1.26 0.65
(within)
Performance:
Observed Expected Overall Expected Within
Armature Armature Armature Armature Armature Armature
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW PPM < LSL 0 0 752.74 22,637.33 81.53 22 of 25,460.03
27
Total PPM 0 0 752.74 22,637.33 81.53 25,460.03
(a) (b)
Figure 23. Histograms
Figure of detachment
of detachment responseresponse
force capability to inverting the lamination:
to inverting (a) short- (a) short-
the lamination:
side armature; (b) long-side armature.
side armature; (b) long-side armature.
Differential Scanning Calorimetry

This achievement Test indicates that inverted lamination could serve as a pivotal
strongly
solution to address the detachment
To conclude these two phases of the PDCA forcecycle
issueand
previously identified
ensure the epoxy’sin the manufacturing
performance
process.
with the implemented modifications, a DSC study was conducted. This study aimed to
investigate the behavior of the epoxy powder during changes in curing temperature. Spe-
Differential Scanning Calorimetry Test
cifically, the study focused on determining whether the epoxy degraded under these con-
Todirectly
ditions, as this conclude these the
impacts twofunctionality,
phases of the PDCAand
quality, cycle and ensure
durability of thethe epoxy’s perfor-
reinforced
motor. mance with the implemented modifications, a DSC study was conducted. This study
The DSC analysis compared a virgin epoxy sample to a cured sample, as depicted intempera-
aimed to investigate the behavior of the epoxy powder during changes in curing
Figures ture.
24 andSpecifically, the study
25. The results focused
revealed on determining
a curing percentage ofwhether
84.23%.the epoxy degraded under
these conditions, as this directly impacts the functionality, quality, and durability of the
reinforced motor.
The DSC analysis compared a virgin epoxy sample to a cured sample, as depicted in
Figures 24 and 25. The results revealed a curing percentage of 84.23%.
with the implemented modifications, a DSC study was conducted. This study aimed to
ditions, as this directly impacts the functionality, quality, and durability of the reinforced
ditions, as this directly impacts the functionality, quality, and durability of the reinforced
motor.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 motor.
The DSC analysis compared a virgin epoxy sample to a cured sample, as depicted 22 of 27
in
The DSC analysis compared a virgin epoxy sample to a cured sample, as depicted in
Figure 24.
Figure 24. DSC
DSC test
test on
on aa virgin
virgin sample
sample (without
(without curing
curing treatment).
treatment).
Figure 24. DSC test on a virgin sample (without curing treatment).
Figure 25. DSC test on a cured sample.

Figure
Figure 25.
25. DSC
DSC test
test on
on aa cured
cured sample.
sample.
To ensure proper performance and adhesion, the percentage of epoxy curing needs to
be precisely measured. This is calculated using the following equation:
% Curing = (1 − ∆H)/∆H0 × 100 (2)
Enthalpy represents the total energy content of a system at constant pressure. In

