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Jens Gö tze and Matthias Gö bbels
Introduction to Applied Mineralogy

Jens Gö tze
TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Institut fü r Mineralogie, Freiberg, Germany
Matthias Gö bbels
Friedrich-Alexander-Universitä t, GeoZentrum Nordbayern, Lehrstuhl
fü r Mineralogie, Erlangen-Nü rnberg, Germany
ISBN 978-3-662-64866-7 e-ISBN 978-3-662-64867-4

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-64867-4
This book is a translation of the original German „Einfü hrung in die

Angewandte Mineralogie“ by Gö tze, Jens, published by Springer-Verlag
GmbH, DE in 2017. The translation was done with the help of an
artificial intelligence machine translation tool. A subsequent human
revision was done primarily in terms of content, so that the book will
read stylistically differently from a conventional translation. Springer
Nature works continuously to further the development of tools for the
production of books and on the related technologies to support the
authors.
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-

Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin,
Germany
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Introduction to Materials and Substance Systems
2.1 Single Crystals
2.1.1 Chemical Deviation From Stoichiometry
2.1.2 Structural Defects
2.2 Ceramics
2.3 Material Systems
2.3.1 Example System CaO-Al2O3-SiO2
2.4 Material Properties
2.4.1 Mechanical Properties
2.4.2 Thermal Properties
References
3 Inorganic Non-metallic Raw Materials
3.1 Natural Stone
3.1.1 Composition and Microstructure of Natural Stones
3.1.2 Physical-Technical Properties
3.1.3 Exploitation and Use of Natural Stone
3.2 Sand and Gravel
3.2.1 Formation and Types of Deposits
3.2.2 Mineral Composition and Chemical Properties
3.2.3 Granulometric Properties
3.2.4 Extraction and Processing
3.2.5 Use of Sands and Gravels in Industry
3.3 Clay Raw Materials
3.3.1 Structure and Classification of Clay Minerals
3.3.2 Refractory Clays
3.3.3 Coarse Ceramic Clays
3.3.4 Special Clays:Kaolin
3.3.5 Special Clays:Bentonite
3.4 Quartz and SiO2 Raw Materials
3.4.1 The SiO2 System
3.4.2 Real Structure of Quartz
3.4.3 Geological Formation of Quartz Raw Materials
3.4.4 Industrial Use
3.5 Feldspar
3.5.1 Structure of Feldspar Minerals
3.5.2 Feldspar Raw Materials
3.5.3 Geological Conditions of Formation and Feldspar
Deposits
3.6 Mica Minerals
3.7 Carbonates
3.7.1 Unburnt Carbonate Rocks
3.7.2 Burnt Lime, Sintered Dolomite and Sintered Magnesite
3.7.3 Limestone for Cement Production
3.7.4 Deposits of Carbonate Rocks
3.8 Sulphates
3.9 Zeolites
3.9.1 Structure
3.9.2 Properties and Applications
3.9.3 Natural Occurrence and Synthesis
3.10 Mineral Fillers
3.11 Gemstones
3.11.1 Classification and Formation of Precious Stones
3.11.2 Gemstone Properties and Methods of Determination
3.11.3 Gemstone Processing
3.12 Evaporites
3.13 Other Industrial Minerals
3.13.1 Fluorite
3.13.2 Barite
3.13.3 Graphite
3.13.4 Wollastonite
3.13.5 Zircon/Baddeleyite
3.13.6 Garnet Group
3.13.7 Olivine
3.13.8 Apatite
References
4 Ceramic Materials
4.1 Fine Ceramic Silicate Materials
4.1.1 Raw Materials for Silicate Fine Ceramics
4.1.2 Rheological Behaviour of Clay-Water Mixtures
4.1.3 Shaping of Ceramic Bodies
4.1.4 The Ceramic Firing Process
4.1.5 Fine Ceramic Silicate Materials
4.2 Coarse-Ceramic Silicate Materials
4.3 Glazes
References
5 Glass
5.1 The Glass State
5.2 Structure of Glasses
