Causes: brought to Italy via fleas/rats on a trade ship in 1347 Black Death

Worst outbreak: 1347-1353

Effects: land went unploughed; inflation due to lack of crops;

starvation on top of disease, BUT eventually led to economic growth
(more jobs/fewer people to fill them)

Related terms: flagellants

Definition: period of cooling that began in the 1300s after the Little Ice Age
Medieval Warm Period

Effects: shorter, less reliable growing season-->poor diets--

>famine-->population more susceptible to disease

Atlantic Expansion? Witch Hunts? Thirty Years’ War? French

Revolution?

Artwork: Hunters in the Snow--Pieter Bruegel 1565

Definition: period of European art that emerged in the later Mannerism

Renaissance and was largely replaced by Baroque

Date Range: 1520-1580

Characteristics: elongated body proportions, strange use of colors,

highly stylized poses, lack of clear perspective

Artists: El Greco, Cellini, Titian

Definition: period of European art that emerged after Mannerism; Baroque

encouraged by the Council of Trent in response to the Protestant
Reformation

Date Range: 1600-late 1700s

Characteristics: religious themes, emotion, chiaroscuro, realism

Artists: Caravaggio, Peter Paul Rubens, Artemisia Gentileschi

Polish astronomer who identified the heliocentric universe Copernicus

Influenced by: Ptolemy, Artistotle

Important Dates: 1543 (published his findings)

Opposition: his heliocentric worldview differed from the geocentric

Ptolemaic worldview; denounced by Martin Luther, Catholic Church
banned his book
Later influenced: Galileo, Johannes Kepler
Italian who constructed a telescope who supported the Copernican Galileo
theory of the universe; had a major role in the Scientific Revolution

Influenced by: Copernicus, Aristotle

Important Dates: 1632 (tried by the Inquisition)

Important Works: The Starry Messenger, Dialogue Concerning Two

Chief World Systems

English natural philosopher who favored experimental (inductive) Francis Bacon

methods and observation

Father of the scientific method

Influenced by: Aristotle, Machiavelli

Important Dates: early 1600s

Contemporaries/Associates: James I, Thomas Hobbes

French philosopher who favored deductive reasoning, rationalism, Rene Descartes

and reconciling religion and science

Father of modern philosophy, analytical geometry, and a key figure

of the scientific revolution

Influenced by: Aristotle

Important Dates: 1637 (Discourse on Method)

Contemporaries/Associates: Galileo, Baruch Spinoza, Queen

Christina of Sweden

“I think, therefore I am.”

Treaty that ended the Thirty Years’ War Peace of Westphalia

Date: 1648

Significance:
● End of the Protestant Reformation
● Peace of Augsburg reinstated
● Counter-Reformation was blocked
● Netherlands gain independence from Spain (after 80 years
of fighting!)
● No more war over religion
Major turning point in European history! 1648

1) Religion less important as a cause of conflict

2) End of the Holy Roman Empire
3) Modern, sovereign nation-states emerge
4) The rise of France (under Richelieu, expanded by Louis XIV)
5) Rise of Prussia (under the Fredericks)
6) End of Spanish influence/Dutch Independence
7) Military revolution (Gustavus Adolphus, increase of army
size, increase in taxes & bureaucracy)

Reconquista of Grenada by Ferdinand & Isabella complete/end of 1492

the Crusades

Columbus encounters the Americas; eventually leads to the

Columbian Exchange/opening of the Atlantic

Expulsion of the Jews from Spain

Major turning point in European history! 1453

1) Fall of Constantinople to Muslim forces (1453)

2) End of Hundred Years’ War (1453)
3) Invention of the printing press (1454)

Political treatise on how to acquire and maintain political power Machiavelli’s The Prince

Basics: Better to be cruel than merciful.

Better to be stingy than generous.
Avoid being hated and despised.
Better to break promises if they are not in one’s own
interest.
Importance: focus is on the importance of the individual and his
own skills rather
Related ideas: individualism, secularism, civic humanism
Influence: Mussolini & Napoleon referenced it while in power

Series of armed conflicts between Parliamentarians (“Roundheads”) English Civil War

and Royalist (“Cavaliers”) in England.

Dates: 1642-1651
Causes: Stuart monarchs James I and Charles I chose to not deal
with Parliament unless absolutely necessary. Parliament had
enough and a group of them challenged Charles I.