the context of epoxy curing, ∆H0 denotes the energy change when the uncured epoxy
fully cures, while ∆H represents the energy change during partial curing stages. Com-
paring these values allows us to accurately assess the extent of epoxy curing throughout
the process.
This information is crucial for ensuring the final product meets the desired quality
and performance standards. Understanding the enthalpy changes helps in monitoring and
controlling the curing process to achieve consistent and reliable epoxy properties.
To determine the optimal voltage setting to maximize the epoxy curing percentage,
experiments were conducted, varying the curing process voltage from 2.8 to 3.3 kV. The
epoxy layer thickness was maintained at 150–200 microns, while the degreasing voltage
remained at 2.6 kV.
Analysis of data from both the short side (Figure 26) and long side (Figure 27) revealed
that 2.9 kV achieved the highest curing percentage on both sides. This finding shed light
on the potential reasons for the poor breaking force results observed when increasing the
voltage in the curing process, as discussed in Section Adjusting the Voltage at the Epoxy
Coating Curing Station to Optimize Curing Conditions.
experiments
epoxy layer were conducted,
thickness varying theatcuring
was maintained process
150–200 voltage
microns, from
while the2.8 to 3.3 kV. The
degreasing voltage
epoxy layeratthickness
remained 2.6 kV. was maintained at 150–200 microns, while the degreasing voltage
remained at 2.6of
Analysis kV.
data from both the short side (Figure 26) and long side (Figure 27) re-
vealedAnalysis
that 2.9ofkV
data from both
achieved the short
the highest side (Figure
curing 26) and
percentage longsides.
on both side (Figure 27) re-shed
This finding
vealed
light onthat
the2.9 kV achieved
potential thefor
reasons highest curing
the poor percentage
breaking forceon both sides.
results This when
observed finding shed
increasing
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 light on the potential reasonsprocess,
for the poor breaking force resultsAdjusting
observed when increasing 23 of 27
the voltage in the curing as discussed in Section the Voltage at the
the voltage in the curing process, as discussed in Section
Epoxy Coating Curing Station to Optimize Curing Conditions. Adjusting the Voltage at the
Epoxy Coating Curing Station to Optimize Curing Conditions.
Figure26.
Figure 26. Curingpercentage
percentageasasa afunction
function
of of voltage, short-side armature.
Figure 26.Curing
Curing percentage as a function voltage, short-side
of voltage, armature.
short-side armature.
Figure 27. Curing

Curingpercentage
percentageas as
a function of voltage, long-side armature.
Figure
Figure 27.
27. Curing percentage as aafunction
functionofof voltage,
voltage, long-side
long-side armature.
armature.
4.1.3. Phase4:4:Act
4.1.3. Phase Act
4.1.3. Phase 4: Act
This
This phaseaimed
phase aimed toto
solidify andand
solidify enhance the previously
enhance implemented
the previously changes,changes,
implemented en- en-
This phase aimed to solidify and enhance the previously implemented changes, en-
suring long-term process efficiency. These adjustments were presented
suring long-term process efficiency. These adjustments were presented to management, to management,
suring long-term
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
highlighting their processinefficiency. These specifications.
adjustments were presented towere
management,
24 of 27
highlighting theirimpact
impact interms of meeting
terms of meeting No modifications
specifications. No modifications made
were made
highlighting
to the physicaltheir impact
equipment in
orterms of
tooling; meeting
instead, specifications.
adjustments No
focusedmodifications
solely on were made
operating
to the physical
to the physical equipment
equipment or tooling;
or tooling; instead, adjustments focused solely on operating
parameters
parameters and
and new
new instructions
instructions the instead,
for for turning
the
adjustments
process
turning process
focused solely
in lamination.
in
on operating
To sustain
lamination. To these these
sustain
parameters anddocumented
gains, they were new instructions for the plan
in the control turning
and process in lamination.
the organization’s To The
PFMEA. sustain
volt-these
gains, they were documented in the control plan and the organization’s PFMEA. The volt-
age increase tested in Section Adjusting the Voltage at the Epoxy Coating Curing Station
age increase Curing
to Optimize tested in Section Adjusting
Conditions the Voltagebased
was not implemented at theonEpoxy CoatingofCuring
the findings the DSCStation to
Optimize
study. Curing Conditions was not implemented based on the findings of the DSC study.
5.
5. Results
Results
The graphininFigure
The graph Figure2828 illustrates
illustrates the behavior
the behavior of theof the indicator
scrap scrap indicator two after
two months months after
implementing
implementing the theimprovements.
improvements. TheThe organization
organization had
had set set ascrap
a 0.7% 0.7%target,
scrap which
target,was
which was
significantly surpassed.
significantly surpassed. This
This accomplishment
accomplishment can
can be be attributed
attributed to the enhanced
to the enhanced capability
capability
to meet
to meet the
thedetachment
detachment force specification
force for the
specification forepoxy coating,
the epoxy therebythereby
coating, reducing hipot hipot
reducing
test failures
test failures in
inmotors.
motors.Notably,
Notably, thethe
short sideside
short no longer yielded
no longer 500,000500,000
yielded pieces outside
pieces the
outside the
specification, a key factor in surpassing the scrap target.
specification, a key factor in surpassing the scrap target.
Figure 28. Scrap per month, January–October 2022.

