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Introduction to Food Science & Food Systems 2nd Edition

Rick Parker And Miriah Pace
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Introduction to Food Chemistry Kontogiorgos
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INTRODUCTION TO
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INTRODUCTION TO

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.. .. .. . •.
TO MO ri ly n, wife, mother, partner, friend,
and one true love for more than 47 years, through
good times and bad, helping me enjoy the journey.
.. .. .. . •.
SECTION ONE Standard 4: Satisfy Human Need for
Fiber and Safe, Nutritious Foods 31
INTRODUCTION Standard 5: Conserve and Seek
AND BACKGROUND 3 Energy Resources 32
Standard 6: Create and Conserve
Chapter 1 Healthy Soil 33
Overview of Food Science 4 Standard 7: Conserves and Protects
Water Resources 34
Parts of the Food Industry 5
Standard 8: Recycle and Reduce
Trends 6
Waste Products 36
Allied Industries 14 Standard 9: Select Animals
International Activities 15 and Crops Appropriate for an
Responsiveness to Change 19 Environment and Available
Resources 37
Interrelated Operations 19
Standard 10: Manage Pests with
Summary 20
Minimal Environmental Impact 38
Review Questions 20
Standard 11: Encourage Strong
Student Activities 21 Communities 38
Additional Resources 21 Standard 12: Use Appropriate
References 21 Technology 39
Standard 13: Promote Social and
Chapter 2 Environmental Responsibility 39
Food Systems and Sustainability 22 Sustainable Standards Score Card 40
Food-System Definitions 23 Summary 40
Allied Industries 24 Review Questions 41
International Activities 24 Student Activities 41
Interrelated Operations 25 Additional Resources 42
Food-System Trends 25 References 42
Retail Trends 26
Chapter 3
Defining Sustainability 27
Chemistry of Foods 44
Standards of Sustainable Food
Production 28 Carbohydrates 45
Standard 1: Base Direction Function in Food 46
and Changes Based on Science 28 Monosaccharide 46
Standard 2: Follow Market Principles 30 Di saccharides 49
Standard 3: Increase Profitability Sugars in Food 50
and Reduce Risks 30
Polysaccharides 52
CONTENTS vii
Proteins 54 References 67
Functions of Proteins in Foods 57 Endnotes 67
Lipids 57
Role of Fats in Food 58 Chapter 4
Fatty Acids 59 Nutrition and Digestion 68
Double Bonds 59 Nutrient Needs 69
Triglycerides 60 Water 69
Phospholipids 60 Energy 69
Cholesterol 60 Carbohydrates 71
Vitamins 60 Fiber 71
Fat-Soluble Vitamins 60 Protein 72
Water-Soluble Vitamins 61 Lipids 74
Minerals 61 Vitamins 74
Calcium 61 Minerals 75
Phosphorus 61 MyPlate 75
Potassium 62 Food Groups 75
Sodium 62 Digestive Processes Bl
Chloride 62 Ingestion 81
Magnesium 62 Digestion 81
Sulfur 62 Absorption Bl
Chromium 62 Elimination Bl
Cobalt 62 Components of the Human
Copper 62 Digestive System 81
Fluorine 62 Vegetarian Diets 83
Iodine 62 Bioavailability of Nutrients 83
Iron 62 Stability of Nutrients 83
Manganese 63 Diet and Chronic Disease 84
Molybdenum 63 Summary 84
Nickel 63 Review Questions 84
Selenium 63 Student Activities 85
Silicon 63 Additional Resources 85
Tin 63 References 85
Vanadium 63 Endnotes 86
Zinc 63 Chapter 5
Water 64
Food Composition 88
Biotin 64
Determining the Composition of Foods 89
Choline 64
Energy in Food 89
Phytochemicals 64
Summary 65
Food-Composition Tables 90
Summary 91
Review Questions 65
Review Questions 92
Student Activities 66
Additional Resources 66
viii CONTENTS
Additional Resources 93 Mixing 117
References 93 Heat Exchanging 117
Concentration 119
Chapter 6 Drying 120
Quality Factors in Foods 94 Forming 120
Sensory Evaluation 96 Packaging 120
Appearance Factors 96 Controlling 121
Textural Factors 97 Overlapping Operations 121
Flavor Factors 98 Conserving Energy 122
Additional Quality Factors 101 Other Processes 122
Proteins 101 Summary 124
Lipids 101 Review Questions 124
Carbohydrates 101 Student Activities 124
Vitamins 102 Additional Resources 125
Chemicals and Microbiological References 125
Characteristics 102 Endnotes 125
Quality Standards 102
Quality Standards: USDA Chapter 8
and the AMS 102 Food Deterioration 126
Grading and Certification 104
Types of Food Deterioration 127
Mission 105
Shelf Life and Dating of Foods 127
Food Quality Assurance 106
Causes of Food Deterioration 129
Commercial Item Descriptions 106
Bacteria. Yeast. and Mold 129
Quality Control 106
Food-Borne Disease 130
Summary 108
Insects 130
Review Questions 109
Food Enzymes 130
Heat and Cold 132
Oxygen 132
References 110
Postharvest Biochemical Changes 133
Endnotes 110
Postslaughter Biochemical Changes 133
Chapter 7 Principles of Food Preservation 133
Unit Operations in Food Heat 133
Processing 112 Cold 133
Drying 134
Materials Handling 113
Acid 134
Cleaning 113
Sugar and Salt 134
Separating 114
Smoke 134
Cream Separator 114
Atmosphere 135
Clarification 114
Chemicals 135
Membrane Processes 115
Radiation 135
Size Reduction 115
Summary 136
Pumping (Fluid Flow) 115
CONTENTS Ix
Student Act ivities 136 Student Activities 150
Additional Resources 137 Additional Resources 150
References 137 References 151
Chapter 10
SECTION TWO Cold 152
PRESERVATION 139 Refrigeration Versus Freezing 153
Refrigeration and Cool Storage 153
Chapter 9
Requirements of Refrigerated
Heat 140 Storage 154
Heat 141 Changes in Food During
Degrees of Prese rvation 141 Refrigerated Storage 154
Sterilization 141 Freezing and Frozen Storage 155
Commercial Steril ity 141 Chemical Changes During Freezing 157
Pasteurization 142 Textural Changes During Freezing 157
Blanching 142 Microbial Growth in the Freezer 158
Selecting Heat Treatments 142 Freezing Methods 158
Heat Resistance of Microorganisms 142 Packaging 158
Heat Transfer 142 New Developments 159
Convection-Conduction 143 Home Freezing 159
Conduction-Convection 143 Rigid Containers 159
Radiation 143 Flexible Bags or Wrappings 160
Protective Effects of Food Constituents 144 Freezer Pointers 160
Different Temperature-Time Foods to Freeze for Quality 160
Combinations 144 Effect of Freezing on Spices
Organisms 144 and Seasonings 160
Thermal Death Curves 145 Freezer Management 161
DValue 145 Summary 162
ZValue 145 Review Questions 162
Time-Temperature Combinations 145 Student Activities 163
low-Acid Foods 145 Additional Resources 163
Heating Before or After Packaging 145 References 163
Still Retort 146
Chapter 11
Agitating Retort 146
Drying and Dehydration 164
Hydrostatic Retort 146
Aseptic Packaging 147 Dehydration 165
Home Canning 148 Drying Curve 167
Food Acidity and Processing Solute Concentration 167
Methods 148 Binding of Water 167
Process Adjustments at Chemical Changes 168
High Altitudes 149 Drying Methods 169
Summary 149 Food Concentration 169
Review Questions 149 Reduced Weight and Volume 170
X CONTENTS
Solar Evaporation 170 Uses of Fermentation 188
Open Kettles 171 Fermented Dairy Products 188
Flash Evaporators 171 Bread Making 189
Thin-Film Evaporators 171 Pickling 189
Vacuum Evaporators 172 Processed Mea1s 190
Freeze Concentration 172 Vinegar 190
Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis 172 Wine Making 191
Home Drying 173 Brewing 191
Food Dehydrators 173 Microorganisms as Foods 192
Oven Drying 173 Genetic Engineering and
Room Drying 173 Biotechnology 192
Sun Drying 173 Chymosin (Rennin) 193
Summary 175 Bovine Somatotropin (BST) 193
Review Questions 175 Tomatoes 193
Student Activities 175 Cloning 193
Additional Resources 176 GMO Debate 193
References 176 The Future 194
Summary 195
Chapter 12 Review Questions 195
Radiant and Electrical Energy 178 Student Activities 195
Food Irradiation 179 Additional Resources 196
Food Irradiation Process 179 References 196
Approved Uses for Food Irradiation 180 Endnotes 196
Applications for Food Irradiation 180
Chapter 14
Nutritional Quality of Irradiated
Foods 181 Food Additives 198
Regulation of Food Irradiation 181 Reasons for Use 199
Microwave Heating 181 Preservatives 203
Food-Processing Applications 183 Nutritional Additives 204
Ohmic (Electrical) Heating 183 Color Modifiers 205
Summary 184 Flavoring Agents 207
Review Questions 184 Texturing Agents 207
Student Activities 185 Acidulants 208
Additional Resources 185 Fat Replacers 208
References 185 Irradiation 208
Endnote 185 Hazards 209
Summary 209
Chapter 13 Review Questions 210
Fermentation, Microorganisms, Student Activities 210
and Biotechnology 186 Additional Resources 211
Fermentations 187 References 211
Benefits 187 Endnote 211
Control 187
CONTENTS xi
Chapter 15 Homogenization 231
Packaging 212 Beverage Milk 231
Nutritional Qualities 231
Types of Containers 213
Quality Control During Processing 232
Food-Packaging Materials and Forms 213
Packaging 232
Metals 213
Milk Products and By-Products 232
Glass 214
Butter 233
Paper 214
Concentrated and Dried Dairy
Plastics 215 Products 235
Laminates 215 Condensed Buttermilk 236
Reto rtable Pouches 216 238
Cheese
Edible Films 216 Yogu r t 240
Package Testing 216 Ice Cream 241
Packages with Special Features 218 Qual ity Products 242
Environmental Considerations 218 Milk Substitutes 243
Innovations in Packaging 219 Reduced Fat Products 244
Summary 220 Milk Quality Evaluation and Flavor
Review Questions 220 Defects 244
Student Activities 221 FFA Milk Quality and Products Career
Additional Resources 221 Development Event 244
References 221 Summary 245
Endnote 221 Review Questions 245
SECTION THREE References 246
FOODS AND FOOD Endnotes 247
PRODUCTS 223
Chapter 17
Chapter 16 Meat 248
Milk 224 Meat and Meat Products 249
Fluid Milk 225 Government Oversight 250
Legal Description 225 Grading 250
Production Practices 225 Grading Formulas 251
Grades and Classes of Milk 226 Value-Based Beef Pricing 251
Factors Necessary to Produce Dressing Percentage 252
Quality Milk 226 Slaughtering Practices 252
Mastitis Detection and Control 227 Wholesale and Retail Cuts of Meat 253
Quality Control on the Farm 227 Structure and Composition of Meat 256
Milk Pricing Economics and Trends 229 Meat Products Formulations 256
Processing 229 Chilling 257
Pasteurizing 229 Aging of Meat 257
Identifying Diseases Transmitted to Tenderizing 258
Consumers Through Milk 230
Muscle Identification 258
Butterfat 230
xii CONTENTS
Curing 261 Review Questions 285
Color 262 Student Activities 285
Smoking 262 Additional Resources 286
Meat Specialties 262 References 286
Freezing 262
Storage 263 Chapter 19