Outcome: Charles I executed; exile of Charles II; monarchy replaced

with Oliver Cromwell’s Commonwealth, followed by the
Protectorate

Significance: an English monarch cannot rule without Parliament’s

consent (not formally established until the Glorious Revolution of
1688)
Christian humanist who was critical of the Catholic Church abuses Erasmus
and called for reform; also published Latin & Greek New Testaments

“laid the egg that hatched the Reformation”

Important Dates: 1511 (The Praise of Folly)

Influenced by: Pico della Mirandola, Martin Luther

Influenced: Martin Luther, Thomas More

Started the Protestant Reformation when he posted his 95 Theses Martin Luther

Also known for: translating the Bible into the vernacular; not
backing up the peasants in their revolt; being anti-Semitic

Beliefs: salvation through faith alone (no indulgences!); priesthood

of all believers; consubstantiation

Important Dates: 1517 (posting of the 95 Theses); 1521 (Diet of

Worms and excommunication by the Catholic Church)

Contemporaries/Associates: Erasmus, John Calvin, Thomas More,

Leo X, Charles V

French theologian of the Protestant Reformation who believed in John Calvin

predestination; set up a theocracy in Geneva

Important Dates: 1536 (Institutes of the Christian Religion)

Influenced by: Martin Luther, Erasmus

Legacy: Presbyterians in Scotland, Puritans in England, Huguenots

in France, Dutch Reformed Church in the Netherlands

A group of people who rejected infant baptism; represented the Anabaptists

radical Reformation

Also believed: communion is symbolic

Legacy: Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites

Founded by Ignatius Loyola, this group was the missionary/militant the Jesuits
arm of the Catholic Church approved by Pope Paul III

Participated in the Counter-Reformation; also known as the Society

of Jesus

Important Dates: 1540 (founded)

Meeting of the Catholic Church that led to reform and clarification of Council of Trent
its doctrines

Was in response to both internal and external criticisms of the

Church

Dates: 1545-1563

People: Pope Paul III, Ignatius Loyola

Tudor king of England who played a critical role in the English Henry VIII
Reformation by declaring himself head of the Church of England.

Also famous for: having six wives, two of which he beheaded;

working with Parliament/asking for their permission

Important dates: 1509-1547 (his reign); 1521 (declared Defender

of the Faith by Leo X; 1534 (Act of Supremacy declares Henry head
of the Anglican Church)

Children: Mary I, Elizabeth I, Edward VI

Contemporaries/Associates: Thomas More, Clement VII, Catherine

of Aragon (wife #1/daughter of Ferdinand & Isabella), Charles V

Tudor queen of England who never married and was known for her Elizabeth I
moderation in religious and political affairs (though she did support
Protestant leaders in Europe).

Also known for: defeating the Spanish Armada; executing Mary

Queen of Scots; helping the Dutch in their revolt against Spain

Important Dates: 1558-1603 (her reign)

Contemporaries/Associates: Philip II (turned down a marriage to

him), William Shakespeare, Henry IV (of France), Ivan the Terrible

Civil wars between French Catholics and French Protestants, also French Wars of Religion
known as Huguenots.

Dates: 1562-1598; 1572 (St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre)

Causes: Humanism, printing press, Reformation, Calvinism

(adopted by the nobility)

Ended: Edict of Nantes--political freedom to the Huguenots

The period of cultural and biological exchange between the New Columbian Exchange
World and the Old.

Date: 1492 (started by Columbus)

Effects: New crops to Europe (potatoes to Ireland, tomatoes to Italy,

coffee); livestock to New World (horses, pigs, chickens, dogs);
diseases

One of the most prominent royal houses of Europe. A member of Habsburgs

this family held the throne of Holy Roman Emperor from 1438-
1740.

After Charles V, it was split between the Spanish and Austrian

branches.

Well known Habsburgs: Maximilian I, Philips I, II, III, and IV (from

Spain), Ferdinands I, II, and III (from Bohemia), Maria Theresa (last
Habsburg heir on the Austrian branch)

This granted French Huguenots rights in a nation predominantly Edict of Nantes

Catholic, thereby ending the French Wars of Religion.

Granted by Henry IV who was formerly Protestant, but converted to

Catholicism in the name being able to rule France peaceably.