Figure 28. Scrap per month, January–October 2022.
These changes yielded substantial economic benefits. Taking into account the com-
bined savings in metallic pieces, wire, and epoxy powder, the total annual cost reduction
amounts to approximately USD 135,000.
6. Conclusions
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 24 of 27
These changes yielded substantial economic benefits. Taking into account the com-
bined savings in metallic pieces, wire, and epoxy powder, the total annual cost reduction
amounts to approximately USD 135,000.
6. Conclusions
This case study demonstrates the effectiveness of the PDCA methodology in reducing
scrap within the electric motor manufacturing process. Implementation of the PDCA cycle
significantly enhanced the production process, achieving the scrap reduction goal of 0.7%
and exceeding it. This success was achieved through the identification and analysis of
root causes associated with the hipot problem. The main areas identified included contact
with the laminate during the epoxy coating application and sharp edges in the lamination
process itself.
In addition to scrap reduction, this study highlights the critical role of continuous
process improvement and the utilization of tools like 5W + 2H and three-legged five-why
analysis in pinpointing and addressing defect root causes. The implementation of these
tools enabled a targeted and effective approach to problem-solving, ultimately resulting in
reduced scrap.
This study differentiates itself from previous work by integrating statistical tools
(control charts and capability analysis), quality tools (5W + 2H and three-legged five-why
analysis), and the PDCA cycle into a unique framework. This framework addresses a spe-
cific need in the armature manufacturing process by tailoring the ‘Do’ and ‘Check’ phases to
include specialized testing procedures for identifying hipot issues. This customized frame-
work guides scrap reduction for processes prone to hipot failures while simultaneously
enhancing quality and reducing costs. This approach ultimately elevates the efficiency of
operations management within this sector. The specific details of the case study serve as
a practical example of how the PDCA cycle can be implemented to address hipot issues
in electric motor subassembly lines. Educational institutions can utilize this case study
to illustrate a real-world application of continuous improvement methodologies within a
dynamic industry. In addition, the automotive industry, particularly the electric vehicle
segment in China, is experiencing rapid growth. The presented case study offers valuable
insights into a critical aspect of electric motor production (scrap reduction) relevant to this
expanding market. By showcasing a successful implementation, this case study can serve as
a starting point for other manufacturers in the region or globally facing similar challenges.
6.1. Implications for Theory

The current state of knowledge of PDCA also explores the following aspects:
(a) Integration with other quality management frameworks: This research achieves this
goal by combining PDCA with other quality tools like capability analysis and control
charts for a more comprehensive approach to continuous improvement. In addition,
this research proposes a simplified version of the PDCA cycle, combining the “Do”
and “Check” phases into a single “Do/Check” phase. This streamlined approach can
expedite the achievement of results.
(b) Application in specific contexts: While this study was applied in electric motor man-
ufacturing, the framework’s replicability allows for adaptation and application in
organizations that manufacture products with wire windings. This includes genera-
tors, alternators, pumps, transformers, switchgears, and similar equipment.
6.2. Implications for Practice

A key practical contribution of the methodology proposed in this study is that it serves
as a basis for meeting the specific requirement of clause 10.2.3 of the IATF 16949 standard.
The documented steps of the methodology provide a process for problem-solving and
preventing recurrence in similar situations of high-potential (hipot) defect generation.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 25 of 27
6.3. Limitations and Future Research