Cooking 263 Fish and Shellfish 288
FFA Meats Evaluation and Technology Fish and Shellfish: Saltwater
Career Development Event 263 and Freshwater 289
Meat Substitutes 265 Fishing Versus Culture 289
Summary 265 Aquaculture 289
Review Questions 265 Composition, Flavor, and Texture 290
Student Activities 266 Spoilage 290
Additional Resources 266 Processing 292
References 267 Aquaculture Processing 292
Inspection 293
Chapter 18 Quality 293
Poultry and Eggs 268 Grading 294
Poultry Production 269 Products 295
Processing 270 Preservation 295
Processing Steps 271 Shellfish 296
Meat Properties 272 Fish By-Products 296
Grading 274 Roe 296
Products 276 Storage 296
EGGS 278 New Products 297
Caged Layers in California 278 Summary 298
Processing 278 Review Questions 298
Formation and Structure 278 Student Activities 298
Composition 279 Additional Resources 299
Grading 280 References 299
FFA Poultry Evaluation Career Endnote 299
Development Event 281
Quality Factors of Eggs 282 Chapter 20
Evaluation of Egg Interior Cereal Grains, Legumes,
and Exterior Quality 283 and Oilseeds 300
FFA Meats Evaluation and
Technology Career Cereal Grains 301
Development Event 283 General Structure and Composition 301
Storage 284 Starch 302
Fertile Eggs 284 Properties of Starch 302
Organic Eggs 284 Factors Requiring Control 303
Egg Substitutes 284 Handling of Cooked Starch 304
Summary 285 Weeping 304
CONTENTS xiii
Milling of Grains 304 Soy Nuts 322
Classes of Wheat 306 Soy Oil and Products 322
Grades of Flour 307 Soy Sprouts 322
Types of White Flour 307 Tempeh 322
Enriched Flour 308 Tofu and Tofu Products 322
Gluten 308 Soy-Based Whipped Toppings 323
Other Flours 309 Summary 323
Rice 310 Review Questions 323
Corn Refining 310 Student Activities 324
Inspection and Cleaning 310 Additional Resources 324
Steeping 310 References 324
Germ Separation 311 Endnote 325
Fine Grinding and Screening 311
Starch Separation 311 Chapter 21
Syrup Conversion 311 Fruits and Vegetables 326
Fermentation 312 Types of Fruit 327
Bioproducts 312 Vegetable Properties and Structural
Breakfast Cereals 312 Features 327
Principles of Baking 313 General Composition 328
Legumes 314 Fresh Vegetable Labels 328
Nutritional Composition 317 Fresh Fruit Labels 328
Legume Products 317 Activities of Living Systems 329
Soybeans 318 Plant Tissues 330
Green Vegetable Soybeans 318 Harvesting 331
Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein 318 Ripening 331
Infant Formulas. Soy-Based 320 Appearance 332
Lecithin 320 Texture 332
Meat Alternatives (Meat Analogs) 320 Flavor 333
Netto 320 Quality Grades for Fresh Vegetables 334
N ondairy Soy Frozen Dessert 320 Quality Grades for Canned and
Frozen Vegetables 334
Soy Cheese 320
Quality Grades for Fresh Fruit 335
Soy Fiber (Okara. Soy Bran.
and Soy Isolate Fiber) 321 Quality Grades for Canned
and Frozen Fruits 335
Soy Flour 321
Country of Origin Labeling 336
Soy Grits 321
Post-Harvest 337
Soy Protein Concentrate 321
Processing Fruits 338
Soy Protein Isolates (Isolated
Soy Protein) 321 Canned Fruits 344
Soy Protein. Textured 321 Frozen Fruits 344
Soy Sauce 322 Fruit Juices 344
Soy Yogurt 322 Processing Vegetables 344
Soy Milk and Soy Beverages 322 Canned Vegetables 351
Soy Nut Butter 322 Frozen Vegetables 351
xiv CONTENTS
By-Products 351 Invert Sugar 375
Biotechnology 352 Caramelization 376
Summary 352 Corn Syrups and Other Sweeteners 377
Review Questions 353 Fructose and Fructose Products 378
Student Activities 353 Chocolate and Cocoa Products 378
Additional Resources 353 Cocoa 378
References 354 Milk Chocolate 379
Confectionery Manufacturing Practices 379
Chapter 22 Enrobing 381
Fats and Oils 356 Standards 381
Effects of Composition on Fat Properties 357 Sugar Substitutes 381
Sources of Fats and Oils 360 Labeling 382
Functional Properties of Fats 360 Summary 383
Production and Processing Methods 360 Review Questions 383
Degumming 362 Student Activities 383
Alkali Refining 362 Additional Resources 384
Bleaching 362 References 384
Winterization (Fractionation) 362 Endnotes 385
Hydrogenation 362
Deodorization 362 Chapter 24
lnteresterification 363 Beverages 386
Products Made from Fats and Oils 363 Carbonated Nonalcoholic Beverages 387
Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 364 Sweeteners 388
Fat Substitutes 364 Flavors 388
Protein-Based Fat Replacers 365 Colors 388
Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 365 Acid 388
Fat-Based Fat Replacers 365 Water 388
Lipid (Fat and Oil) Analogs 367 Carbon Dioxide 389
Tests on Fats and Oils 368 Mixing 389
Summary 369 Noncarbonated Herbal and Healthful
Review Questions 369 Beverages 389
Student Activities 369 Hi-C® 389
Additional Resources 370 Gatorade• 390
References 370 SoBe 390
Endnotes 371 Snapple 391
Bottled Water 392
Chapter 23 Alcoholic Beverages 393
Candy and Confectionery 372 Beer 393
Sources of Sugar 373 Wine 394
Sugar-Based Confectionery 374 Coffee 396
Composition 374 Coffee Substitutes 396
Ingredients 374 Tea 397
CONTENTS xv
Processing 397 Bacteria 421
Blended and Unblended Varieties 397 Factors Affecting Microbial Growth 421
Instant Tea and Bottled Tea 397 Food 422
Herbal Tea 398 Acidity 422
Summary 400 Temperature 422
Review Questions 400 Time 422
Student Activities 400 Oxygen 422
Additional Resources 401 Moisture 422
References 401 Fat Tom 422
Endnote 402 Microbiological Methodology 425
Processing and Handling 425
Good Manufacturing Practices 426
SECTION FOUR Rodents. Birds. and Insects 427
RELATED ISSUES 405 Cleaning and Sanitizing 428
Cleaning 428
Chapter 25
Sanitation 428
Environmental Concerns
Regulatory Considerations 430
and Processing 406
HACCP and Food Safety 430
Water In Food Production 407 Biotechnology 433
Properties and Requirements Genetically Modified Foods 434
of Processing Waters 407
FFA Food Science and Technology
Environmental Concerns 407 Career Development Event 437
Disposal of Solid Wastes 408 Summary 437
Properties of Wastewaters 410 Review Questions 437
Wastewater Treatment 411 Student Activities 438
Lowering Discharge Volumes 411 Additional Resources 438
Responsibility 412 References 439
Summary 412 Endnotes 439
Student Activities 413 Chapter 27
Additional Resources 413 Regulation and Labeling 440
References 414 Federal Food. Drug. and Cosmetic Act 441
Additional Food Laws 441
Chapter 26
Legal Categories of Food Substances 442
Food Safety 416
Testing for Safety 442
Safety, Hazards, and Risks 417 Quality Assurance 443
Food-Related Hazards 417 Food Labeling 443
Cross-Contamination 418 Foods Affected 444
High-Risk Foods and Individuals 418 Exemptions 444
Microorganisms 421 Restaurant Nutritional Labeling 447
Viruses 421 Nutrition Panel Title 449
Parasites 421 Serving Sizes 449
Fungi 421
xvi CONTENTS
Nutrition Information 450 Review Questions 477
Nutrition Panel Format 450 Student Activities 478
Daily Values-DRVs 453 Additional Resources 478
Nutrient Content Descriptions 453 References 478
Other Definitions 455 Endnotes 479
Proposed Revisions to the Nutritional
Facts Label 456 Chapter 29
USDA's Meat Grading Program 458 Food and Health 480
Health Claims 458 Food and Disease 481
Ingredient Labeling 458 Obesity 482
Formulation and Costing 460 Possible Cancer Prevention 486
Factors in Packaging Design 460 Type 2 Diabetes 489
FFA Food Science Career Development Sleep Problems 491
Event 461
Digestive Disorders 493
Summary 462
Gas 493
Heartburn 494
Lactose Intolerance 494
Peptic Ulcer Disease 495
References 463
Diarrhea 496
Endnotes 463
Constipation 497
Chapter 28 Diverticular Disease, Celiac
Disease. Crohn's Disease.
World Food Needs 464 and Pancreatitis 497
World Food Hunger and Malnutrition 465 Eating Disorders 500
Causes of Hunger 466 Anorexia Nervosa 501
Fighting the Problem 469 Bulimia Nervosa 501
Step l: More Self-Sufficiency 470 Binge-Eating Disorder 501
Step 2: Check Farming Regulations 470 Food Allergies 502
Step 3: Proper Storage 471 Dental Caries or Tooth Decay 502
Step 4: Check Food Aid 471 Phytonutrients 503
Step 5: Work Together 471 Nutraceuticals 503
Step 6: Prevent Waste 471 Herbs 504
Step 7: Pay Off Debt 471 What Are Herbs? 504
Roles of Technology 471 Research on Herbs 504
Resource Management 471 Regulation of Herbal Supplements 507
Protection of Crops 472 Using Caution 507
Genetic Improvement 472 Nutrigenomics 508
Global Action 473 Components of Food 509
World Food Summit 473 Fruits and Vegetables 509
World Food Summit Plan of Action 473 Whole Grains 509
Hunger Agencies and Organizations 474 Protein 510
Summary 477 Fats and Oils 510
CONTENTS )(VII
Bad Diets, Good Diets 511 Food-Industry Supervised Agricultural
What to Eat 511 Experience 532
Balancing Calories 512 Getting a Job 532
Summary 512 Application Forms 532
Review Questions 514 Letters of Inquiry and Application 533
Student Activities 514 Resume or Data Sheet 534
Additional Resources 515 The Interview 534
References 515 Follow-Up Letters 535
Occupational Safety 536
Chapter 30 Summary 538
Careers in Food Science 516 Review Questions 538
General Skills and Knowledge 517 Student Activities 538
Basic Skills 517 Additional Resources 539
Thinking Skills 518 References 540
General Workplace Competencies 519 Endnotes 540
Information Technology 520
Appendix A
Personal Qualities 521
Review of Chemistry 542
Entrepreneurship 521
Jobs and Courses in the Food Industry 522
Appendix B
Education and Experience 523
Reference Tables 552
Identifying a Job 523
Food Inspection and Safety 523
Appendix C
Food-Service Industry 524
Harvesting and Storing Fruits,
Food Retail and Wholesale Industry 528
Nuts. and Vegetables 630
Research and Development 529
Food Scientist and Related Scientists 530 Glossary/Glosario 636
Marketing and Communications 530
Index 670
Others 531
xviii CONTENTS
Introduction to Food Science & Food Systems, Second Edition, is designed for high
school agriscience and consumer science programs and for postsecondary students
enrolled in a food science course. It is an excellent overview for anyone interested in
attaining a basic understanding of food science.
As the title suggests, science is an important component of the book. Food science
as understood by humans represents a specific body of knowledge that approaches
and solves problems by the scientific method-a continuous cycle of observations,
hypotheses, predictions, experiments, and results. The science of food science is em
phasized throughout the book.
HOW THIS TEXT IS ORGANIZED