5.3 Glass Materials and Glass Production
5.4 Glass Properties
5.5 Glass Ceramics
References
6 Building Materials and Binders
6.1 Building Materials
6.2 Binders
6.2.1 Gypsum-Based Binders
6.2.2 Limestone-Based Binders
6.2.3 Hydration of Cement
References
7 Refractory Materials
7.1 Refractory Fabric Systems
7.1.1 The Crystalline Normal Pressure Modifications of SiO2
7.1.2 The Binary System SiO2-Al2O3
7.1.3 The Binary System CaO-MgO
7.2 Classification of Refractory Materials
7.2.1 Terminology
7.2.2 Fireclay Bricks
7.2.3 Silica Bricks
7.2.4 Basic Refractory Materials
7.3 Test Methods of Refractory Materials
7.3.1 Abrasion Resistance
7.3.2 Alkali Oxide Bursting
7.3.3 Refrectoriness Under Load
7.3.4 Thermal Expansion Under Load
7.3.5 Elasticity Modulus – E Modulus
7.3.6 Gas Permeability
7.3.7 Hot Bending Strength/Hot Compressive Strength
7.3.8 Porosity and Pore Size Distribution
7.3.9 Thermal Shock Resistance
7.3.10 Thermal Expansion
7.3.11 Thermal Conductivity
References
8 Mineral Materials in Electrical Engineering/Electronics
8.1 Dieletrics and Ferroelectrics
8.2 Piezoelectric Materials
8.3 Semiconductors
8.4 Insulators
References
9 Natural and Synthetic Hard Materials
9.1 Metallic Hard Materials
9.1.1 Structure and Properties
9.1.2 Manufacture
9.2 Non-metallic Hard Materials
9.2.1 Synthetic Non-metallic Hard Materials
9.2.2 Natural Non-metallic Hard Materials
References
10 Crystal Growing
10.1 The Verneuil Method
10.2 The Czochralski Method
10.3 The Zone Melting Process
10.4 The Hydrothermal Process
References
11 Mineralogical Aspects in Power Engineering
11.1 Mineralogical Aspects of Coal Energy Production
11.2 Nuclear Energy
11.3 Alternative Energies
References
12 Environmental Mineralogy
12.1 Characterisationof Residues and Waste Disposal
12.2 Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Atmosphere
12.2.1 Sources of Aerosols (Emission)
12.2.2 Transformation Processes and Residence Time of
Aerosols in the Atmosphere
12.2.3 Discharge of Dust from the Air (Immission)
12.2.4 Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Aerosols
12.2.5 Environmental Problems of Aerosols and Aspects of
Dust Measurement
12.3 Asbestos
12.4 Natural Stone Weathering and Restoration of Structural
Damage
12.4.1 Weathering and Stone Decay
12.4.2 Damage Analysis
12.4.3 Procedures for the Repair of Structural Damage
References
13 Biomineralogy:Biomaterials
13.1 Principles of Biomineralization
13.2 Natural Biomineral Systems
13.2.1 Bacterial Formation of Fe/Mn Minerals
13.2.2 Carbonate Biominerals
13.2.3 Phosphates as Biominerals
13.2.4 SiO2 Formation by Organisms
13.3 Minerals in the Human Body
13.4 Technical Biomaterials
References
14 From Ore to Steel
14.1 From Ore to Pig Iron
14.1.1 Iron Ores and Precursor Products
14.1.2 The Blast Furnace Process
14.2 The Iron-Carbon System
14.3 From Pig Iron to Steel
14.4 Refractory Materials
Reference
Index
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of
Springer Nature 2023
J. Gö tze, M. Gö bbels, Introduction to Applied Mineralogy
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-64867-4_1
1. Introduction
Jens Gö tze1 and Matthias Gö bbels2
(1) TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Institut fü r Mineralogie, Freiberg,
Germany
(2) Friedrich-Alexander-Universitä t, GeoZentrum Nordbayern,
Lehrstuhl fü r Mineralogie, Erlangen-Nü rnberg, Germany
Mineralogy deals with the predominantly crystalline building blocks of