Date: 1598 (granted); 1685 (revoked)

Revoked: Louis XIV declared Protestantism illegal; gave them two

weeks to leave the country or convert

Bourbon monarch, also known as the Sun King, who believed in the Louis XIV
divine right of kings and created a system of absolute rule in France
that lasted until the French Revolution.

Influenced by: the Fronde rebellion; Bishop Bossuet (divine right of

kings)

Dates: 1643-1715 (his reign); 1713 (Treaty of Utrecht to end the

War of Spanish Succession)
Famous for: Gallicanism; controlling the aristocracy by tying them
to Versailles; revoking the Edict of Nantes; War of Spanish
Succession; Versailles;

Important People: Jean-Baptiste Colbert (finances)

French politician who served as Minister of Finance under Louis Jean Jacque Colbert
XIV; known for his mercantilist policies

Brought the economy back from a state of bankruptcy; worked to

create a favorable balance of trade between France and its colonies
(Mercantilism=Make Money for the Mother Country)
Dates: 1665-1683 (years in office)
Russian czar who helped Russia become a major western power by Peter the Great
leading a cultural revolution.

Known for: modernizing Russia, seeking warm water ports, Great

Northern War (with Sweden), the Table of Ranks, Beard Tax, St.
Petersburg

Dates: 1682-1721 (his reign)

Contemporaries/Associates: Louis XIV, William III (of England

and the Netherlands)

Virtually bloodless revolution in which William and Mary of the Glorious Revolution
Netherlands were invited to rule in England, replacing the Stuart
monarchy.

Causes: Stuart monarchs Charles II and James II were both Catholic

and tolerant of Catholics; Parliament wanted to avoid another
Catholic dynasty

Date: 1688 (date of the Revolution); 1689 (English Bill of Rights)

Significance: from the Glorious Revolution forward, Parliament

holds more power than the monarchy in England; also ended all
chances for Catholicism to be re-established in England.

Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher in the Roman Empire; Galen

was a proponent of the humoral theory (the body is made up of four
liquids, or humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm).

Important Dates: 100-200 A.D.

Influenced by: Hippocrates

Discredited by: William Harvey, Paracelsus, Andreas Vesalius

English physicist and mathematician who developed the principles Isaac Newton
of modern physics.

Fun facts: believed in alchemy & astrology despite his commitment

to observable laws.

Important Dates: 1687 (Mathematical Principles of Natural

Philosophy);

Contemporaries: John Locke

English physician who described the circulatory system and how the William Harvey
heart pumps blood through the body.

Important Dates: 1628 (published treatises on circulation)

Challenged: Galen’s humoral theory

Contemporaries: James I & Charles I (physician for both)

Swiss German physicist, alchemist, and astrologer who criticized Paracelsus

scholastic methods; pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in
medicine.

Influential in: the 1520s and 30s

Contemporaries: Copernicus, da Vinci, Martin Luther

Founder of modern human anatomy; drew the muscles of the Andreas Vesalius
human body

Important Dates: 1543 (conducted a public dissection of a

criminal)

Influenced by: Galen (also disproved him in several areas)

Associates: Charles V (physician)

German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer who described Johannes Kepler

planetary motion; incorporated religious arguments and reasoning
into his work.

Influential in: the late 1500s

Influenced by: Copernicus

Contemporaries/Associates: Tycho Brahe

An Italian scholar and poet who is known as the “Father of Petrarch

Humanism.” He is also credited with developing the concept of the
“Dark Ages.”

Dates: 1341 crowned Rome’s poet laureate

Famous for: finding a letter by Cicero and basically starting the

Renaissance

Italian philosopher who wrote “Oration on the Dignity of Man” in Pico della Mirandola
which he explained the importance of seeking knowledge

Dates: 1486
Influenced: Erasmus, Thomas More
Humanist author of The Book of the Courtier, which explained how a Castiglione
proper man and woman of court should behave.

Dates: 1528

Contemporaries: Pope Clement VII

Italian sculptor, painter, poet, architect, and engineer of the High Michelangelo
Renaissance.

Dates: early 1500s

Most Famous Works: the Pieta, David, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

Colleagues: da Vinci, Raphael

Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. Raphael

Dates: early 1500s

Most Famous Works: The School of Athens, a variety of Madonna

paintings

Colleagues: da Vinci, Michelangelo

Italian inventor, sculptor, painter, architect, scientist, etc. of the High Leonardo da Vinci
Renaissance.