One limitation of this manuscript is that the experimentation was conducted consider-
ing only one size of armature. This was because the hipot issue was specifically occurring in
that type and size of armature. It is likely that a broader approach could uncover additional
solutions beyond those found in this study, which may not have been detected due to
size constraints.
Based on the results obtained in this case study, it is advisable to continue seeking
improvements in the capability to meet the specification for the detachment force of the
epoxy coating. While the set goal in this study was accomplished with some margin, it
remains essential to aim for the desirable value of 1.32 for the Ppk, as mandated by the
company. For future research, it is recommended to employ a factorial experimental design,
considering various levels of the factors examined in this investigation. This approach will
enable a more comprehensive analysis of the effects of the factors and their interactions on
the response variable.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.-D.-J.U.-G.; investigation, M.-Á.R.-S.; writing—original

draft preparation, O.C.-D.; formal analysis, J.-L.C.-E.; writing—review and editing, H.-A.D.-M.;
supervision and funding acquisition, J.-M.C.-P.; visualization, O.-A.G.-B.; methodology, V.-A.M.-R.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding authors due to privacy and legal reasons.
Acknowledgments: The authors want to acknowledge the Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto
Tecnológico Superior de Fresnillo for allowing us to use their facilities and resources to develop this
paper. Also, the authors want to thank the COZCyT (Consejo Zacatecano de Ciencia, Tecnología e
Innovación) for their support of our continued research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
1. Abdel-Shafy, H.; Mansour, M. Solid waste issue: Sources, composition, disposal, recycling, and valorization. Egypt. J. Pet. 2018,
27, 1275–1290. [CrossRef]
2. Liladhar, N.; Achari, A.; Choudhary, S. Enhancing customer loyalty through quality of service: Effective strategies to improve
customer satisfaction, experience, relationship, and engagement. Int. Res. J. Mod. Eng. Technol. Sci. 2023, 5, 427–452. [CrossRef]
3. Palange, A.; Dhatrak, P. Lean manufacturing a vital tool to enhance productivity in manufacturing. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 46,
729–736. [CrossRef]
4. Nallusamy, S. Execution of lean and industrial techniques for productivity enhancement in a manufacturing industry. Mater.
Today Proc. 2021, 37, 568–575. [CrossRef]
5. Arunagiri, P.; Suresh, P.; Jayakumar, V. Assessment of hypothetical correlation between the various critical factors for lean systems
in automobile industries. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 33, 35–38. [CrossRef]
6. International Labour Organization [ILO]. The Future of Work in the Automotive Industry: The Need to Invest in People’s
Capabilities and Decent and Sustainable Work. 2020. Available online: http://www.jstor.org/stable/26296382 (accessed on 3
February 2024).
7. Moen, R.; Norman, C. Evolution of the PDCA Cycle. In Proceedings of the 7th ANQ Congress, Tokyo, Japan, 17 September 2009.
8. Nabiilah, A.; Hamedon, Z.; Faiz, M. Improving quality of light commercial vehicle using PDCA approach. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
2017, 12, 525–534.
9. Jagusiak-Kocik, M. PDCA cycle as a part of continuous improvement in the production company—A case study. Prod. Eng. Arch.
2017, 14, 19–22. [CrossRef]
10. Sztorc, M.; Savenkovs, K. The Use of Lean Management Instruments to Shape Business Models of Service Companies. Manag.
Prod. Eng. Rev. 2020, 11, 128–140. [CrossRef]
11. Rosa, C.; Silva, F.; Pinto-Ferreira, L. Improving the quality and productivity of steel wire-rope assembly lines for the automotive
industry. Procedia Manuf. 2017, 11, 1035–1042. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 26 of 27
12. Kigha, B.; Butu, H.; Owolabi, A.; Wook, J.; Suh, D.; Huh, J. Integrating multi-criteria analysis with PDCA cycle for sustainable
energy planning in Africa: Application to hybrid mini-grid system in Cameroon. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2020, 37, 100628.