the geological matter surrounding us, the minerals. Since this geological
matter served as a natural environment for humans from the beginning
of their existence as a habitat and source of raw materials, the study of
minerals as raw materials, building materials, materials and jewelry
has always been a vital necessity. Mineralogy from this point of view is
one of the oldest sciences. The increasing production and use of
technical materials led to the fact that the concept of minerals today has
also been extended to synthetic products.
Modern mineralogy is defined as the material-related geoscience. It
investigates the chemical, physical and biogenetic properties of matter
and their role in the processes of the Earth system. In addition, its
methods and concepts are equally aimed at the study of natural and
synthetic substances and their application.
Modern economics and research led to the development of a sub-
discipline within mineralogy, applied or technical mineralogy. This sub-
discipline is primarily concerned with practical aspects, e.g. with
problems of mineral raw materials or the study of minerals that play a
decisive role in technical processes, such as in ashes, slags, ceramic
materials or high-performance materials. Thus, applied mineralogy
mainly comprises the application of typical mineralogical methods to
technical processes and products for analytical process control and
quality assurance, product development, manufacturing and
application technology, as well as waste management and disposal.
Applied mineralogy is located at the intersection of natural sciences
and engineering sciences/technology and deals with the entire line
from raw material – extraction/preparation – processing – material –
disposal. Inevitably, this results in points of contact with a number of
neighbouring disciplines such as geology, physics, chemistry, biology,
medicine or the materials and engineering sciences, and close
cooperation with colleagues from other disciplines is imperative (Fig.
1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Aspects of modern mineralogy/applied mineralogy
In professional practice, geoscientific knowledge is increasingly

taking a back seat to materials science knowledge for mineralogists
today, and an industrial occupation is the normal career path for a
mineralogist. The main areas of employment are the extraction and
processing of raw materials, the ceramics industry, the glass industry,
the building materials industry, the metallurgical industry, the chemical
industry, electrical engineering/electronics, energy technology and
environmental and waste management.
In the present textbook, important aspects of applied mineralogy
are compiled and individual subfields are discussed in separate
chapters. Due to the limited scope, the basics of mineralogy, crystal
chemistry, crystallography and phase theory, solid state physics and
chemistry are assumed and only referred to. This textbook is primarily
aimed at Bachelor’s and Master’s students of geosciences, but is also
suitable for related disciplines.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-64867-4_2
2. Introduction to Materials and

Substance Systems
Germany
In applied mineralogy, the relationships between chemical composition,

crystal structure and physical properties play an essential role. For
practical reasons, an ambivalence is found when considering the
individual aspects: If materials are considered from the point of view of
crystallography and symmetry, crystal chemistry recedes into the
background. The lattice, the unit cell and thus the symmetry elements
and operations are the focus of the considerations.
If aspects of crystal chemistry are relevant, one considers
coordination polyhedra and chemical variability. Here the strictly
defined symmetry recedes into the background, the described
polyhedra such as tetrahedra or octahedra are not necessarily to be
seen in the strict geometrical sense, distortions from ideality are
accepted.
Clear formulations help to avoid misunderstandings. This is
essential, especially when different disciplines are in dialogue.
However, it is difficult to use too many specialist terms, as the colleague
with a different specialist background often does not know them. In
petrology, for example, terms such as “granoblastic microstructure with
grain interlocking” are commonly used when describing
microstructures. In materials science, however, a description as
“coarsely crystalline dense microstructure” would be more readily
understood. The same applies vice versa: terms such as “dry or wet
sintering” are common in the ceramic field. The geoscientist, however,
would rather speak of “sintering without or with the presence of a
melt”. The principle of “know your partner and use his language” is
both helpful and wise.
Finally, it must be distinguished whether single crystals or ceramics
are considered. The aspects of synthesis are dealt with in detail in Chap.
10 “Crystal Growth”.
2.1 Single Crystals

In the case of single crystals, the defined chemical composition and
structural perfection are the key characteristics for the material.
The question of whether chemical deviation from ideality and
structural perfection are desired or should be avoided is clearly decided
by the application aspect. However, it is crucial to find reproducible
conditions for the synthesis of the chosen product with suitable
properties.
2.1.1 Chemical Deviation From Stoichiometry