Dates: early 1500s

Most Famous Works: The Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, The
Vitruvian Man

Colleagues: Michelangelo, Raphael, Leo X

Early Renaissance sculptor Donatello

Dates: early 1400s

Most Famous Works: David

Colleagues: Brunelleschi

Patron: Cosimo de’Medici

Renaissance painter from the Netherlands known for his landscapes Bruegel
and peasant scenes

Dates: 1560s

Historical Setting: The Reformation; just a few years before the

Netherland’s Revolt against Spain (Eighty Years’ War)

Most Famous Works: The Peasant Wedding, Hunters in the Snow

Baroque painter from the Dutch Republic (now the Netherlands) Rembrandt

Dates: 1625-1650

Historical Setting: the Dutch Golden Age--the Dutch period of great

wealth and cultural achievement

Most Famous Works: The Abduction of Europa, The Night Watch

Greek painter, sculptor, and architect of the Spanish Renaissance; El Greco

often associated with Mannerism

Dates: late 1500s-early 1600s

Most Famous Works: The Assumption of the Virgin, The Disrobing of

Christ, The Holy Trinity

Female, Italian Baroque painter; painted pictures of strong women Artemisia Gentrileschi
from myth or the Bible. This was in contrast to how women were
normally viewed during this time period.

Dates: 1614-1653

Most Famous Works: Judith Slaying Holofernes, Susanna and the

Elders

Phrase used to characterize 15th-century European rulers who New Monarchs

unified, stabilized, and centralized the governments of their
countries.
Examples: John I (Portugal), Charles VII, Louis XI (France), Isabella I
of Castile, Ferdinand II of Aragon (Spain), Henry VII (England)

Achievements: limited aristocratic power, efficient tax collection,

created a standing army, fostered trade, enforced religious unity,
encouraged a national identity

Treaty between Charles V and Lutheran princes (the Schmalkaldic Peace of Augsburg
League) that temporarily ended the religious struggle between
Catholicism and Lutheranism.

Established the principle “Whose the region, his the religion.” The
religion of the prince became the religion of the state and everyone
who lived there.

Date: 1555

Problem: What about the Calvinists? Eventually leads to the

Defenestration of Prague and the Thirty Years’ War.
The group of French nobility who bought their noble title; differed Robe Nobility
from Sword nobility (nobles who were more traditional/landed).
Made hereditary by Louis XIV in order to gain political support.

Dates: important in the 1640s and 50s

Sword and Robe Nobles made up the Second Estate in France.

Most famous Robe Noble: Montesquieu

King of England after Elizabeth I; started the Stuart dynasty

Believed in the Divine Right of Kings James I

Important Dates: 1603-1625 (his reign)

Issues: Did not want to deal with Parliament; doubled the debt of
England.

Son of James I (Stuart king); king during the English Civil War and Charles I
was beheaded after his defeat

Important Dates: 1625-1649 (his reign)

Issues: Did not want to deal with Parliament; raised money without
asking Parliament through ship money and other questionable
means

Contemporaries: Louis XIII, Louis XIV

Enlightened empress of Russia who led her country into full Catherine the Great
participation in the political and cultural life of Europe

Important Dates: 1792-1796 (her reign)

Achievements: reorganized administration and law of the Russian

empire; extended Russian empire to include Crimea and Poland;
spreading education; wanted to imitate the courts at Versailles

Failures: wanted to free the serfs, but knew that she would lose to
much support

Union of the Low Countries. Declared their independence from Dutch Republic
Spain (Philip II) starting the Eighty Years’ War; dominated world
trade in the 17th-century (Dutch Golden Age)

Dates: 1568-1648 (Eighty Years’ War)

Known for: economic prosperity, Dutch East India Company,

Calvinism, strong navy

Decline: result of 1st, 2nd, 3rd Anglo-Dutch Wars (trade wars with
England), mercantilism had a negative effect on commerce
Marks the beginning of modern European history. “Liberty, equality, French Revolution
fraternity.”