[CrossRef]
13. Kumaar-Kathirvel, A.; Paddock-Moore, C.; Chakravorty, S. Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Based Approach to Business Process
Mapping. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Bangalore,
India, 16–18 August 2021.
14. Nedra, A.; Néjib, S.; Yassine, C.; Morched, C. A new lean Six Sigma hybrid method based on the combination of PDCA and the
DMAIC to improve process performance: Application to clothing SME. Ind. Textila J. 2019, 70, 447–456. [CrossRef]
15. Sokovic, M.; Pavletic, D.; Kern-Pipan, K. Quality Improvement Methodologies–PDCA Cycle, RADAR Matrix, DMAIC and DFSS.
J. Achiev. Mater. Manuf. Eng. 2010, 43, 476–483.
16. Sunadi, S.; Hardi-Purba, H.; Hasibuan, S. Implementation of Statistical Process Control through PDCA Cycle to Improve Potential
Capability Index of Drop Impact Resistance: A Case Study at Aluminum Beverage and Beer Cans Manufacturing Industry in
Indonesia. Qual. Innov. Prosper. 2020, 24, 104–127. [CrossRef]
17. Amaral, V.; Ferreira, A.; Ramos, B. Internal Logistics Process Improvement using PDCA: A Case Study in the Automotive Sector.
Bus. Syst. Res. 2022, 13, 100–115. [CrossRef]
18. Silva, A.; Medeiros, C.; Vieira, R.K. Cleaner Production and PDCA cycle: Practical application for reducing the Cans Loss Index
in a beverage company. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 150, 324–338. [CrossRef]
19. Singh-Sidhu, B.; Kumar, V.; Bajaj, A. The “5S” Strategy by Using PDCA Cycle for Continuous Improvement of the Manufacturing
Processes in Agriculture Industry. Int. J. Res. Ind. Eng. 2013, 2, 10–23.
20. Tahiduzzaman, M.; Rahman, M.; Kumar-Dey, S.; Kumar_Kapuria, T. Minimization of Sewing Defects of an Apparel Industry in
Bangladesh with 5S & PDCA. Am. J. Ind. Eng. 2018, 5, 17–24. [CrossRef]
21. Garza-Reyes, J.; Torres, J.; Govindan, K.; Cherrafi, A.; Ramanathan, U. A PDCA-based approach to Environmental Value Stream
Mapping (E-VSM). J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 180, 335–348. [CrossRef]
22. Goyal, A.; Agrawal, R.; Kumar-Chokhani, R.; Saha, C. Waste reduction through Kaizen approach: A case study of a company in
India. Waste Manag. Res. 2018, 37, 102–107. [CrossRef]
23. Isniah, S.; Hardi, H.; Debora, F. Plan do check action (PDCA) method: Literature review and research issues. J. Sist. Dan Manaj.
Ind. 2020, 4, 72–81. [CrossRef]
24. De Lima, J.; Correa, P.; Drumond, R.; Carvalho, A.; Goncalves, R. Ferramentas da qualidade nas indústrias de papel e celulosa da
Bahia. Sodebras 2015, 10, 49–54.
25. Zhong, X.; Wu, X.; Xie, X.; Zhou, Q.; Xu, R.; Wang, J.; He, L.; He, Y.; Qiu, X. A descriptive study on clinical department managers’
cognition of the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle and factors influencing their cognition. BMC Med. Educ. 2023, 23, 294. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
26. Knop, K.; Mielczarek, K. The improvement on the basis pf PDCA and SDCA cycles. Zesz. Nauk. Qual. Prod. Improv. 2015, 2, 60–71.
[CrossRef]
27. Praveen, G. Beyond PDCA—A new process management model. Qual. Prog. Improv. 2006, 7, 45–52.
28. Habibie, M.; Kresiani, R. Implementation of PDCA Cycle in Calibration and Testing Laboratory Based on ISO/IEC 17025:2017.
IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 598, 012108. [CrossRef]
29. Stefanova-Stoyanova, V.; Danov, P. Comparative Analysis of Specialized Standards and Methods on Increasing the Effectiveness
and Role of PDCA for Risk Control in Management Systems. In Proceedings of the 10th International Scientific Conference on
Computer Science (COMSCI), Sofia, Bulgaria, 30 May–2 June 2022; pp. 1–6. [CrossRef]
30. Majerník, M.; Daneshjo, N.; Chovancová, J.; Sančiová, G. Design of integrated management systems according to the revised ISO
standards. Pol. J. Manag. Stud. 2017, 15, 135–143. [CrossRef]
31. Algheriani, M.; Majstorovic, V.; Kirin, S.; Spasojevic, V. Risk Model for Integrated Management System. Teh. Vjesn. Tech. Gaz.
2019, 26, 1833–1840. [CrossRef]
32. ISO 9001:2015; Quality Management Systems—Requirements. International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzer-
land, 2015.
33. Pallawala, N.; Jayamaha, N.; Grigg, P. Testing the ISO 9001:2015 Process Model: An Australasian Empirical Study. In Proceedings