Introduction to Food Science & Food Systems makes teaching easy. The information
is divided into four basic sections, and chapters are based on a thorough, easy-to
follow outline.
Section I: Introduction and Back g round provides the necessary
background information for understanding the science of foods. This
includes an introduction to the industry, a new chapter on food systems
and sustainability, the chemistry of foods, nutrition and digestion, food
composition and quality, unit operations, and food deterioration. These
chapters are the foundation.
• Section II: Preservation groups the chapters that relate to methods of food
preservation, including heat, cold, drying, radiant and electrical energy,
fermentation, microorganisms, biotechnology, chemicals, and packaging.
These chapters are the basics of food science.
Section III: Foods and Food Products includes chapters on milk, meat,
poultry and eggs, fish and shellfish, cereal grains, legumes and oilseeds, fruits
and vegetables, fats and oils, candies and sweets, and beverages. These chapters
are the application of food science.
PREFACE xix
r
Section IV: Related Issues includes chapters that cover environmental
concerns, food safety, regulations and labeling, world food needs, and career
opportunities as well as a new chapter on food as it relates to health. These
chapters represent the challenges of food science.
FEATURES OF THIS EDITION OIJECTIVU

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tives and Key Terms set the stage for the chapter
and help learners identify key concepts and infor
mation. Also included are National Agricultural
Education Standards Correlations that highlight
the specific core competency that is met through
successful completion of each chapter.
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,..'"'... ..
.,..,...._ ... __ '""
FURTHER LEARNING is encouraged, with engag

ing articles highlighting interesting tidbits about
the industry-whether historical insights, fun facts, or a synopsis of an
emerging food trend-and a list of Additional Resources at the end of
each chapter to inspire students to learn more about specific topics. ·--------
---··•�"""---""
----.;i ..... ,�-
.., ........... __ _,_ ... ••'Q
•-- I ..... •qJU -1' 1:)
HIGHLY ILLUSTRATED, and now in full color, the text is accompanied by

many tables, charts, graphs, photos, and illustrations to assist further
understanding of the topics under discussion.
ROBUST APPENDICES reinforce topics learned in the chapters and of
fer valuable reference materials. Appendix A contains a review of the
chemistry behind food science for those students who require additional learnjng in
this area. Appendix B includes a multitude of reference tables, in particular the Food
Composition Table, which provides specific nutrient information of different foods.
It also features another list oflnternet resources so that students can expand on their
learning of specific food-science topics. Appendix C covers the details of harvesting
and storing fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Also included is a combined Glossary and
Glosario that provides terms and definitions in both English and Spanish.
xx PREFACE
NEW TO THIS EDITION
CURRENT INFORMATION, including new chapter on the food y tern and u -
ta inability and food and health, along with a new ection on geneti ally engineered
fo d , will keep tudent in the know about significant indu try trend .
ALL-NEW, FULL-COLOR DESIGN featuring photo , chart , graph., and illu tration
that vi ually demon trate food production and pro e te hnique to engage tu
dent . ational Agricultural Education Standard Correlation are highlighted at
the tart f ea h chapter to address core competencie , whil MATH and SCIENCE
CONNECTION ACTIVITIES throughout the chapters encourage tudent to demon-
trate the e kill in the context of food science.
ALIGNED to FFA CAREER DEVELOPMENT EVENTS (CDEs), wh r applicable, to help

student focu n important job skills
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES, including a list of valuabl and r levant Web ite in

each chapter, encourage tudent to further explore pecific fo d-indu try topic .
GLOSSARY and GLOSARIO provides terms and definiti n in Engli hand panish.
EXTENSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

PACKAGE
NEW! COMPANION SITE
Instructor Re ource are available on the Companion ite t accompany Food
ienc & Food ystems, econd Edition, to facilitate teaching and learning. 111i ite
offer FREE, ecur acce to the following re ource :
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS includes the answer to all end-of-chapter que tion to

validate learning.
LESSON PLANS that outline the key concepts in each chapter, along with orrela
tion t th c rre ponding PowerPoint• presentation , pr vid t ol for classroom
in tru tion.
POWERPOIN PRESENTATIONS map the Les on Plan and include photo and
illu tration to reinforce learning. This feature i only al availabl to tudent for
important lf-r iew.
COGNERO ONLINE TESTING system include quiz que lion for each chapter,
providing he ability to:
Author, dit, and manage test-bank content from multiple r ource

• reat multiple te t ver ion in an in tant
Deliver te t from instructor- or institution- pecific LM r cla room
IMAGE GALLERY, c ntaining all the images from the bo k, nable in tructor to
nhanc cla r om presentation or review key concept and in£ nnation.
PREFACE
NEW! MINDTAP FOR INTRODUCTION
TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS.
SECOND EDITION
The MindTap for I11trodu tion to Food Science & Food '}'Stems, ond Edition, fea
ture an integrat d cour e offering a complete digital experience fi r b th tudent and
teacher . Thi MindTap i highly customizable and combine a ignment , video ,
interactivitie , lab exerci es and quizzes along with the enhan ed -b ok to enable
student to dir ctly analyze and apply what they are learning a w II a all w teacher
to mea ure kill and outcome with ease.
• A Guide: Rel vant interactivities combined with prescribed reading , featur d
multimedia, and quizzing to evaluate progres will guid tudent from basic
knowledg and mprehen ion to analysis and application.
Per onalized Teaching: Teachers are able to control cour ·e c ntent-hiding,
rearranging exi ting content or adding and creating their own content to meet
the need of their pecific programs.
Promote Better Outcome : Through relevant and engaging content,
a ignment , and activitie , tudents are able to build the c n.fid nc they need
to ultimately chart a cour e to uccess. Likewise, teacher are able to view
analytic and rep rt that pro idea snapshot of cla progre , time in cour e,
engagement, and completion rates.
xxll PREFACE
Without the upport of my wife Marilyn, any of the writing I have d ne would still
be a dream or idea. I have di covered, writing require the goodwill and support
of an under landing pouse. Our marriage ha thrived for 47 year , and it continue
trong. Marilyn i a friend who critique ideas, type part f the manu ripts, write
qu tion and an wer , organize artwork, take ph tograph , and che ks format.
he i a partn r in the production of a text and in all other a p ct of my life.
Finally, 1 appre iate the upport, under tanding help, and en ouragement of icole
Robin n, Jennifer tarr, and the rest of the Cengage team.
A ah ay , we wi h to expre sour sincere appreciation t tho e who have contributed
to th dev I pm nt of thi and past edition :
Daniel Andrew Diane Ryberg
Waun ta-Pali ade High School Eau Clair orth High chool
Waun ta, bra ka Eau Claire, Wi con in
R y rawford Dr. Janelle Walter
Lanca ter High School Baylor Univer ity
Lan a ter � xa Waco, Texa
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxlll
RICK PARKER
R. 0. (Rick) Parker grew up on an irrigated farm in outhern Idaho.
Hi I of agriculture guided hi education. tarting at Brigham
Y ung niver ity, he received hj bachelor' d gre and th n moved
to Ame , Iowa, where he fini hed hi PhD in animal phy iology at
Iowa tate Uni er ity. After completing hi PhD, he and hi wife,
Marilyn, and their children moved to Edmonton, lberta, anada,
where he completed a po tdoctorate at the Univer ity of Alberta. Hi n t mov wa
to Laramie, Wy ming, wh re he wa a re earch and teaching a o iate at the Univer
sity of Wy ming. fter Wyoming, he moved to Clovi , alifornia, wher he wrote
with Dr. M. . En minger, author of numerous early animal cience textbook .
Returning to Idah , th author erved as divi ion director and in tru tor at the College
of outh rn Idaho for 19 year . He then worked a director for AgrowKnowledge, the
ati nal enter for Agriscience and Technology Education, a project funded by the
ational cien e Foundation. Currently, he is president of th National Agricultural
In titute and the dir tor of the North American College and Tea her f Agriculture
( A TA). In addition, he is the editor of the peer-reviewed NA TA Journal, which
focu e n the ch lar hip of teaching and learning and he t ach bi logy, food
cience, and animal cience for the College of outhern Idaho. Dr. Parker i also the
author f the £ llowing engage Learning texts: Aquaculture cien e, Introduction to
Plant ience, Fundamentals of Plant and oil Science, and Equin cience. He i al o the
co-author of Fundamentals of Plant cience.
IRIAH PACE
iriah Pace is currently a board m mb r and a i tant editor
ational Agricultural In titute. H r r le include d el
oping and maintaining eb ite , d veloping urriculum and
editing th peer-re iewed ACTA Journal for the orth American
II ge and Teachers of Agriculture. he al o rv a a tea hing
a i tant for a College of Southern Idaho cla , Fo d y t m and
xxlv ABOUT THE AUTHORS

ci nee. iriah joined the taff of the ational Agricultural In titute in July 2012
and i urrently working toward her bachelor's degree.
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
For the econd edition, we were fortunate to find two talented individual to a i tin
re i ing the ontent. We gratefully acknowledge their contribution .
FARRAH JOHNSON
Farrah J hn on i the Agriscience Educator at Deltona High ch ol in Deltona,
Florida. Ms. John on arned her BS in Agricultural Educati n from th Univer ity of
Florida and her M from Mi si sippi State University als in Agricultural Education.
Ms. John on began working with food-science curriculum through a grant project
with ornell Univer ity, the University of Florida, and the Univer ity of alifornia
Davi early in her teaching career. She now teaches food- cience c ur e a part of
th agri ultur program at Deltona High School. Farrah i · active in the profe ional
organization for agricultural education and works with new agriculture teacher in
Florida. he erved a pre ident of the ational As ociati n of Agri ultura1 Educa
tor in 2012-2013 and erved a 2-year term on the Nati nal F A Board of Director
a a tak hold r. he ha erved in numerou role for the Flori.da ociation of
Agricultural Educator during her teaching career.
LEVI CAHAN
Levi ahan ha a di tingui hed background in live to k production from year
of training and ducating other a we11 a being elf-employ d a a farmer. He i
the l ad Agriculture Educator at chuylerville High chool in up tate ew York,
wher he in truct and manages tudent learning in everal agri ulturaJ ubject
with a focu on animal cience. He received hi B in Animal cience and hi
M in Agricultural Education from Cornell University. H al o tudi d abroad in
ew Z aland at Lincoln University, specializing in animal ci nc and rotational
grazing practice . Mr. Cahan stays active in agriculture and edu ation as an FFA
advi r; he ha erved on the New York State FFA Governing Board a a trustee, a
a trustee� r th NY AAE, and currently as the chairman of the NY FFA Founda
tion board, and he i a member of the YS Beef Council. He ha al o contributed
to other engage title , including serving as author of the Modern Livestock and
Poultry Production Lab Manual, i_nth Edition.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS ltXV

r • • �• �" .ii ffl818f llll
SECTION One
Introduction
and Background
Chapter 1 Overview of Food Science
Chapter 2 Food System and Sustainability
Chapter 3 Chemistry of Foods
Chapter4 Nutrition and Digestion
Chapter 5 Food Composition
Chapter 6 Quality Factors in Foods
Chapter 7 Unit Operations
in Food Processing
Chapter 8 Food Deterioration
req1u 1011
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Name the four parts of the food industry allied industry
• Describe consumer food buying trends consumer
distribution
Divide the food industry by major product lines
expenditures
Compare spending for food in the United States
to that in other countries manufacturing
• List four consumption trends marketing
per capita
Discuss trends in consumer meal purchases
production
• Identify allied industries
tariffs
• Explain the international scope of the food industry
trends
NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

FPP.04
Explain lhe scope of the food industry and the historical and
current developments of food product and processing.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Name the four parts of the food industry allied industry
• Describe consumer food buying trends consumer
distribution
Divide the food industry by major product lines
expenditures
Compare spending for food in the United States
to that in other countries manufacturing
• List four consumption trends marketing
per capita
Discuss trends in consumer meal purchases
production
• Identify allied industries
tariffs
• Explain the international scope of the food industry
trends
NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

FPP.04
Explain lhe scope of the food industry and the historical and
current developments of food product and processing.
N
o matter where people live or what they many 6 d are being proces ed into ready-to
do. they are food consumers. We con eat pr du t , more specialized manufacturing i
sume food on a daily basis so we make required. Distribution deals with tho e aspect
choices every day about what foods to pur conduciv to product ale , including product for
chase and consume based on a variety of mation, weighing and bulk, transportation, and
needs and wants. Consumers vote every day
torag requjrem nt and stability. Marketing
in the marketplace with their dollars, and the
i th elling of fi ds and involves whole ale, re
market listens carefully to their votes. A continu
ous feedback exists from consumers respond tail, in titutional, and re taurant ales (Figure 1-1).
ing to offerings by marketers who are trying Mark ting i th egment that consumers are mo t
to meet the perceived wants of consumers. involved with. Adverti ing through television, print,
Price. availability. health, and convenience and ial media i a multibillion-dollar effort that
are all factors that affect personal purchas food companie use to reach consumers.
ing choices. Changes in the makeup of the
The e four divi ion are not clear-cut and often
population. lifestyles. incomes. and attitudes
overlap n another. For example, when farmers
on food safety, health. and convenience have
i take th ir rop to a farmer's market, distribu
drastically altered the cond tions facing the
producers and marketers of food products. ti n and marketing merge into the same category.
Food manufacturers and distributors work e erth l the food industry require planning
hard to meet changing consumer demands.
PARTS OF THE FOOD