Causes: Enlightenment ideals (popular sovereignty, inalienable

rights), French debt, American Revolution, Louis XVI & Marie
Antoinette/Versailles

Key Events: Storming of the Bastille, Great Fear, Reign of Terror,

formation of the Directory, Napoleon’s coup d’etat (1799)

Legacy: feudalism abolished, promotion of nationalism, questioning

the role of the Church

Last Bourbon king of France during the French Revolution; married Louis XVI
to Marie Antoinette

Dates: 1774-1791 (his reign)

Famous for: calling the Estates General, being executed by

guillotine for treason in 1793

Contemporaries: Jacque Necker (financial minister)

Originated as a political club whose purpose was to protect the Jacobin Club/Republic
gains of the French Revolution from aristocratic reactions
Known for: initiating the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public
Safety

Dates: 1793-1794

People: Maximilien Robespierre

French lawyer and politician who was one of the best known and Robespierre
most influential figures of the French Revolution and the Reign of
Terror

Called for the execution of Louis XVI

Groups: Estates General, National Convention, Committee of Public

Safety (formed to oversee the new French government)

Dates: guillotined in 1794

Influenced by: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French

Revolution during which time thousands of “enemies of the
revolution” were executed by the guillotine (aka the National
Razor). Reign of Terror
Causes: promised social equality and anti-poverty measures not
fulfilled; formation of the dictatorial National Convention
Dates: 1793-1794
The Terror was followed by the Thermidorian Reaction
Leader of the Haitian Revolution in which he transformed a nation Toussaint L’Ouverture
of slaves into an independent state

Dates: 1791-1802

Forced to resign by Napoleon who wanted to restore French

authority in Haiti; Napoleon was unsuccessful

French military and political leader who rose to prominence during Napoleon
the French Revolution; established liberal reforms throughout
Europe

Famous for: military tactics, coup d’etat, Napoleonic Code,

establishing the Continental System, his exile, the 100 Days, invasion
of Russia, Battle of Waterloo, re-exile

Dates: 1799-1814 (his rule)

Legacy: Napoleonic code adopted in some form by many nations;

military tactics studied even today

Major turning point in European history Congress of Vienna

Goals: re-establish balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic

wars (Concert of Europe), provide a long-term peace plan in Europe,
Conservatism

Dates: 1814-1815

People: Klemens von Metternich (Austria), Castlereagh (Great

Britain, Talleyrand (France), Alexander I (Russia)

Legacy: prevented widespread war until 1914; served as a model

for the League of Nations

Name given to the unprecedented increase in agricultural Agricultural Revolution

production in Britain and the Low Countries

Causes: elimination of the fallow, enclosure movement, crop

rotation, selective breeding, new farming technology

Dates: mid-17th century-mid-19th century (1650-1850)

Results: increased food production, increased population growth,

decline in agricultural labor force, increase in availability of an
urban workforce-->Industrial Revolution

English philosopher and physician who was one of the most John Locke
influential figures of the Enlightenment; “Father of Liberalism”
Known for: Two Treatises on Government, natural rights of man, the
social contract, tabula rasa, religious tolerance
Dates: late 1600s-early 1700s (Glorious Revolution)
Influenced: Voltaire, Rousseau, Adam Smith, founding fathers of US
English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes

Known for: Leviathan, social contract theory (rule must come from
the consent of the people), support of absolutism

Dates: mid 1600s (English Civil War--need a strong ruler to avoid

civil war)

Enlightenment philosopher Rousseau

Known for: support of education, concept of the “noble savage,”

belief that women should be confined to the domestic sphere

Influenced: Romanticism, Robespierre

Philosophical movement which focused on reason as the primary Age of Enlightenment

source of authority (as opposed to absolute monarchy or the
Catholic Church)

Dates: 1715-1789 (although some place it as early as 1620 with the

Scientific Revolution)

Ideas: individual liberty, religious tolerance, empiricism

Influenced by: Descartes, Locke, Spinoza

Major figures: Beccaria, Voltaire, Diderot, Hume, Rousseau, Kant,

Adam Smith

Rulers: Catherine the Great, Frederick I, Joseph II

Economic practice that promoted governmental regulations of the Mercantilism

nation’s economy for the purpose of increasing state power (at the
expense of rival powers)

Dates: 16th-18th century (1500s-1700s)

Features: precious metals=wealth, favorable balance of trade,

colonial possessions provide raw materials and serve as markets for
exports

People: Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Scottish moral philosopher known as the father of modern Adam Smith

economics

Known for: The Wealth of Nations, laissez-faire, invisible hand,

laying the foundations of free market economic theory

Self-interest + competition = economic prosperity

Influenced: Keynes, Malthus, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, US

founding fathers
French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher Voltaire