of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), Bangkok, Thailand,
16–19 December 2018; pp. 1–6. [CrossRef]
34. Salazar, F.; Tigre, F.; Tubón-Núñez, E.; Carrillo, S.; Buele, J. Implementation of the Quality Management System (ISO 9001: 2015)
in the Bodywork Industry. J. Inf. Syst. Eng. Manag. 2019, 4, em0091. [CrossRef]
35. Susanti, D.; Nur-Amalia, V.; Asbari, M. Analysis of ISO 9001:2015 Implementation in Higher Education: A Narrative Literature
Review. Int. J. Soc. Manag. Stud. (IJOSMAS) 2023, 4, 42–48. [CrossRef]
36. Chiarini, A.; Cherrafi, A. Integrating ISO 9001 and Industry 4.0. An implementation guideline and PDCA model for manufacturing
sector. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 2023, 34, 1629–1654. [CrossRef]
37. IATF 16949:2016; Quality Management System for Organizations in the Automotive Industry. AIAG: Southfield, MI, USA, 2016.
38. Koncz, A. 8D Usage in Automotive Industry. In Proceedings of the 18th IEEE International Symposium on Computational
Intelligence and Informatics, Budapest, Hungary, 21–28 November 2018.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 27 of 27
39. Aguilar-Morales, D.; Pérez-Dominguez, L.; Sánchez-Mojica, K. Application of the 8D methodology for problem solving: A case
study in the automotive industry. Mundo Fesc. 2022, 12, 259–268.
40. Phanden, R.; Sheokand, A.; Goyal, K.; Gahlot, P.; Demir, H. 8Ds method of problem solving within automotive industry: Tools
used and comparison with DMAIC. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 65, 3266–3272. [CrossRef]
41. Realyvásquez-Vargas, A.; Arredondo-Soto, K.; García-Alcaraz, J.; Jimenez, E. Improving a Manufacturing Process Using the 8Ds
Method. A Case Study in a Manufacturing Company. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2433. [CrossRef]
42. Chai, H.; Phung, B.; Mitchell, S. Application of UHF Sensors in Power System Equipment for Partial Discharge Detection: A
Review. Sensors 2019, 19, 1029. [CrossRef]
43. Diab, M.; Zhou, W.; Emersic, C.; Yuan, X. Impact of PWM Voltage Waveforms on Magnet Wire Insulation Partial Discharge in
SiC-Based Motor Drives. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 156599–156612. [CrossRef]
44. Agnes, W. Railway transport sustainability with automated hipot failure detection. In Proceedings of the 5th International
Conference on Road and Rail Infrastructure, Zadar, Croatia, 17–19 May 2018.
45. Ghani, S.; Bakar, N.; Chairul, I.; Ahmad, M.; Hakimah, N. Effects of Moisture Content and Temperature on the Dielectric Strength
of Transformer Insulating Oil. J. Adv. Res. Fluid Mech. Therm. Sci. 2019, 63, 107–116.
46. Nageshwar, R.; Mallikarjunappa, K.; Sundara, J.; Ramachandra, B.; Sudhindra, A. Assesment of stator winding insulation. Part
1—Review of Deterioration Mechanisms and Condition Monitoring Techniques. Power Res. J. CPRI 2010, 6, 61–76.
47. Ferras, F.; Francelin, R.; Sundara, J.; Sheng, H. Machine Learning for the Detection and Diagnosis of Anomalies in Applications
Driven by Electric Motors. Sensors 2023, 23, 9725. [PubMed]
48. Jahromi, A. Review of Field Acceptance Hipot & PD Testing of Medium Voltage Underground Cables. In Proceedings of the 2017
IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference (EIC), Baltimore, MD, USA, 11–14 June 2017; pp. 241–244. [CrossRef]
49. Saiful, M.F.C.; Tjahjono, N.; Fatma, C. Peningkatan Grade Kain Sarung dengan Mengurangi Cacat Menggunakan Metode Kaizen
dan Siklus PDCA pada PT. X. Widya Tek. 2018, 26, 222–231. [CrossRef]
50. Kurniawan, H.S.E.; Merjani, A. Peningkatan Kualitas Produksi Untuk Mengurangi Unit Cacat Insufficient Epoxy Dengan Metode
Pdca Di Area Die Attach (studi kasus di pt. unisem). Profisiensi 2017, 5, 44–50. [CrossRef]
51. Realyvásquez-Vargas, A.; Arredondo-Soto, K.; Carrillo-Gutiérrez, T.; Ravelo, G. Applying the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle
to Reduce the Defects in the Manufacturing Industry. A Case Study. Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2181. [CrossRef]
52. Hernández, C.; Da-Silva, F. Application of Statistical Process Control (SPC) in its Quality control. Tecnol. Quím. 2016, 36, 104–116.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