In principle, any material allows the incorporation of contaminating
components. The decisive question is only the quantity. There are
different understandings of the terminology for chemical variability in
the various disciplines of natural and material sciences. The following
classifications have proven useful:
Doping: incorporation of foreign ions up to several percent
Phase width: incorporation of foreign ions up to 10%
Solid solution: incorporation of foreign ions up to several tens of
percent
Complete solid solution series: no limit to miscibility
Although this classification is not common in all disciplines, it gives a
clearer idea of the chemical variations present. When describing a
defined composition, it is still useful to speak of the “member of the
phase width or solid solution series”. Stoichiometry gives integer ratios
of components in chemical reaction equations as the result of the
formation reaction. On this basis, the stoichiometric composition of a
compound is then considered to be the ideal integer formula.
Deviations from the integer describe the chemical variation, the “non-
stoichiometry”. In this respect it is not meaningful to speak of
stoichiometric mixtures, even if they satisfy integer ratios of the
components. The statement “mixture of the stoichiometric composition
of phase XY” is clearer and more exact.
The incorporation of ions that deviate from the stoichiometry or
that add a new component to the compound can in principle be done in
two ways:
diadoch replacement on lattice site or
incorporation on interstitial sites.
In any case, electrochemical neutrality must be ensured and, if
necessary, a charge balance must take place. Ideally, ions with the same
charge and comparable ion radius (in relation to the coordination
number) replace each other on the same lattice site. Frequently, a
necessary charge balance is realized by vacancies, often also by means
of vacancies in the anion lattice. However, it should be noted that the
anion lattice represents the “framework” of the crystal structure, so to
speak, and defects there are to be regarded as the exception rather than
the rule. A difference of about +/−10% of the ion sizes of substituted
and substituting ions shows the variation possibilities. The
incorporation of foreign ions on interstitial sites usually requires a
crystal structure that allows this spatially and thermodynamically.
Some of these possibilities are described by the point defects in binary
ion crystals, keywords are e.g. Frenkel and Schottky defects (Fig. 2.1).
Fig. 2.1 Schematic representation of point defects in binary ionic crystals. (a)
Frenkel defect: vacancies in the cation lattice and cations on interstitial sites; (b)
Anti-Frenkel defect: vacancies in the anion lattice and anions on interstitial sites; (c)
Schottky defect: vacancies in the cation and anion lattice; (d) Anti-Schottky defect:
cations and anions on interstitial sites; (e) Anti-layer defect: cations replace anions
or vice versa, these defects change the stoichiometry; (f) Anti-structure defect: place
exchange between cations and anions. (Modified after Kleber et al. 1998)
However, there are phase widths that cannot be described
unambiguously with the usual models of substitution, such as in the
case of magnetite in equilibrium with calcium ferrites in systems of
interest in the iron and steel industry. Here, magnetite incorporates
several mass percent of Ca2+ under suitable redox conditions and
temperatures at normal pressure. However, the incorporation of such a
large cation into the spinel structure represents a phenomenon that is
difficult to explain. There are probably massive distortions in the
crystal structure that make this possible.
Chemical variation certainly has a significant effect on distortions in
the crystal structure. Sometimes this changes with variation in
chemical composition.
2.1.2 Structural Defects