Famous for: Candide, satirical wit, and attacks on the Catholic

Church; advocated for freedom of religion, freedom of religion, and
separation of church and state

Influenced by: John Locke, Isaac Newton, Shakespeare

French Enlightenment philosopher and writer Denis Diderot

Famous for: editing and contributing to the Encyclopedie, a general

encyclopedia that represented the thoughts of the Enlightenment;
secularization of education

Artistic, literary, and intellectual movement characterized by an Romanticism

emphasis on emotion and individualism, as well as celebrating
nature and glorifying the past

Dates: 1800-1850

Reaction to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment

Often associated with nationalism

Philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx

Famous for: Communist Manifesto (1848), the idea that human

societies progress through class struggle (bourgeoisie vs. the
proletariat)

Contemporaries: Friedrich Engels

Jewish nationalist movement with the goal of the creation of a Zionists

Jewish state in Palestine, the ancient homeland of the Jews

It was deemed necessary because of anti-Semitism and persecution

throughout Europe

Founded by: Theodor Herzl

Austrian politician and diplomat Metternich

Famous for: Congress of Vienna, balance of power, conservatism,

“Age of Metternich,” fleeing Austria after the revolutions of 1848

Dates: 1809-1848

Contemporaries: Napoleon, Alexander I, Karl Marx

Represented the balance of power that existed from the end of the Concert of Europe
Napoleonic Wars to the outbreak of World War I; also called the Age
of Metternich

Dates: 1815-1914

Powers: Austria, Prussia, Russia, United Kingdom, and later France

Ended due to: nationalism, 1848 Revolutions, German and Italian

unification, the Crimean War, and the Eastern Question

War over the rights of Christians in the Holy Lands, but also over Crimean War
maintaining the balance of power

Sides: Russia vs. France, United Kingdom, Ottoman Empire, and

Sardinia

Dates: 1853-1856

Famous for: modern technologies, “The Charge of the Light

Brigade,” Florence Nightingale, the use of photography

President of the Second French Republic and emperor of the Second Napoleon III
French Empire; first president of France to be elected by popular
vote

Famous for: reconstruction of Paris carried out by Georges

Haussmann, modernizing the French banking system, establishing
modern agriculture, expanding the rail system, giving workers the
right to strike, expanding women’s education

Dates: 1848-1870 (his reign)

Foreign Policy: Crimean War alliance with Britain, assisting Italian

unification, doubled France’s overseas empire, Franco-Prussian
War--lost to Bismarck and was exiled

Italian statesman who was a leading figure in Italian unification; Cavour

first prime minister of Italy

Dates: mid-1800s; unification in 1870

Famous for: Realpolitik, negotiating the Crimean War, Second

Italian War of Independence, Garibaldi’s Expeditions

Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs Bismarck

and unified Germany under Prussian leadership

Dates: 1860s-1890; unification in 1871

Famous for: Realpolitik, “blood and iron,” creating the first welfare
state, Kulturkampf, high tariffs
Foreign Policy: wars against Denmark, Austria, and France
English naturalist and geologist Darwin

Dates: mid-1800s

Famous for: contributions to evolutionary theory, On the Origin of

Species, natural selection

Philosophical theory stating that positive knowledge is based on Positivism

natural phenomena; knowledge can only be found through sensory
experiences interpreted through reason and logic; based on
empiricism

Founded by: Auguste Comte; believed society operates based on

absolute laws (like gravity and the physical world)

Artistic movement characterized by the attempt to represent Realism

subject matter truthfully; depicted people of all social classes in
everyday situations

Rejection of Romanticism

Dates: 1850s-1900

Artists: Gustave Courbet, Jean-Francois Millet, Emile Zola

German physicist Einstein

Famous for: theory of relativity, photoelectric effect

Dates: early 1900s

Visited the US in 1933 when Hitler came to power; never went back
to Germany

Austrian neurologist and father of psychoanalysis Freud

Dates: late 1800s-early 1900s

Famous for: Oedipus Complex, dream analysis

Left Austria to flee the Nazis

Louis XIV’s last war; triggered when the Spanish Habsburg Charles War of Spanish Succession
II left his throne to Bourbon Philip, grandson of Louis XIV