41 - Enhancing Scrap Reduction in Electric Motor Manufacturing For Theautomotive Industry A Case Study Using The PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) Approach

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

41 - Enhancing Scrap Reduction in Electric Motor Manufacturing For Theautomotive Industry A Case Study Using The PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) Approach

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

applied

1 Department of Industrial Engineering, Tecnológico Nacional de Mexico, Campus Fresnillo,

Featured Application: The PDCA (Plan–Do–Check–Act) cycle, coupled with supplementary

Received: 8 February 2024 Keywords: plan–do–check–act (PDCA); scrap; quality tools

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14072999 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Figure 2. Epoxy coating addition sub-process.

Figure 3. Sub-process of magnetic wire winding.

Figure 4. Scrap per month (January–August 2022).

2.3. Variations of the PDCA Cycle

2.4. PDCA Integration with Quality Management Systems

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2999 7 of 27

4.1. The Method

PDCA Quick Response

• What is the difference between defective and non-defective parts?

4.1.2. Phases 2 and 3: Do and Check

Epoxy Coating Peel Test

Figure 9. Machine for epoxy coating peel test.

Re-running the test with

Max 0.4 3 39 212 272

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 27

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 27

Figure 15. Individual control chart for armature temperature

Table 4. Process capability measures for epoxy coating thickness.

Adjusting the Voltage at the Epoxy Coating Curing Station to Optimize

Table 5. Process capability measures for epoxy detachment force.

Process Data: Overall Capability

Figure 18. The two sides of the armature.

Testing Diﬀerent Thicknessesforce

Table 9. Detachment force capability response to epoxy coating thickness increase.

Process Data: Overall Capability

Evaluating the Impact

Process Data: Overall Capability

Diﬀerential Scanning Calorimetry

Figure 25. DSC test on a cured sample.

% Curing = (1 − ∆H)/∆H0 × 100 (2)

Enthalpy represents the total energy content of a system at constant pressure. In

Figure 27. Curing

Figure 28. Scrap per month, January–October 2022.

6.1. Implications for Theory

6.2. Implications for Practice

6.3. Limitations and Future Research

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.-D.-J.U.-G.; investigation, M.-Á.R.-S.; writing—original

You might also like