If one considers the aspect of structural defects, the crystal chemistry
recedes into the background. A crystal can be described as a lattice
composed of unit cells. A wide variety of defects can occur in the form
of dislocations.
If one takes the crystal growth model of Kossel and Stranski as an
approximate basis for understanding the growth, one finds different
attachment possibilities for the individual building blocks on the so-
called Kossel crystal (Fig. 2.2).
Fig. 2.2 Attachment possibilities of lattice blocks to a cube surface; the relative
energy gain is qualitatively expressed as decreasing from position 1 to 6. (Modified
after Kleber et al. 1998)
The energy gain of the system during the transition to the stable
state of a crystalline solid with suitable parameters is decisive for the
accumulation. Position 1 in Fig. 2.2 represents the highest energy gain
and position 6 the lowest. This model implies a cyclic growth in which
the formation of a surface nucleus (position 3) is kinetically inhibited,
but the total surface grows out increasingly faster once this exists.
According to this model of the building blocks that make up a
crystal, a distinction is made between different crystal faces (facets) of
the crystals (Fig. 2.3):
Fig. 2.3 Representation of different types of crystal faces. (a) Lattice element; (b)
Crystal face; (c) F face; (d) S face; (e) K face
F-surfaces: flat faces
S-faces: stepped faces with uniform step height (stepped faces)
K-faces: unevenly stepped faces (kinked faces)
The notion of a three-dimensional lattice can be used to describe
various lattice construction errors.
In the case of a step dislocation, an additional mesh plane is
inserted in the grid and distorts or widens the grid there along the
dislocation line (Fig. 2.4).
Fig. 2.4 Step dislocation in a cubic primitive lattice. (Modified after Kleber et al.
1998)
In the case of a screw dislocation, the lattice distortion winds three-
dimensionally around a central axis in the respective direction of this
dislocation (Fig. 2.5). The lattice distortion is found here along the
screw axis.
Fig. 2.5 Screw dislocation in a cubic primitive lattice. (Modified after Kleber et al.
1998)
According to the crystal growth model of the lattice building blocks,
the problem of the formation of a surface nucleus would thus be
circumvented. However, theories that generally attribute crystal growth
to screw dislocations could not be confirmed in real crystals.
Another structural defect are small angle grain boundaries. In these
cases, two lattices of the identical material are transferred into each
other by inserting additional lattice planes tilted against each other
(Fig. 2.6).
Fig. 2.6 Schematic representation of small angle grain boundaries. (Modified after
Kleber et al. 1998)
Lattice distortions form in all structural defects. These influence the
physical properties. In the case of phase transformations, such local
lattice distortions can initiate or hinder the transformation, depending
on the material. Furthermore, in the region of these lattice distortions,
foreign ions can be preferentially incorporated locally, which, due to
this local agglomeration, cause chemical heterogeneities and
significantly influence the overall property of the crystal.
The physical properties of materials are closely related to
symmetry. Thus, isotropic properties are found only in cubic materials,
such as the indicatrix as a three-dimensional representation of the
refractive index. In terms of crystal growth, isotropy does not exist
because spherical crystals do not exist. If materials show, for example, a
kidney-shaped, rounded formation, this is due to small, radially
intergrown needles whose surface gives the kidney-shaped, rounded
impression. These are parallel intergrowths with small angle
displacements, not single crystalline individuals. Glass is an amorphous
solid, which can be regarded as a solidified melt. However, glass is also
optically isotropic, although there is no symmetry. Isotropy, however,
basically means nothing more than the equality of the property in all
spatial directions. This also applies to glass – the same statistical
disorder in all directions.
If one performs a spherical growth experiment, the absence of
isotropic growth becomes clear (Fig. 2.7).
Fig. 2.7 Electrolytic growth of a spherical crystal of silver from a nitric acid silver
nitrate solution in three successive stages of growth. (Modified after Kleber et al.
1998)
If a single crystal, e.g. silver, is ground into a sphere and this is
allowed to grow electrolytically as a seed crystal under suitable
conditions, many different growth facets will form. This applies
analogously to growth from aqueous solution and melts. According to
the material and thus the thermodynamics of this compound, certain
facets will increase dominantly over time, while others will disappear.
At the stage of the beginning of the sphere growth experiment, all
growth directions are equal. The direction of the facet that forms
dominantly will grow more slowly compared to other directions that
become edges or corners. The corner direction, on the other hand,
grows fastest due to its greater distance from the original state. This is
specific to the material. For example, rock salt crystals from aqueous
solution form cubes, while alum crystals form octahedra. The same
applies to growth in melts, which are actually also solutions. If,
however, substances are present in the solution which, due to their
attachment to the growing crystals, impede the growth rate in certain
directions without being incorporated themselves, the crystal
morphology is changed by them. Urea in the solution, for example,
changes the crystal form of alum from an octahedron to a cube.
Changes in boundary conditions, such as pressure or temperature,
can also affect crystal morphology. In diamonds, both natural and
synthetic, the temperature (and pressure) during formation influences
the morphology. At about 1300 °C (and increased pressure) cubes are
more likely to be found, and at about 1600 °C octahedra (Fig. 2.8).
Fig. 2.8 Dependence of diamond morphology on pressure and temperature during