INDUSTRY
The fi d indu try i divided into four major
egm nt
1. Pr du ti n
2. Manufacturing and processing
3. Di tribution
4. Mark ting
Production i the raising or growing of plant

and animal pr du t for food consumption. It in
clude uch indu trie a farming, ranching, orchard
management, fi hing, and aquaculture. TechnoJ
ogie involv d in the production of raw materials
include the ele tion of plant and animal varietie ;
their ultivati n, grO\ th, harvest, and laughter;
and th torage and handling of raw materiaJ .
Manufacturing convert raw agricultural prod
u t t more r fined or fini hed product . For ex
ample, peanut are manufactured into hw1dreds of
differ nt pr du t , only one of which is peanut but FIGURE 1-1 School meals are just another exam
ter. Manufa turing require many unit operation ple of consumer products that are influenced by
and pr c se that are at the core of food technology. food industry marketers.
OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 5
Coiiynght 20 I ""1!'18• L• nu,

and synchronization in all its divisions to be suc for food: As income rises, the proportion spent for
cessful. When the entire food system is analyzed, food declines (Figure 1-2). The expenditures for
additional divisions are often included. These are food require a large share of income when income
discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. is relatively low-in any country.
Another way to divide the food industry is Americans spent only about 6% of their per
along major product lines: sonal consumption expenditures for food eaten
• at home (Figure 1-3). This compares with 10% for
Cereals and bakery products
Canada and 11% for Switzerland. In less developed
Meats, fish, and poultry countries, such as Kenya and the Philippines, at
• Dairy products home food expenditures often account for more
• Fruits and vegetables than 40% of a household's budget (Table 1-1).
• Sugars and other sweets Americans do not have the highest per
Fats and oils capita income (the average Swiss income is
• onalcoholic beverages higher). In relation to total per capita personal con
sumption expenditures, however, Americans spend
• Alcoholic beverages
the lowest percentage on food. Factors other than
These divisions are typically where consumer income alone influence food expenditures in de
consumption is measured and reported. veloped nations. Thanks to abundant arable land
and a varied climate, Americans do not have to
rely as heavily on imported foods as do some other
TRENDS nations. The American farm-to-consumer distri
bution system is highly successful at moving large
Although consumers' food spending has increased
amounts of perishable food over long distances with
considerably over the years, the increase has not
a minimum of spoilage or delay. Finally, American
matched the gain in disposable income. As a re
farmers use a tremendous wealth of agricultural in
sult, the percentage of income spent for food has
formation and state-of-the-art farming equipment.
declined. The decline is the direct result of the
This allows them to produce food more efficiently.
income-inelastic nature of the aggregate demand
Food spending and share of income spent on food across

U.S. households, 2013
12,000 40
0
0
:s
C:
10,000 Spending (left axis)
D Share (right axis) 32 C: .,;
0
UJ 8,000 Cl.I �"'
0. "'
0 UJ 24 UJ .,,
0 ..
·� �
-..!l!
iSo 6,000 E "'"'
�,,
-
d,N
0 ·� it
16 (J - >
C: �"" "'�
C:
cu 4,000 u"'
0 «i 5
� -5
C: "" g
2,000 Cl.I -� �
...Cl.I
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(J Q -
""'
0. ��
<i.§
0 0 "' �-
0(.)
Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest ::,

(11"�
� -E
Income quintile ��
"'"'
FIGURE 1-2 As income rises the proportion spent on food declines.
6 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

20
18
16 -�
14
0
12
Total Food
l]
0 10 ;;:;
C: Food at Home �
Q)
8 ·�
Cl. Jl
6 .c
Food Away from Home
4
·�
2
0L..C.-'--'-'-L-L-'--'-'-L-L-'--'-'--'--'--"-'-'-L...L-"-''--'-L...L-"-''--'--'--'--'-'--'--'--'--'-L..C.-'--'-'-L...L-'--'-'-L...L-'--'--'-'�
��*��&��
� � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � �
�!o.:
FIGURE 1-3 Percent of Disposable Income Spent on Food, 1960-2011. The percentage of income spent on
food at home has steadily declined in recent years.
MATH CONNECTION!
Track your food consumption tor a day. What is the average cost of your consumption in the United
States? Research and compare those costs with another county. How much would it cost for the same
food in that other country?
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food, Alcoholic Beverages, and Tobacco
Consumed at Home, by Selected Countries, 2012 1
SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES
ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2
COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON
United States 6.6 1.9 34,541 2,273
ERS estimate 6,4 1.9 34,541 2,215
Singapore 7.3 2.1 19,398 1.422
United Kingdom 9.1 3.8 24,260 2,214
Canada 9.6 3.4 27.761 2,679
Austria 10.1 3.3 25,908 2,617
Ireland 10.l 5.4 20,093 2,037
(Continues)

TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages. and Tobacco
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries. 2012 1
ALCOHOLIC
Australia 10.2 3.6 37.492 3,814
Germany 10.9 3.0 22,762 2.481
Switzerland 11.0 3.5 44,899 4,943
Denmark 11.l 3.8 27,306 3,036
Netherlands 71.6 3.3 20,625 2,388
Finland 12.0 4.7 24.927 3,001
Qatar 72.l 0.3 11,799 1,361
Sweden 12.2 3.7 26,146 3,193
South Korea 72.2 2.2 12.002 1.468
Norway 13.2 4.3 37.146 4,885
France 13.2 3.3 22,945 3,037
Czech Republic 13.3 9.3 9,643 1,279
Hong Kong, China 73.4 1.0 24,060 3,224
Taiwan 13.5 2.1 72.247 7,657
Japan 13.8 2.5 27,761 3,818
Belgium 73.8 3.8 22,208 3,075
Bahrain 73.9 0.4 10,200 7,422
Spain 14.0 3.0 17,713 2.483
Italy 14.2 2.8 20,362 2.892
United Arab Emirates 14.3 0.2 21.206 3,024
New Zealand 14.6 3.0 22.448 3,284
Slovenia 15.3 5.6 13,858 2,125
Brazil 15.9 1.4 7,063 7,723
Israel 15.9 2.6 17,491 2,783
Hungary 16.2 7.5 6,972 1,127
(Continues)
B INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages, and Tobacco
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries, 2012 1
ALCOHOLIC
Chile 16.2 3.0 9,566 1,546
Greece 16.5 4.4 16,652 2,740
Portugal 16,5 3.0 13,473 2,225
Slovakia 16,8 4.9 9,556 1,603
Uruguay 18.3 3.4 10,272 1,878
Colombia 18.4 3.3 4,744 872
Kuwait 18.6 0.5 7,284 1,352
Venezuela 18.6 3.6 7,421 1,378
Latvia 18.8 6.8 8,612 1,619
South Africa 19.4 6.1 4,524 877
Malaysia 19.5 2.5 5,557 1,084
Poland 19.6 6.5 7,773 1,521
Estonia 19.6 8.6 8,923 1,753
Argentina 20.9 4.5 6,595 1,381
Bulgaria 21.2 4.0 4,718 999
Ecuador 21.9 0.9 3,526 771
Turkey 22.2 4.6 7,705 1,708
Costa Rica 23.3 0.4 6,754 1,577
Turkmenistan 23.5 2.0 2,503 589
Dominican Republic 24,5 4.2 5,192 1,272
Mexico 24.9 2.2 6,518 1,625
India 25.2 3.0 871 220
Iran 25.5 0.4 2,744 699
Lithuania 25.7 8.5 9,067 2,331
Saudi Arabia 25.8 0,6 6,220 1,607
China 26.9 3.6 2,149 577
(Continues)

Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries. 2012 1
ALCOHOLIC
Romania 28.6 3.4 4,827 l.382
Bolivia 28.7 1.9 1,567 450
Uzbekistan 31.0 2.5 908 281
Croatia 31.4 3.7 9,078 2,847
Bosnia-Herzegovina 31.4 6.3 4,057 1,275
Russia 31.6 7.8 6.709 2,120
Thailand 32.0 4.7 3,177 1,016
Jordan 32.2 4.5 3,743 1,205
Indonesia 33.4 5.4 1,964 655
Macedonia 34.4 3.5 3,626 1,247
Kazakhstan 35.l 2.6 5,483 1.925
Tunisia 35.5 1.0 2,660 943
Vietnam 35.9 2.8 962 345
Belarus 36.l 8.1 3,091 1,115
Peru 36.5 6.1 4,126 1,507
Ukraine 37.0 6.7 2,779 1,028
Guatemala 37.9 1.5 2,878 1,091
Nigeria 39.5 2.5 966 381
Georgia 40.4 5.1 2,663 1,076
Morocco 40.5 1.3 1,921 777
Azerbaijan 42.7 2.0 2,862 1,222
Egypt 42.7 2.2 2,410 1,030
Philippines 42.8 1.2 1,925 823
Algeria 43.7 2.0 1,749 764
(Continues)
10 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS. 2ND EDITION

Consumed at Home, by Selected Countries, 2012 1
SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES "'0 �"'

��
s= -"
ALCOHOLIC _g I
1i:i1ij
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE 2 5
"'"'
C •c
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2 !i

� .5
�E
COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON � '§-..
·,;; Eg
��wg
��
Kenya 44.8 2.8 782 350 � _g -�
1-------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------t�se
Cameroon 45,9 2.2 921 423 �- �:
j i�
1---------------+---------+---------+---------+------------1 � -� �
�-----------�--------�--------�--------�-------��-=
Pakistan 47,7 1.0 871 415
NA = Not available.
'Data were computed based on Euromonitor International data extracted July 2013.
'Includes nonalcoholic beverages.
'Consumer expenditures include personal expenditures on goods and services. Consumption expenditures in the domestic market are
equal to consumer expenditures by resident households plus direct purchases In the domestic market by nonresident households minus
direct purchases abroad by resident households.
NOTE: Two sets of food-spending figures ore shown for the United States. The first is from the ERS Food Expenditure series and is based on
a comprehensive measure of the total value of all U.S. food expenditures. The second set is based on Euromonitor International Inc. data.
which reports spending on food and nonalcoholic beverages and Consumption Expenditures for 84 countries, including the United States.
The ERS estimate is lower partly because it excludes pet food, ice. and prepared teed, which are included in the food-spending data
published by Euromonitor International.
Consumption trends change over time, and demand both more convenience and higher quality.
this influences what the food industry does in Short-period changes in consumption reflect mostly
terms of production and advertising. According changes in supply rather than changes in consumer
to loss-adjusted food availability data, Americans
are consuming more calories per day than they did
40 years ago. In 1970, Americans consumed an es Flour and cereal products provided more calories per day for the
average American than any other food group in 2010 �
=>
...""
timated 2,109 calories per person per day; by 2010, -� �
oN
e2
Fruit and vegetables and dairy products provided smaller shares of
calories per day for the average American
they were consuming an estimated 2,569 calories
.. ..
.§ �
Fruit and �o�
(after adjusting for plate waste, spoilage, and other vegetables ...,
§e
food losses) (see Figure 1-4). Of this 460-calorie 206
Added fats and oils al.§
="'"
�-'
and dairy lats
increase, grains (mainly refined grains) accounted �= 0
590 w ..
for 180 calories; added fats and oils, 225 calories; ·"'; �E
.c,"
� g
added sugar and sweeteners, 21 calories; dairy fats, Meat, eggs,
and nuts
<00
jf
19 calories; fruits and vegetables, 12 calories; and 545 !:? -g
�%
meats, eggs, and nuts, 16 calories. Only dairy prod 8!
.... 0
-""�
ucts declined (13 calories) during the time period. <r "'
��
According to government recommendations from sweeteners ��
::,
400 -g 1
MyPlate, American diets fall short in the consump CDS
Noles: Added fats and oils and added sugar and sweeteners are added to foods during B �
processing or preparation. They do not include naturally occurring lats al\d su�rs
tion of fruits, vegetables, and dairy (Figure 1-5). in food (e.g., tats in meat or sugars in fruits),
��
e e:
Food availability data serve as proxies lor food consumption. ��
However, demand for individual foods is more
"' v.
FIGURE 1•4 In 2010 Americans consumed. on aver

responsive to prices as consumers choose from alter age, 2.569 calories per day. This is a considerable
native food commodities. Rising incomes mean con increase from 1970 when the average American
sumers spend more on more expensive foods as they consumed only 2.109 calories per day.