Issue: too much power for the Bourbons and France

Dates: 1701-1714

Outcome: Treaty of Utrecht; ended French expansion and signaled

the rise of Great Britain. Philip is allowed to take the Spanish throne.
Artistic movement that emphasized the depiction of light, ordinary Impressionism
subjects, and the inclusion of movement

Dates: 1870s-1880s

Significance: violated the rules of academic painting; they were

rejected from the Salon de Paris. Emperor Napoleon III allowed
their works to be on display for the public. It became synonymous
with modern life

Artists: Monet, Manet, Renoir, and Cezanne

French art movement that emerged as a reaction to Impressionism; Post-Impressionism

emphasized abstract qualities and symbolic content

Dates: 1886-1914?

Artists: Cezanne, Seurat, Van Gogh, Gaugin

Influenced: Fauvism, Cubism

Artistic movement in which objects are analyzed, broken up, and Cubism
reassembled in abstract form; objects are examined from multiple
perspectives to show greater context

Dates: 1910s-1920s

Significance: most influential art movement of the 20th century

because it led to diversity in art

Artists: Picasso, Van Gogh

Organization founded after World War I intended to encourage League of Nations

intergovernmental cooperation in order to maintain world peace
through collective security, reducing armaments, and settling
disputes through arbitration

Dates: 1920-1946

Significance: ultimately ineffective; lacked ways to enforce its

resolutions, major powers reluctant to use sanctions, US did not
join.

Concert of Europe-->League of Nations-->United Nations

Treaty that ended World War I Versailles Treaty

Date: June 28, 1919

Terms: Germans accept war guilt, lose territory, reduce armaments,

and pay reparations
Significance: ultimately leads to World War II because the terms
were too harsh against Germany
Literal translation is “lightning war.” A type of warfare characterized Blitzkrieg
by armoured infantry and close air support; short, fast, powerful
attacks

Used by Germans, particularly in the interwar period and the

beginning of World War II

Associated with: Hitler, Luftwaffe, Panzer tanks

Coalition led by Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II; Axis Powers
opposed the Allied Powers of Great Britain, France, US, Soviet Union,
and China

Goal: Expansion

Other Powers: Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Thailand

Genocide in which Hitler and the Nazi party killed six million Jews Holocaust
and other groups of people who were believed to be racially inferior

Other groups: gypsies (Roma, the disabled, Communists,

homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses)

Dates: 1933-1945

Related: pogroms, Black Death, Inquisition, Martin Luther, Zionism

North Atlantic Treaty Organization; intergovernmental military NATO

alliance in which member states agree to mutual defense in
response to an external attack

Founded: 1949

Actions: intervened in the breakup of Yugoslavia, Afghanistan

invasion after 9/11

Related: Cold War, Korean War, Warsaw Pact

The imaginary boundary dividing east and west Europe during the Iron Curtain
Cold War

Dates: 1945-1991

Related: Soviet Union (Warsaw Pact and COMECON), United States

(NATO and Marshall Plan)

Economic organization under the leadership of the Soviet Union

which provided economic assistance to members of the Soviet bloc COMECON
countries and communist states throughout the world during the
Cold War

Dates: 1949-1991
Related: Warsaw Pact, Marshall Plan
Collective defense treaty between the Soviet Union and its satellite Warsaw Pact
states during the Cold War

Dates: 1955-1991

Member states: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary,

Poland, Romania, Soviet Union

Related: COMECON, NATO, Marshall Plan

Treaty signed by western European powers to establish a European Common Market

economic community wherein trade barriers were broken down
and economic cooperation was encouraged. Also called the EEC
(European Economic Community)

Date: 1958

Significance: major step toward European economic and political

unification

Related: ECSC (forerunner)

American president during World War I. Woodrow Wilson

Known for: principles of peace, the Fourteen Points, and his

promotion of the League of Nations (although the US never joined)

Important Dates: 1913-1921 (presidential term)

State of military and political tension between the United States Cold War
(and its NATO allies), and the Soviet Union (and its Eastern Bloc
allies)

Dates: 1947(?)-1991

Characterized by: nuclear arms buildup and threat of mutually

assured destruction, proxy wars (e.g. Korea and Vietnam), the Space
Race, propaganda, and espionage