formation
2.2 Ceramics
Ceramic materials, along with polymers and metals, represent the third
major group in the system of materials as inorganic and non-metallic
materials.
The so-called component notation is often used to simplify chemical
formulas. The following abbreviations are common:
A – Al2O3
C – CaO
F – Fe2O3
f – FeO
K – K2O
M – MgO
N – Na2O
S – SiO2
– SO3
etc.
Such would be: anorthite CaAl2Si2O8: CAS2, gehlenite Ca2Al2SiO7: C2AS,
etc.
A ceramic is determined by the chemistry and the properties of the
grains that build it up. In addition, the microstructure and the existing
pore space must also be included in the considerations. The
microstructure describes the repeating characteristics of a solid (Fig.
2.9).
Fig. 2.9 Parameters for quantitative microstructure description
Ceramics can be regarded as rocks of technical origin. Consequently,

formation conditions, thermal and chemical overprinting and corrosion
can also be identified and described from the microstructure.
Ceramics are either single-phase or multi-phase plus a possible
pore space. The individual grains are not necessarily monocrystalline
and in the case of multiphase ceramics not necessarily single-phase. A
grinding process of ceramics leads to single-phase monocrystalline
grains only in exceptional cases.
The aspects of single crystals described above also apply here in
relation to the small crystallites. In addition, one must also take into
account the formation of the grain structure by “intergrowth” of the
grains with each other. At the grain boundaries there are sometimes
large lattice distortions due to clearly different orientations of the often
differently phased microstructural constituents. Therefore, impurities
are frequently found at the grain boundaries. If the microstructure
forms in the presence of a melt, the grain boundaries and spandrels are
the last areas to crystallize. In the case of melting, the first melt is also
formed in the spandrels and then at the grain boundaries. The glassy
(non-crystalline) fraction in ceramics can vary over wide ranges, from
<1% in some oxide ceramics to >60% in porcelain, for example.
In principle, microstructures can be classified on the basis of the
different phases. As soon as one speaks of a microstructure,
polycrystallinity is present. Furthermore, it must be decided whether a
microstructure is single-phase or multi-phase. In this case, porosity is
not to be referred to as a phase, but it must be described. Likewise, it
must be noted whether segregation occurs in individual phases in the
individual crystallites. Finally, it must be noted whether homogeneous
or inhomogeneous texturing is present.
Porosity can be divided into open and closed porosity (Fig. 2.10). In
addition, one also speaks of pores that can be flowed through and pores
that cannot be flowed through. Porosity is a fundamental property of
ceramics, as it directly and indirectly influences a number of physical
properties.
Fig. 2.10 Schematic representation of porosity: 1 open, flow-through pores; 2 open,
non-flow-through pores (so-called blind pores); 3 closed pores
2.3 Material Systems

In petrology, we move in the description of rocks and mineral
formations or dissolution phenomena in complex polynary systems in
pressure and temperature space. If we consider only granite with the
simple main minerals feldspar, quartz and mica, we find at least six
oxide components without the accessory and chemical features:
Mineral Chemical formula Oxide components