140
120
My Plate Recommendations 1
100 �-
....
5�
=
::: >-
!l!;;;
E
c 80
o=
.::�
so
"' �
.,, "'
§.�
a. 60 ��
:'"E
.,, 0
= ·-=
u "'
40 ]!
.c �
��
t�JI
5l >-
20
=u.,,0
0 ___.__.....__, � ..f
Meat Grains Vegetables Dairy Fruit fil �
if
::, Jg
1Data based on a 2,000-calorie diet.
Note: Rice and durum flour data were discontinued and thus are
i-;
��
not included in the grains group. Food availability data serve as
proxies for food consumption. ij
"' ia
FIGURE 1-5 American diets are out of balance with dietary recommendations. In 2072, Americans con
sumed more than the recommended share of meat and grains in their diets but less than the recom
mended share of fruit dairy. and vegetables.
tastes. Demographic factors, such as changes in Sales in fast-food industries now outpace sales in
household size and the population's age distribution, full-service restaurants. The top five U.S. fast-food
also can bring about changes in consumption. chains and their sales are shown in Table 1-2.
Away-from-home meals and snacks now capture The number of fast-food restaurant outlets in the
almost half (45%) of the U.S. food dollar. This is up United States has risen steadily since 1970. People
from 34% in 1970. Fast food accounts for the largest want quick and convenient meals. They do not want
and fastest rising share of sales in the food industry. to spend a lot of time preparing meals, traveling to
TABLE 1·2 Top 5 Restaurant Chains: U.S. Sales
-----------------------
$ MILLION
RANK CHAIN SEGMENT 2011 2010 2009
l McDonald's Sandwich 34,172 32,395 31,033

2 Subway Sandwich 11.434.0 10,633 9,999
3 Starbucks Coffee Beverage-snack 8,490 7,955 7.415
4 Burger King Sandwich 8,131 8.433 8,799
5 Wendy's Sandwich 8,108 7,943 8,023
NOTES: The rankings are based on U.S. system-wide food service sales. Including company-store and franchised-unit sales. for the latest
full fiscal years ended closest to December of the years listed.
• Tied results are given the same rank.
• The year 2011 reflects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2011.
• The year 2010 reftects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2010.
• The year 2009 reflects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2009.
• Data are reported by a chain or parent company or estimated by Nation's Restaurant News.

pick up meals, or waiting for meals in restaurants. Perhaps the current food service industry strategy
This trend has increased as more women have be was best stated in McDonald's 1994 annual report:
come part of the workforce. In more and more fam
McDonald's wants to have a site wherever people
ilies, both parents work and no one stays at home. In
live, work, shop, play, orgather. Our Convenience
addition, consumers more often combine meals with
Strategy is to monitor the changing lifestyles of
time engaged in activities such as shopping, work
consumers and intercept them at every turn. As
ing, and traveling. For example, McDonald's, Burger
we expand our customer convenience, we gain
King, Taco Bell, and others are now located in out
market share.
lets such as Wal-Mart stores and many gas stations.
MATH CONNECTION!
Research the number of calories found in each item of your favorite fast-food restaurant meal. How do
the total calories for that meal fit with a 2,000-calorie diet?
The food industry is big and it employs large prepared products at home and many meals away
numbers of people in a variety of occupations be from home. Advertising (media) also plays an im
cause everyone eats (Table 1-3), and they eat more portant role in influencing food trends (Figure 1-6).
TABLE 1-3 U.S Per Capita Food Expenditures
U.S. PER CAPITA FOOD EXPENDITURES
CURRENT PRICES 1988 PRICES
U.S. RESIDENT AWAY AWAY

POPULATION, AT FROM AT FROM
JULY 1 HOME HOME TOTAL HOME HOME TOTAL
VEAR MILLIONS DOLLARS
1953 167.306 278 91 369 1,068 516 1,584
1960 179.979 306 109 415 1,132 522 1,654

1965 193.526 318 135 454 1,108 581 1,689
1970 203.984 387 194 581 1,130 630 1.760
1975 215.465 567 316 883 1,069 706 1,775
1980 227.225 828 529 1.357 1,092 773 1,865
1985 237.924 1.009 710 1.718 1.128 798 1,926
1990 249.464 1,301 982 2,283 1.147 897 2,044
1995 262.803 1.408 1,170 2,578 1,104 957 2,061
2000 282.172 1.571 1,396 2,966 1.091 1.003 2.093
2005 295.753 1,853 1,730 3,583 1,138 1,085 2,223 j
2010 309.326 2,065 1.979 4,043 1,116 1,054 2,170
j.,-
2011 311.588 2,171 2,058 4,229 1,113 1,081 2,194
2012 313,914 2,215 2,167 4,382 1.114 1,109 2,223

,-
IMON•fo'tttoH
t
!l
<
.,
e
"'a
FIGURE 1-6 Illusion of choice. Most products we buy are controlled by just a few companies.
ALLIED INDUSTRIES includ can , i d lorings and flavorings, paper

product , and pla ti products (see Figure 1-7).
Many ompani do not ell food directly but are hemi al manufa ttuer represent another group
still deeply involved in the food industry. These of allied indu trie . They supply the acidulants,
allied industries produ e nonfood items that preservative , enzymes stabilizers, and other
are n ce ary fi r marketing food. The packag chemi al u d in fo cl .
ing indu try i a g ad example. pecific example
SCIENCE CONNECTION!
Research food additives or preservatives commonly found in foods.
fr ez r , in trumentation, and computer control

e, fo d pr duct and afe food require new
( ee hapt r 7).
food-proce ing method and y tern . Food ma
chin ry and quipm nl manufacturer are more Finally, k eping th food upply afe and
example f allied indu trie . They develop pa - healthy and c n um r informed require moni
teurizer , vap rat r , microwave ovens, infrared toring and regulatory agencie u ha theFoodand
cooker , freeze-drying ystem , liquid nitrogen Drug Admini tration (FDA), attorneys, consumer

price formula established before the purchase
is to be made.
3. Vertical integration. A single firm controls
the flow of a commodity across two or more
stages of food production.
The food industry has traditionally operated
in an open production system. However, more dis
criminating consumers, plus new technological
developments that allow the differentiation of farm
products, are helping to lower open production
and increase both contract production and vertical
integration. Also fueling this trend are changing
demographics and the increasing value of people's
time, both of which have contributed to consumer
preferences for a wider variety of safe, nutritious,
and convenient food products.
Providing food products with specific char
acteristics preferred by discriminating consumers
will likely involve producing more detailed raw
commodities such as a frying chicken of a specific
weight and size or a corn kernel with a specific
protein content. This effort to carefully tailor raw
commodities with processing in mind is already
underway in some food industries and has been
FIGURE 1-7 Plant physiologist prepares to make accompanied by changes in vertical coordination.
wheat-starch biodegradable containers.
INTERNATIONAL
action and information agencies, and other regula
tory agencies. ACTIVITIES
If recent trends in the U.S. food industry con Food is an international commodity, with prod
tinue, food production may be increasingly dom ucts being traded and shipped around the world.
inated by firms exercising control over most and Most grocery stores now carry food items from
even all stages of food production. Vertical coordi other countries. Specialty and gourmet stores stock
nation seems to be the way of the future, including many international foods such as cheeses from
how products are acquired or traded in the mar Europe, beef from Australia, strawberries from
kets. Food industry firms form three basic types of Mexico, and apples from Argentina. In addition,
vertical coordination: gourmet and specialty foods can be purchased On
line. International food clubs and online buying
1. Open production. A firm purchases a are available to consumers worldwide.
commodity from a producer at a market price
determined at the time of purchase. Many U.S. companies also have established
subsidiaries in other countries, and fast-food com
2. Contract production. A firm commits to
panies such as McDonald's and Pizza Hut continue
purchase a commodity from a producer at a
r
to open outlets all around the world. Major food The processed-food sector is a major partici
companies such as Kraft-General Foods, CPC In pant in the global economy. The United States ac
ternational, H.J. Heinz, Borden, Campbell Soup, counts for about one-fourth of the industrialized
Nabisco Brands, Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Beatrice world's total production of processed foods. Six
Companies, Ralston Purina, and General Mills all of the largest 10, and 21 of the largest 50 food
have extensive overseas operations. Table 1-4 lists processing firms in the world are headquartered in
the top 50 international food-processing firms, the United States. The U.S. processed-foods mar
their headquarters, and their annual sales. ket has become truly global in scope through a
TABLE 1-4 Top 50 of the World's Largest Food-Processing Firms
2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME*
VEAR VEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)
l l Pepsico Inc. 37.806 37.618 66.415 6,740
2 2 Tyson Foods Inc. 32,999 31,614 34,374 778

(9/28/13)
3 3 Nestle (U.S. & 27.300 27.200 103536C 11.000C

Canada)
4 4 JBS USA 22,140 20,979E 41,000C 429
5 11 Coca-Cola Co. 21,600 21656R 46,854 8,626
6 5 Anheuser-Busch 16,023 76,028 43,195 76,518

InBev
7 6 Kraft Foods Inc. 14.346 14,358R 18,218 2.715
8 8 Smithfield Foods Inc. 12,531 11753A 14,000 NA-Private
9 7 General Mills Inc. 12,524 12.574 17,910 1,861

(5/25/14)
10 72 ConAgra Foods Inc. 11,511 9,360R 17,703 315

(5/25/14)
11 10 Mars Inc. 17000E 11.000 33,000E NA-Private
12 74 Kellogg Co. 9,716 9,539 74.792 7,808
13 9 Dean Foods Co. 9,016 11,462 9,016 819
14 75 Hormel Foods Corp. 8,752 8,231 8,752 530
15 13 Cargill Inc. (5/31/13) 8,500 8.500E 136,700 2,310
16 16 MillerCoors LLC 7,801 7,761 7,801 1.271
17 21 Saputo Inc. C7789 C6063 C9,233 C534

(3/31/14)
(Continues)

2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME•
YEAR YEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)
18 17 Pilgrim's Pride 7,500 7,249 8,411 550
19 20 Hershey Co. 7,146 6,644 7,146 820
20 19 Mondelez 6.991 6,903 35,299 2.332

International
21 18 Unilever North 6,876 7111E 68551 cc 7245 cc

America
22 22 Bimbo Bakeries USA 6,101 6,062C 13,464C 365C
23 23 Dr. Pepper Snapple 5,997 5,995 5,997 624

Group
24 24 J.M. Smucker Co. 5,611 5,898 5,611 565

(4/30/14)
25 29 Campbell Soup Co. 4,910 4,110 8,052 449

(7/28/13)
26 38 Constellation 4.868 2,796 4.868 1,943

Brands (2/28/14)
27 27 H.J. Heinz Co. 4,530 4,570 NA-Private
28 25 Maple Leaf Foods 4,406 4,552R 4,406 496
29 26 Land O'Lakes lnc.(2) 4,250 4,200E 14,236 306
30 31 Perdue Farms 4,140 3.860E 6,729 NA-Private

(3/30/14)
31 32 Brown-Forman Corp. 3.946 3.784 3,946 659
32 30 Hillshire Brands 3.920 3,958 3.920 184

(6/29/13)
33 37 Flowers Foods Inc. 3,751 3,046 3,751 231
34 86 Dairy Farmers of 3,700 3,500R 12,800 61

America (2)
35 33 Agropur Cooperative 3,630 3,640 3,630 54
36 66 Lactalis American 3,500 3.230 3,500E NA

Group Inc.
37 35 E&J Gallo Winery 3,400 3,400E 3,600E NA-Private
38 59 Parmalat Canada 3,161 2,848R 178
(Continues)

2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME*
YEAR YEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)
39 36 Chiquita Brands Intl. 3,057 3,078 3,057 (-16)
40 28 Dole Food Co. Inc. 2,800 4,247 23,800E NA-Private
41 61 Prairie Farms Dairy 2,800 2,700 2,800 NA

Inc. (9/30/13)
42 42 Sanderson Farms 2,683 2,386 2,683 131
43 39 Rich Products Corp. 2,661 2500E 3,300 NA-Private
44 48 Molson Coors Co. 2,575 2,675R 4,206 565

(Canada only)
45 72 Beam Inc. 2,558 2,466
46 52 WhiteWave Foods 2,542 2,289 2,542 NA-Private
47 44 Great Lakes Cheese 2,500 2,250E 2,S00E NA-Private