Leaders: Truman/Stalin
Eisenhower, JFK, Nixon/Khrushchev,Brezhnev
Reagan/Gorbachev

Russian communist revolutionary who ushered in the Russian Lenin

Revolution

Important Dates: 1917 (Russian Revolution)

Party: Bolshevik

Associates: Trotsky, Stalin

Fun Fact: his body is still on display in Red Square in Moscow

Literally means “one of the majority.” Majority political party in Bolshevik
Russia that eventually became the Communist party

Important Dates: 1903 (founded), 1917 (overthrew the Russian

government)

Leaders: Lenin, Bogdanov

Conflicts: Russian Civil War 1917-1922--Bolsheviks (“Reds”) vs. the

Anti-Communists (“Whites”)

Government formed after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II Provisional Government

Important Dates: 1917

Duration: lasted for eight months until the Bolsheviks took over in
the October Revolution

Communist leader of the Soviet Union (and all-around bad guy) Stalin

Dates: 1920s-1953

Famous for: 5-year plans of industrialization and collectivization,

Gulags, propaganda, Great Purge, non-aggression pact with Hitler,
Cold War

Associates: Lenin, FDR, Churchill, Hitler, Truman

Leader of Italy and founder of fascism Mussolini

Goal: return Italy to the glory days of ancient Rome

Important Dates: 1922-1943

Nickname: Il Duce (“the leader”)

Leader of the Nazi party in Germany who initiated World War II by Hitler
invading Poland in 1939

Important Dates: 1933-1945

Famous for: Lebensraum, Jewish Holocaust, invasion of the Soviet

Union, suicide

Conflict fought between the Republicans and the Nationalists (a Spanish Civil War
fascist faction) led by Francisco Franco; widely regarded as a
training ground for World War II

Dates: 1936-1939

Artwork: Guernica (Picasso) anti-war piece depicting an attack on

the village of Guernica during the civil war
Worldwide economic depression brought on by the stock market Great Depression
crash of 1929

Dates: 1929-late 1930s

Effects: overthrow of many European governments in favor of

dictatorship or other authoritarian rule (e.g. Hitler in Germany)

American economic plan to aid Western Europe in the aftermath of Marshall Plan
World War II

Amount: $12 billion

Goal: rebuild, modernize, remove trade barriers, prevent the spread

of communism, and antagonize the Soviet Union

Leader of the Soviet Union during the Cold War Nikita Khrushchev

Dates: 1958-1964

Known for: de-Stalinization, space program, Kitchen Debates,

Cuban Missile Crisis,

Contemporaries: Richard Nixon, JFK, Fidel Castro

Last leader of the Soviet Union; inadvertently ended the Cold War Mikhail Gorbachev

Dates: 1985-1991

Known for: Policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika

(restructuring)

Contemporaries: Ronald Reagan

Gorbachev’s policy of restructuring the Soviet Union politically and Perestroika

economically

Goal: make socialism work more efficiently; plan was to reform the
Communist party, NOT to dissolve the Soviet Union

Effects: government lost control of the economic sector

Gorbachev’s policy of open discussion of political and social issues Glasnost

Goal: reduce government censorship

Effects: exposure of the economic problems of the Soviet Union,

democratization of the Soviet Union

Council meeting of the Catholic Church called to reconsider Church Vatican II

practices
Dates: 1962-1965
Significance: modernization of the Church--masses said in the
vernacular, encourage friendly relations with Protestants
Time period (coincidentally) nine months after World War II during Baby Boom
which time the birth rate was higher than ever before

Dates: 1946-1964

Causes: desire for normalcy after years of depression and war?

Desire to outnumber the communists during the Cold War? People
just wanted to get married and have babies?

Major turning point in European history!! 1815

1) Battle of Waterloo (end of Napoleon)

2) Congress of Vienna
a) Restore balance of power (contain France!)
b) Return to conservatism (after liberal French
Revolution--Age of Metternich)
c) Promote peace
3) Poland recreated
4) Corn Laws passed in Britain

Major turning point in European history!! 1914

1) Beginning of World War I

2) End of La Belle Epoque (“Beautiful Era”)
3) End of new imperialist expansion
4) End of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian
Empires
5) Russian Revolution (rise of communism) by 1917
6) Beginning of “the short century” (1914-fall of the Soviet
Union in 1989)