Co.
48 39 McCain Foods C2,500E C2,500E C$6,000 NA-Private

(6/30/13)
49 41 Pinnacle Foods 2,464 2,478 2,462 89
50 68 Dannon Co. Inc. 2,305 l,800R 2,305 NA
combination of imports and exports of foods and Aside from the worldwide demand for food
food ingredients, foreign production by U.S. food and food products, recent trends to decrease trade
firms, host production by foreign food firms, and tariffs has stimulated international activities in
other international commercial strategies. Easily the food industry, as have improvements in trans
recognized U.S. food brands are so well received portation and communication. Products now
internationally that many consumers in other move around the world by air freight in hours or
countries accept them as leading local brands. In days. The World Wide Web has enabled communi
terms of international trade, the processed-foods cations to take place around the world in a matter
sector surpasses agricultural commodities by a of seconds.
considerable margin.
A nation's infrastructure policies affect the
World trade imports are also represented by ability of its firms to pursue global marketing strat
products not grown in the United States such as egies. For processed foods, particularly important
coffee, tea, cocoa, and spices. The worldwide de linkages exist between the communications and
mand for cereal grains and soybeans has also in transportation sectors. Technical innovations in
creased, so the United States is the largest exporter both communications and transportation make
of these foods. the production and distribution of processed foods
18 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS. 2ND EDITION

Another random document with
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use the term that is applied to the richest men among the Arabs) eats meat
every day.
They carry the Christian captives about the Desert, to the different markets
to sell them, for they very soon discover that their habits of life render them
altogether unserviceable, or very inferior to the black slaves, which they
procure from Timbuctoo. After travelling three days to one market, five to
another, nay sometimes fourteen, they at length become objects of
commercial speculation, and the itinerant Jew traders, who wander about from
Wedinoon to sell their wares, find means to barter for them tobacco, salt, a
cloth garment, or any other thing, just as a combination of circumstances may
offer, and then return to Wedinoon with the purchase. If the Jew have a
correspondent at Mogodor, he writes to him, that a ship had been wrecked,
mentioning the flag or nation she belonged to, and requests him to inform the
agent, or consul, of the nation of which the captain is a subject; in the mean
time flattering the poor men, that they will shortly be liberated and sent to
Mogodor, where they will meet their countrymen: a long and tedious servitude,
however, generally follows, for want of a regular fund at Mogodor for the
redemption of these people. The agent can do nothing but write to the consul-
general at Tangier; this takes up nearly a month, before an answer is
received, and the merchants at Mogodor being so little protected by their
respective governments, and having various immediate uses for their money,
are very unwilling to advance it for the European interest of five per cent.: so
that the time lost in writing to the government of the country to whom the
unfortunate captives belong, the necessity of procuring the money for their
purchase previous to their emancipation, and various other circumstances,
form impediments to their liberation. Sometimes, after being exchanged
several times from one owner to another, they find themselves in the inmost
recesses of the desert, their patience is exhausted, the tardiness and
supineness of diplomacy effaces all hope, and after producing despondency,
they are at length, under promises of good treatment, induced to abjure
Christianity, and accordingly become Mooselmin; after which their fate is
sealed, and they terminate their miserable existence, rendered insupportable
by a chain of calamities, in the Desert, to the disgrace of Christendom, and the
nation under whose colours they navigated. If the interest of the munificent
bequest of Mr. Thomas Betton, (who himself experienced during his life the
calamity of bondage in Barbary), which now amounts, at simple interest, to
55,900l., had been appropriated, agreeably to the spirit of his will,[192] to the
alleviation of the dreadful sufferings; to shortening the duration of captivity; to
establishing (with the Emperor of Marocco’s consent) a respectable resident
agent, who, to a knowledge of the country, people, and language, added such
a philanthropic disposition, as would induce him to exert his utmost energies
towards the emancipation of these poor unfortunate men, and direct his time
and attention exclusively to this charitable and laudable object, how many an
unfortunate Englishman would have been delivered from bondage? how many
of our valuable countrymen would have returned to their families and
connections? how many valuable sailors would be navigating on the ocean,
who, dreadful to relate, are now bereft of all hope of ever again seeing their
native land, and are dragging out a miserable existence in the interior of the
wild, uncouth African Desert? It is true, that a competent agent would, with
difficulty, be found; the inducements of African commerce have not led many
of our countrymen to exile themselves from civilized society, to pass their days
in regions like these; but where remuneration is offered adequate to the
sacrifice, an efficient agent might probably be procured, whose philanthropic
soul, glowing with the anticipation of relieving so many useful members of
society; of being instrumental in alleviating the hard sufferings of so many
fellow creatures, would exult in self-satisfaction, and would experience, in the
accomplishment of this great and national object, pleasures
“compared with which
“The laurels that a Cæsar reaps are weeds.”
Cowper.
I knew an instance where a merchant of Mogodor (Mr. James

Renshaw) had advanced the money for one of these captives, who,
had his ransom not been paid by him to the Arab, would have been
obliged to return to the south, where he would have been sold, or
compelled to embrace the Mohammedan religion; for the British
Vice-Consul had not the purchase money, nor any orders to redeem
him, having previously sent to the Consul-General an account of the
purchase of the rest of the crew. This man was delivered up by the
merchant who had redeemed him, to the British Vice-Consul, to
whom he looked for payment; various applications were made to the
Consul-General, but the money was not paid two years afterwards,
all applications to government having failed; a representation of the
case was next made to the Ironmongers company in London,[192]
which agreed to pay the merchant the money he had advanced. The
purchase-money in this case was paid to me as agent for Mr.
Renshaw, and including the cost of clothes (for the man was naked
when purchased) did not amount altogether to forty pounds; there
was, however, so much trouble attending the accomplishment of the
business, that no individual merchant has since ventured to make an
advance on a similar security; for, not to mention the difficulty of
recovering the principal at the expiration of a long period, the value
of money is such at Mogodor, that merchants are unwilling to
advance it at a low interest, six per cent. per month being often paid
for it. It is in this manner that the subjects of a great maritime power
have been neglected in a country where, by adopting some judicious
regulations, all the hardships of bondage, and the privations which
necessarily follow in a barren country, might be prevented.
The coast of Noon or Wedinoon extends to the southward nearly
as far as Cape Bojador. The Wed Akassa, or river Akassa, (which is
erroneously called in the maps the river Nun, and in some Daradus),
is a large stream from the sea to the town of Noon, which is about
fifteen miles inland, and about two miles in circumference; from
hence the river becomes shallow and narrow; it is to the southward
of this river, that the ships are generally wrecked. Between the river
Akassa and the province of Ait Bamaran in Suse, is a peninsula
extending into the ocean, resembling that on which Mogodor is built,
where are the remains of a fort built formerly by the Portuguese, but
evacuated by them at the time they discovered America; they
afterwards endeavoured to obtain possession of it, for the purpose of
establishing a commercial factory, but the natives objected to the
proposal. The French have been endeavouring to establish a
settlement here at the nearest point of coast to Timbuctoo, with
which emporium they are anxious to become better acquainted. The
district of Wedinoon is nominally in the Emperor of Marocco’s
dominions, but lately no army having been sent farther south than
Terodant, the Bashaw Alkaid Mohammed ben Delemy being
deceased, this district has suffered neglect, and I apprehend the
people pay no taxes or tenths; the Emperor has even lately ordered
his Bashaw of Haha to purchase the British slaves that had been
wrecked there. This place being thus only nominally in his dominions
is another impediment to the redemption of the mariners who
happen to be shipwrecked about Wedinoon, for if the Emperor had
the same authority over this district, that he has over the provinces
north of the river Suse, measures might be adopted by the Consul,
acting under his orders, for their delivery, without pecuniary
disbursement.
Whilst the Europeans remain in the hands of the Arabs and Jews,
they are employed in various domestic services, such as bringing
water, possibly the distance of nine or ten miles, to the habitation,
and in collecting fire-wood. In performing these offices, their feet,
being bare, and treading on the heated sand, become blistered and
inflamed, the sandy particles penetrate into these blisters when
broken, and irritate in such a manner as sometimes to cause
mortification, and death. The young lads, of which there are
generally two or three in every ship’s crew, are generally seduced by
the Arabs to become Mohammedans; in this case, the Sheick or
chief of the duar adopts him, and initiates him in the Koran, by
sending him to the (Mdursa) seminary, where he learns to read the
sacred volume, and is instructed in the pronunciation of the Arabic
language; he is named after the Sheick who adopts him, after which
an Arabian woman is offered to him as a wife; he marries, has a
family, and becomes one of the clan, thus abandoning for ever the
religion of his father, his native country, and his connexions.
The state of domestic comfort enjoyed by Christians established
in West Barbary or Marocco is far from being impeded by those
degrading distinctions practised in Egypt and other Mohammedan
countries, where they are not allowed to ride on horses (the
prophet’s beast), to wear green (the prophet’s colour,) &c. &c.; here
they may do either: they may even enter towns on horseback, a
privilege, however, which was not granted till of late years: Mons.
Chenier, the French consul, first broke through this degrading
custom, for being opposed by the gate-keepers at Saffy, he drew his
sword, and forced his entrance, adding, that no one should stop the
representative of the King of France: and when I went to Agadeer, by
order of the Sultan Muley Yezzid, to establish a commercial
intercourse with Holland, on my arrival at the gate, the Bashaw’s son
objected to my entering on horseback, alleging, that it was near a
sanctuary, and that Christians had never been allowed to enter the
gate on horseback; I immediately turned my horse, ordered the
baggage to be put on board the ship from which I had just landed,
and declared, that I would not reside in any town, where I was not on
an equal footing with a Mooselmin: but the old Bashaw, El Hayanie,
a man of ninety years of age, sent two of his sons to request me to
return: “Old customs,” said he, (when I afterwards met him at the
gate,) “are abolished; we wish to see this place flourish with
commerce, as in its former establishment; enter and go out on
horseback when ever you please;” accordingly, ever since this
circumstance, Christians have been allowed to enter the town on
horseback: they may ride about the country in safety, and amuse
themselves in the sports of the field; they are not obliged to stop at
the approach of a Bashaw or his family, or to alight till the great man
has passed;[193] it is expected that he salute him in his own country
fashion, by taking off his hat, which, however, is considered by
Mooselmin (unaccustomed to Christians) much in the same light that
we should a man taking off his wig; for they go uncovered in
presence of the Emperor, or wear a red cap, which is a substitute for
a wig, their heads being shaved.
Of the vessels wrecked from time to time on the coast of the
Desert, or Sahara, many are probably never heard of; but if any of
the crew survive their hardships, they are induced, seeing no
prospect of emancipation, to become Mahommedans, and nothing is
afterwards known or heard of them; the vessel is supposed by its
owners to have foundered at sea, and all passes into oblivion. Of
vessels whose loss has been learnt by any chance (such as that of
the sailors falling into the hands of Wedinoon Jews, or Moors), there
may have been from the year 1790, to the year 1806, thirty of
different nations, part of whose crews have afterwards found their
way to Marocco, and given some account of their catastrophe; these
may be thus divided,
English 17
French 5
American 5
Dutch, Danish, Swedish, &c. 3
Of the English vessels the crews probably amounted to 200 men
and boys, who may be thus accounted for:
Young men and boys either drowned, killed, or induced to
embrace the Mohammedan religion 40
Old men and others killed by the Arabs in the first scuffle,
when making opposition, or defending themselves! also
drowned in getting ashore 40
Dispersed in various parts of the Desert, after a lapse of time,
in consequence of the Consul making no offers sufficiently
advantageous to induce the Arabs to bring them to Mogodor
(which should always be done as soon as possible after the
wreck, and a price given superior to that of a native slave) 40
120
Redeemed after a tedious existence among the Arabs of from 80
one to five years, or more, originating from various causes,
such as a want of application being made through the proper
channel, want of remitting money for their purchase, or want
of a competent agent settled on the coast.
If any nation of Europe ought to enquire into the mode of
remedying this evil, it is certainly Great Britain, whose influence at
the Court of Marocco, by adopting a judicious system, might be
made very considerable and advantageous to the country; a small
sum would be sufficient at Mogodor (if the expense of an express
agent for this particular purpose were disapproved), if deposited in
the hands of the Vice-Consul, or any merchant of respectability,
where it might remain ready to be employed in the purchase of these
unfortunate people, and by allowing a sum rather above the price of
a black slave, the Arabs would immediately bring them to Mogodor,
knowing they could depend on an adequate price; by this means
they might be procured for half what they now cost; and it would be
an infinitely better plan than that of soliciting the Emperor to procure
them through the Bashaw of Suse; for, besides the delay, and
consequent protracted sufferings of the captives, the favour is
undoubtedly considered by the Emperor as incalculably more than
the cost and charges of their purchase.[194]
It is generally a month or two before the news of a shipwreck
reaches Mogodor, at which time, if a fund were there deposited, in
the hands of a competent agent, a hundred and fifty dollars would be
sufficient to purchase each man; yet, often from the scarcity of
specie, or the various commercial demands which the merchants
have for their money, they have it not in their power (however
philanthropically disposed) to redeem these poor men: and if they
do, it is at their own risk, and they must necessarily wait to know if
the government chooses to reimburse their expenses.
FOOTNOTES:
[191]I will here mention a stratagem by which a sailor, a few
years since, saved a ship on this coast, as it may be of use to
some future navigator:—The vessel was stranded, and one of the
crew being a Spaniard, who had been used to fish there from the
Canaries, advised the Captain to let go an anchor, as if the vessel
were riding and in safety: some Arabs coming on board, the
captain told them to bring their gums and other produce, for that
they were come to trade with them, and were going away again in
a few days; as it happened to be low water, the vessel on the
return of the tide floated, they then weighed anchor, and set sail,
leaving the Arabs astonished at their unexpected departure.
[192]Mr. Thomas Betton, of Hoxton-square, a Turkey merchant,
by his will, dated in 1724, devised to the Ironmongers Company in
trust about 26,000l. one moiety of the interest and profit thereof to
be perpetually employed in the redemption of British captives
from Moorish slavery. See Maitland’s History of London. See also
Mr. Betton’s will proved at Doctor’s Commons 15th June 1725, by
his executors, viz by John Cox, and four others of the
Ironmongers Company.
[193]This latter is expected by a prince of the first dignity; but I
have often passed princes on horseback without being required to
alight: on such occasions I uncovered, and bowed in the
European manner.
[194]As a further proof of the practicability of establishing an
advantageous alliance with the present Emperor, it should be
here observed, that his predecessors often obliged the English to
send an ambassador, with presents, &c. to solicit the liberation of
British seamen; but Muley Soliman gives them up to the British
consul, without exacting such kind of remuneration.
CHAPTER XIII.
Commercial Relations of the Empire of Marocco with Timbuctoo, and other
Districts of Soudan — Route of the Caravans to and from Soudan — Of the City
of Timbuctoo — The Productive Gold Mines in its Vicinage — Of the navigable
Intercourse between Jinnie and Timbuctoo; and from the latter to Cairo in Egypt:
the whole being collected from the most authentic and corroborating testimonies
of the Guides of the Caravans, Itinerant Merchants of Soudan, and other
creditable sources of Intelligence.
T imbuctoo,[195] the great emporium of central Africa, has from

time immemorial carried on a very extensive and lucrative trade with
the various maritime States of North Africa, viz. Marocco, Tunis,
Algier, Tripoli, Egypt, &c. by means of (akkabaahs) accumulated
caravans, which cross the great Desert of Sahara, generally
between the months of September and April inclusive; these
akkabaahs consist of several hundred loaded camels, accompanied
by the Arabs who let them to the merchants, for the transport of their
merchandize to Fas, Marocco, &c. at a very low rate. During their
route, they are often exposed to the attacks of the roving Arabs of
Sahara, who generally commit their depredations as they approach
the confines of the Desert.
Pl. XIII.
Map shewing the Tract as followed by the Caravans from Fas to Timbuctoo
by Jas. G. Jackson, 1811.
London Published Augst. 30th. 1811. by G. & W. Nicoll Pall Mall.
In this fatiguing journey, the akkabaahs do not proceed in a direct

line across the trackless Desert to the place of their destination, but
turn occasionally eastward or westward, according to the situation of
certain fertile, inhabited, and cultivated spots, interspersed in various
parts of Sahara, like islands in the ocean, called Oas,[196] or Oases;
these serve as watering-places to the men, as well as to feed,
refresh, and replenish the hardy and patient camel: at each of these
Oases, the akkabaah sojourns about seven days, and then proceeds
on its journey, until it reaches another spot of the same description.
In the intermediate journies, the hot and impetuous winds
denominated Shume,[197] convert the Desert into a moveable sea,
aptly denominated by the Arabs (El Bahar billa maa), a sea without
water, more dangerous than the perfidious waves of the ocean. In
the midst of the latter the pilot always entertains some hopes, but in
these parching Deserts, the traveller never expects safety, but from
the cessation of the wind. If it continues, the most numerous
caravans are often buried under mountains of sand, which, like the
tempestuous billows in a storm, advance in an undulating manner,
stopping and accumulating wherever they find the smallest
substance to impede their progress, insomuch that in a few hours a
mountain of sand is thus accumulated, where it was before an
uninterrupted plain, then the wind shifting, scatters in the air these
newly constructed mountains, forming amidst this chaos dreadful
gulphs and yawning abysses; the traveller continually deceived by
the aspect of the place, can discover his situation only by the
position of the stars; moreover the desiccating nature of these winds
is such, that they exhale the water carried in skins by the camels for
the use of the passengers and drivers; on these occasions, the
Arabs and people of Soudan affirm, that 500 dollars have been given
for a draught of water, and that 10 or 20 are commonly given when a
partial exhalation has occurred.
In 1805, a caravan proceeding from Timbuctoo to Tafilelt, was
disappointed, in not finding water at one of the usual watering-
places, when, horrible to relate, the whole of the persons belonging
to it, 2000 in number, besides 1800 camels, perished of thirst!
Accidents of this sort account for the vast quantities of human and
other bones which are found mingled together in various parts of the
Desert.
It is generally affirmed, that the guides, to whom the charge of
conducting these numerous and accumulated caravans is
committed, in their routes to and from Marocco, direct their course by
the scent of the sandy earth; but I could never discover any
reasonable foundation for such an opinion, and apprehend it to be
an artful invention of their own, to impose on the credulity of this
superstitious and ignorant people, and thus to enhance the value of
their knowledge. These guides possess some idea of astrology, and
the situation of certain stars, and being enabled by the two pointers
to ascertain the polar star, they can by that unvarying guide steer
their course with considerable precision, preferring often travelling in
the night, rather than under the suffocating heat of the effulgent
meridian sun.
When the akkabaah reaches Akka, the first station on this side of
the Desert, and situated on the confines thereof, in Lower Suse,
which is a part of Bled-el-jerrêde, the camels and guides are
discharged, and others there hired to proceed to Fas, Marocco,
Terodant, Tafilelt, and other places.
The akkabaahs perform the traverse of the Desert, including their
sojournments at El-wahaht, or Oases, in about 130 days. Proceeding
from the city of Fas, they go at the rate of 3½ miles an hour, and
travel seven hours a day; they reach Wedinoon, Tatta, or Akka in
eighteen days, where they remain a month, as the grand
accumulated akkabaah proceeds from the latter place.
In going from Akka to Tagassa[198] they employ sixteen days,
here sojourning fifteen days more to replenish their camels; they
then proceed to the Oasis and Well of Taudeny, which they reach in
seven days; here again they remain fifteen days; their next route is
to Arawan, another watering place, which they reach in seven days;
here they sojourn fifteen days; and then proceed and reach
Timbuctoo the sixth day, making a journey of fifty-four days actual
travelling, and of seventy-five days repose, being altogether, from
Fas to Timbuctoo, one hundred and twenty-nine days, or four lunar
months and nine days.[199]
There is another akkabaah which sets out from Wedinoon and
Sok Assa, and traversing the Desert between the black mountains of
Cape Bojador and Gualata, touches at Tagassa, El Garbie (both g’s
guttural, being the letter ‫)غ‬, or West Tagassa, and staying there to
collect salt, proceeds to Timbuctoo. The time occupied by this
akkabaah is five or six months, as it goes as far as Jibbel-el-biëd, or
the White Mountains, near Cape Blanco, through the desert of
Mograffra and Woled Abbusebah, to a place called Agadeen,[200]
where it sojourns twenty days.
The akkabaahs which cross the Desert may be compared to our
fleets of merchant vessels under convoy, the (stata) convoy of the
Desert being two or more Arabs, belonging to the tribe through
whose territory the caravan passes; thus, in passing the territory of
Woled Abbusebah, they are accompanied by two Sebayhées, or
people of that country, who on reaching the confines of the territory
of Woled Delim, receive a remuneration, and return, delivering them
to the protection of two chiefs of Woled Deleim; these again
conducting them to the confines of the territory of the Mograffra
Arabs, to whose care they deliver them, and so on, till they reach
Timbuctoo: any assault made against the akkabaah during this
journey, is considered as an insult to the whole clan to which the
(stata) convoy belongs, and for which they never fail to seek ample
revenge.
Besides these grand accumulated caravans, there are others
which cross the Desert, on any emergency, without a stata or guard
of soldiers: but this is a perilous expedition, and they are too often
plundered near the northern confines of the Desert, by two notorious
tribes, called Dikna and Emjot.[201] These ferocious hordes are most
cruel and sanguinary, poor and miserable, ignorant of their situation,
but unsubdued and free; when they attack the akkabaahs they
generally succeed; sometimes they put all the persons to death,
except those whom they cannot pursue. In the year 1798, an
akkabaah consisting of two thousand camels loaded with Soudanic
produce, together with seven hundred slaves, was plundered and
dispersed, and many were killed. These desperate attacks are
conducted in the following manner: a whole clan picket their horses
at the entrance of their tents, and send out scouts to give notice
when an akkabaah is likely to pass; these being mounted on the
Heirie, or Shrubba Er’reeh, quickly communicate the intelligence,
and the whole clan mount their horses, taking with them a sufficient
number of (niag) female camels, to supply them with food (they living
altogether on the milk of that animal); they place themselves
somewhere in ambush near an oasis, or watering-place, from
whence they issue on the arrival of the akkabaah, which they
plunder of every thing, leaving the unfortunate merchants, if they
spare their lives, entirely destitute.
Those who have philosophy enough to confine their wants solely
to what nature requires, would view the individual happiness of the
people who compose the caravans, with approbation. Their food,
dress, and accommodation, are simple and natural; proscribed from
the use of wine, and intoxicating liquors, by their religion, and
exhorted by its principles to temperance, they are commonly
satisfied with a few nourishing dates, and a draft of water; and they
will travel for weeks successively without any other food; at other
times, a little barley meal and cold water is the extent of their
provision, when they undertake a journey of a few weeks across the
Desert; living in this abstemious manner, they never complain, but
solace themselves with a hope of reaching their native country,
singing occasionally during the journey, whenever they approach any
habitation, or whenever the camels appear fatigued; these songs are
usually sung in trio, and in the chorus all the camel drivers, who have
a musical voice, join; it is worthy observation, how much these songs
renovate the camels, and the symphony and time they keep
surpasses what any one would imagine, who had not heard them. In
traversing the Desert they generally contrive to terminate the day’s
journey at l’Asaw a term which they appropriate to our four o’clock,
P.M. so that between that period and the setting sun, the tents are
pitched, prayers said, and the (Lashaw) supper got ready; after
which they sit round in a circle, and talk till sleep overcomes them,
and next morning, at break of day, they proceed again on their
journey.
The Arabic language, as spoken by the camel-drivers, is
peculiarly sweet and soft; the guttural and harsh letters are softened,
and with all its energy and perspicuity, when pronounced by them, is
as soft, and more sonorous than the Italian; it approaches the
ancient Korannick language, and has suffered but little alteration
these twelve hundred years. The Arabs of Moraffra, and those of
Woled Abbusebah, frequently hold an extempore conversation in
poetry, at which the women are adepts, and never fail to shew
attention to those young Arabs who excel in this intellectual and
refined amusement.[202]
The articles transported by the company of merchants trading
from Fas to Timbuctoo, are principally as follows: various kinds of
German linens, viz. plattilias, rouans, brettanias, muslins of different
qualities, particularly muls, Irish linens, cambricks, fine cloths of
particular colours, coral beads, amber beads, pearls, Bengal raw
silk, brass nails, coffee, fine Hyson teas, refined sugar, and various
manufactures of Fas and Tafilelt, viz. shawls and sashes of silk and
gold, hayks of silk, of cotton and silk mixed, of cotton and of wool;
also an immense quantity of (hayk filelly) Tafilelt hayks, a particularly
light and fine manufacture of that place, and admirably adapted to
the climate of Soudan; to these may be added red woollen caps, the
general covering of the head, turbans, Italian silks, nutmegs, cloves,
ginger, and pepper; Venetian beads, cowries, and a considerable
quantity of tobacco and salt, the produce of Barbary and Bled-el-
jerrêde.
The produce of Soudan, returned by the akkabaahs, for the above
articles, consists principally in gold dust, twisted gold rings of
Wangara,[203] gold rings made at Jinnie,[204] bars of gold, elephants’
teeth, gum of Soudan, (guza Saharawie) grains of Sahara, called by
Europeans grains of paradise, odoriferous gums, called el b’korr’h
Soudan, much esteemed by the Arabs for fumigating, to which they
ascribe many virtues; a great number of slaves, purchased at
Timbuctoo, from the Wangareen, Houssonian, and other slatees,[205]
who bring them from those regions which border on the Jibbel
Kumra,[206] or Mountains of the Moon, a chain which, with little or no
intermission, runs through the continent of Africa from west to east,
viz. from Assentee in the west, to Abyssinia in the east.
Ostrich feathers and ambergris are collected on the confines of
the Desert, and are added to the merchandize before mentioned.
The gold jewels of Jinnie[207] are denominated by the Arabs El
Herrez, from the supposed charm they contain; they are invariably of
pure gold, and some of them of exquisite workmanship, and of
various forms, but hollow in the middle for the purpose of containing
the Herrez, or amulet, which consists of passages from the Koran,
arranged in some geometrical figure, on paper, which being
enclosed in the gold jewel, is suspended from the neck, or tied round
the arms, legs, or elsewhere. These charms have various and
particular powers attributed to them, some insuring the wearer
against the effects of an evil eye, others from an evil mind; some are
intended to secure a continuation of prosperity and happiness, or to
avert misfortune, whilst others secure to the wearer health and
strength. This superstition, and predilection for charms, pervades the
greater part of Africa: thus, in the northern maritime states, in Suse,
and other parts of Bled-el-jerrêde, the fakeers, or saints, attach half a
hundred Herrez (without, however, the gold covering, for which they
substitute a leathern one) to different parts of their body, and even to
the horses: at Marocco I have seen eleven round one horse’s neck.
[208] The inhabitants of these countries imagine no disorder incident
to mankind can attack either man or beast without the aid of some
(jin) spirit, or departed soul, or (drubba del’ain) an evil eye.
The slaves brought by the akkabaahs are more or less valuable in
Barbary, according to their beauty and symmetry of person, and also
according to their age, and the country from whence they are
procured: thus a Wangareen slave is not worth so much as one from
Houssa; the former being a gross, stupid people, little superior in
understanding to the brute creation, whilst those of Houssa are
intelligent, industrious, acute, and possess a peculiarly open and
noble countenance, having prominent noses, and expressive black
eyes: those of Wangara, on the contrary, have large mouths, thick
lips, broad flat noses, and heavy eyes. A young girl of Houssa, of
exquisite beauty, was once sold at Marocco, whilst I was there, for
four hundred ducats,[209] whilst the average price of slaves is about
one hundred, so much depends on the fancy, or the imagination of
the purchaser.
These slaves are treated very differently from the unhappy victims
who used to be transported from the coast of Guinea, and our
settlements on the Gambia, to the West India islands. After suffering
those privations, which all who traverse the African Desert must
necessarily and equally submit to, masters as well as servants and
slaves, they are conveyed to Fas and Marocco, and after being
exhibited in the sook, or public market place, they are sold to the
highest bidder, who carries them to his home, where, if found faithful,
they are considered as members of the family, and allowed an
intercourse with the (horraht) free-born women of the household.
Being in the daily habit of hearing the Arabic language spoken, they
soon acquire a partial knowledge of it, and the Mohammedan
religion teaching the unity of God, they readily reject paganism, and
embrace Mohammedanism; their Mooselmin masters then instil into
their vacant minds, ready to receive the first impression, the
fundamental principles of the Mooselmin doctrine; the more
intelligent learn to read and write, and afterwards acquire a partial
knowledge of the Koran; and such as can read and understand one
chapter, from that time procure their emancipation from slavery, and
the master exults in having converted an infidel, and in full faith,
expects favour from heaven for the action, and for having liberated a
slave. When these people do not turn their minds to reading, and
learning the principles of Mohammedanism, they generally obtain
their freedom after eight or ten years servitude; for the more
conscientious Mooselmin consider them as servants, and purchase
them for about the same sum that they would pay in wages to a
servant during the above period, at the expiration of which term, by
giving them their liberty, they, according to their religious opinions,
acquire a blessing from God, for having done an act, which a
Mooselmin considers more meritorious in the sight of Heaven, than
the sacrifice of a goat, or even of a camel. This liberation is entirely
voluntary on the part of the owner; and I have known some slaves so
attached to their masters from good treatment, that when they have
been offered their liberty, they have actually refused it, preferring to
continue in servitude. It should not, however, be supposed, that the
Arabs and Moors are always inclined thus to liberate these degraded
people; on the contrary, some of them, particularly the latter, are
obdurate, and make an infamous traffic of them, by purchasing, and
afterwards intermarrying them, for the purposes of propagation and
of sale, when they are placed in the public market-place, and there
turned about, and examined, in order to ascertain their value.
The eunuchs which the Emperor and princes keep to superintend
their respective Horems, are, for the most part, procured from the
vicinage of Senaar in Soudan; these creatures have shrill effeminate
voices: they are emasculated in a peculiar manner, and sometimes
in such a way, as not to be incapacitated from cohabiting with
women;[210] they are in general very fat and gross, and from the
nature of the charge committed to them, become very confidential
servants: indeed their fidelity is surpassed only by their unbounded
insolence. I knew one of these creatures, who was chief of the
eunuchs superintending the Horem of Muley Abd Salam,[211] at
Agadeer, who was one hundred and ten years old; he was then
upright, and walked about without a stick.
Persons unaccustomed to, or unacquainted with, the mode of
living in Africa, may imagine the expense and trouble of conveying
the slaves across the Desert, would be more than the advantage
derivable from their sale; but it must be recollected that these people
are very abstemious, particularly whilst travelling; ten dollars
expended in rice in Wangara is sufficient for a year’s consumption for
one person; the wearing apparel is alike œconomical, a pair of
drawers, and sometimes a vest, forming all the clothing necessary in
traversing the Desert.
It is not ascertained when the communication between Barbary
and Soudan was first opened, yet it is certain, that the enterprising
expedition of Muley Arsheede to the latter country[212] tended
considerably to encrease and encourage the exchange of
commodities, and caused the establishment of the company of Fas
merchants, at Fas, as well as that of their factory at Timbuctoo,
which has continued to increase and flourish ever since.
The circulating medium at Timbuctoo is (tibber) gold dust, which is
exchanged for merchandize, thus a plattilia is worth 20 mizans[213] of
gold: a piece of Irish linen, of 25 yards, is worth 30 mizans: and loaf
sugar is worth 40 mizans of gold per quintal.
Having in some measure explained the nature of the trade with
Timbuctoo, we may now proceed to discuss the extent of its territory,
and although this does not appear to have been ascertained, yet it
may be said to extend northward to the confines of Sahara, or the
Desert; a tract of country about ninety miles in breadth; the western
boundary is one hundred and thirty miles west of the city, and the
eastern extends to the Bahar Soudan, or the Sea of Soudan, which
is a lake formed by the Nile El Abeede, whose opposite shore is not
discernible; this is the description given of it by the Soudanees, who
have visited it; on its opposite or eastern shore begins the territory of
white people hereafter mentioned, denominated by the Arabs
(N’sarrath) Christians, or followers of Jesus of Nazareth: south of the
river is another territory of immense extent, the boundary of which
extends to Lamlem, or Melli, which latter is reported to be inhabited
by one of the lost, or missing tribes of Israel.
The city of Timbuctoo is situated on a plain, surrounded by sandy
eminences, about twelve miles north of the Nile El Abeede,[214] or
Nile of the Blacks, and three (erhellat) days journey from the
confines of Sahara: the city is about twelve miles in circumference,
but without walls. A ditch or excavation, about four cubits in depth,
and the same in breadth, but without water, circumscribes the city.
The town of Kabra, situated on the banks of the river, is its
commercial depot, or port. By means of a water carriage east and
west of Kabra, great facility is given to the trade of Timbuctoo, from
whence the various articles of European, as well as Barbary
manufactures brought by the akkabaahs from the north of Africa, are
distributed to the different empires and states of Soudan, and the
south. This great mart is resorted to by all nations, whither they bring
the various products of their respective countries, to barter for the
European and Barbary manufactures.
The houses of Timbuctoo have, for the most part, no upper
apartments: they are spacious, and of a square form, with an
opening in the centre, surrounded by a gallery similar to the houses
at Fas and Marocco; they have no windows, as the doors, which are
lofty and wide, opening in the gallery before mentioned, admit
sufficient light to the rooms when thrown open. The walls of the
houses are erected thus: they put boards on each side of the wall,
supported by stakes driven in the ground, or attached to other stakes
laid transversely across the wall, the intermediate space is then filled
with sand, mud, and lime, and beat down with large wooden mallets
till it becomes hard and compact: the cases are left on for a day or
two; they then take them off, and move them higher up, until the wall
be finished, which is generally erected to the heighth of eight or nine
cubits.[215] Contiguous to the house door is a building consisting of
two rooms, called a Duaria, in which visitors are received and
entertained, so that they see nothing of the women, who are
extremely handsome. The men are so excessively jealous of their
wives, that, when the latter visit a relation, they are obliged to muffle
themselves up in every possible way to disguise their persons; their
face also is covered with their garment, through which they peep
with one eye to discover their way.
In various parts of the city are spacious (fondaque) caravanseras,
built on a plan similar to that of the houses, having a gallery round
the area, the access to which is by stairs: the rooms which surround
and open into the gallery are very numerous, and are hired by
merchants and strangers for themselves and their merchandize.
These are private property, and the rooms are let each for about
twenty okiat, or two dollars per month; the agent of the proprietor of
the fondaque usually resides in some apartment, in order to
accommodate the strangers with provisions and other necessaries,
having messengers, or porters, who perform the domestic offices of
the house until the strangers become settled, and have leisure to
provide themselves with domestics, or to purchase slaves from the
market to cook their victuals, clean their rooms, and attend their
persons, whilst they are employed in bartering and exchanging their
commodities till they have invested the whole in Soudanic produce,
which they endeavour to accomplish by autumn (September), in
order to be ready for the akkabaah, either to proceed to Marocco,
Cairo, Jidda,[216] or elsewhere.
The king, whose authority has been acknowledged at Timbuctoo
ever since the death of Muley Ismael, Emperor of Marocco, is the
sovereign of Bambarra; the name of this potentate in 1800 was

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Introduction to Food Science and Food

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Food Systems Modelling: Tools for Assessing

Careers in Food Science From Undergraduate to

Challenging the Status Quo to Shape Food Systems

Food System Transparency: Law, Science and Policy of

Rick Parker and Miriah Pace

Rick Parker and Miriah Pace

Notice to the Reader

Printed in the United States of America

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learning and a learning pathway that enables them to easily navigate •

through food-science topics: •

FURTHER LEARNING is encouraged, with engag­

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xxlv ABOUT THE AUTHORS

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ltXV

NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

PARTS OF THE FOOD

Production i the raising or growing of plant

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 5

Coiiynght 20 I ""1!'18• L• nu,

Food spending and share of income spent on food across

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest ::,

6 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

United States 6.6 1.9 34,541 2,273

ERS estimate 6,4 1.9 34,541 2,215

Singapore 7.3 2.1 19,398 1.422

United Kingdom 9.1 3.8 24,260 2,214

Canada 9.6 3.4 27.761 2,679

Austria 10.1 3.3 25,908 2,617

Ireland 10.l 5.4 20,093 2,037

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 7

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

Australia 10.2 3.6 37.492 3,814

Germany 10.9 3.0 22,762 2.481

Switzerland 11.0 3.5 44,899 4,943

Denmark 11.l 3.8 27,306 3,036

Netherlands 71.6 3.3 20,625 2,388

Finland 12.0 4.7 24.927 3,001

Qatar 72.l 0.3 11,799 1,361

Sweden 12.2 3.7 26,146 3,193

South Korea 72.2 2.2 12.002 1.468

Norway 13.2 4.3 37.146 4,885

France 13.2 3.3 22,945 3,037

Czech Republic 13.3 9.3 9,643 1,279

Hong Kong, China 73.4 1.0 24,060 3,224

Taiwan 13.5 2.1 72.247 7,657

Japan 13.8 2.5 27,761 3,818

FURTHER LEARNING is encouraged, with engag

FIGURE 1•4 In 2010 Americans consumed. on aver