Quartz SiO2 SiO2
Feldspar (K,Na)[AlSi3O8] and Ca[Al2Si2O8], K 2O, Na2O, CaO, Al2O3,
respectively. SiO2
Mica e.g. KAl2[(OH)2/(AlSi3O10)] K 2O, Al2O3, H 2O, SiO2
Therefore, mineral formations or decompositions in petrogenetic
networks are considered as defined compositions in pressure and
temperature space.
In the field of applied mineralogy, the pressure aspect plays a
subordinate role. Here polynary systems are temperature-dependent
and with consideration of redox reactions of importance. To simplify
complex phase relationships, components are often combined or
neglected altogether.
The knowledge and practical application of phase theory to relevant
systems is a unique selling point of the mineralogist.
The following basic knowledge and its determination from the
phase diagram are assumed in the following:
Congruent melting point: At the transition from the crystalline to the
molten state, the solid changes into a melt of identical composition.
In the ternary system, the composition of the phase lies in its
primary precipitation field.
Incongruent melting point: During the transition from the crystalline
to the molten state, the solid passes into a melt and a solid phase,
both of which have a different composition to each other and to the
original phase. In the ternary system, the composition of the phase is
not in its primary precipitation field.
Solidus (-line): The first melt forms at the solidus during the
transition to higher temperatures. Conversely, the last residual melt
solidifies during the transition to lower temperatures. The
temperature range below the solidus is called the sub-solidus range.
In the sub-solidus there exist 3-phase fields separated by 2-phase
lines. If one (or both) of the coexisting phases shows a phase width,
these 2-phase lines can be formed as 2-phase fans.
Liquidus (-line): During the transition to higher temperatures, the
last solid phase melts at the liquidus line. Conversely, the first crystal
forms during the transition to lower temperatures. The temperature
range above the liquidus line is called the hyper-liquidus range.
Between the solidus line and the liquidus line lies the liquidus region.
Eutectic: In the eutectic, the solid phases of the sub-solidus relations
and the melt of eutectic composition are in equilibrium.
Mathematically, the eutectic represents the absolute minimum of the
liquidus lines.
In ternary systems, the temperatures of all three field boundaries fall
into the eutectic.
Peritectic: The peritectic is an invariance point such as the eutectic.
Here the incongruent melting solid phase is present alongside the
phases in equilibrium into which it decays. Mathematically, the
peritectic represents a relative minimum of the liquidus lines.
In ternary systems, the temperature of one or two field boundaries
falls into the peritectic and of two or one field boundaries falls out of
the peritectic further into an eutectic.
Tie line: Line in the phase diagram of a mixture connecting state
points in phase equilibrium. Each tie line in the subsolidus region
must have a corresponding field boundary in the liquidus region.
The temperature on the field boundary falls in the direction away
from its associated tie line. If the tie line and the field boundary
intersect, this intersection represents a saddle point from which the
temperatures fall.
Although single-component systems (e.g. SiO2) and two-component
systems (binary systems, e.g. Al2O3-SiO2) can be significant in technical
systems, phase relationships are predominantly represented in three-
component systems (ternary systems). In applied mineralogy, ternary
systems provide important information on melt formations,
crystallization paths, etc (Bergeron and Risbud 1984). The designation
of a ternary phase diagram begins with the lower left component and
moves counterclockwise.
2.3.1 Example System CaO-Al2O3-SiO2

In the following, the ternary system CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 will be
fundamentally considered as the most important system for the
ceramic field and for understanding the use of refractory materials and
of cements or related construction chemical products (Fig. 2.11).
Fig. 2.11 The CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 ternary system. (Figure from American Ceramic
Society, Phase Diagrams for Ceramists, Vol. I, Fig. 630, reprinted with permission
from the American Ceramic Society (1964))
In the ternary system, both the sub-solidus phase relations and the
liquidus relations are represented. Therefore, the system is somewhat
confusing. It has long been accepted practice to colour-code and edit
the contents and statements of phase diagrams, although in the twenty-
first century this may be considered outdated by non-practitioners. In
Fig. 2.12 the areas for industrially significant materials in the phase
diagram are colour-coded.
Fig. 2.12 The CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 ternary system with the location of technically
important products. (Modified from American Ceramic Society, Phase Diagrams for
Ceramists, Vol. I, Fig. 630, reprinted with permission of the American Ceramic
Society)
This system is also relevant for the consideration of melting events
and phase formation in porcelain and ceramics. An important raw
material here is clay, e.g. kaolinite Al2[(OH)4/Si2O5]. As it is subjected to
a thermal process usually above 800 °C in industrial processing, the
H2O component evaporates. It is converted to the ternary system CaO-
Al2O3-SiO2.
The course of a consideration of a ternary system is as follows:
Step one:
– Which atmospheric or redox conditions are the basis? Either this is
noted in the description or, if not stated, air is assumed.
– Are the figures in mole% or mass%? Industry almost always thinks
in terms of mass percentages, research tends to think in terms of
mole percentages. If this is not specified, a simple test applies: take
a suitable compound and check whether its quantity proportions
of the components correspond to a mass or mole fraction.
Step two:
– Marking of the occurring phases with melting points and melting
behaviour and the tie line relations (Fig. 2.13).
Step three:
– Determination of the solidus temperatures of the 3-phase fields
(Fig. 2.14). For this purpose, the temperature is read at the
invariant point, which is the common corner of the primary
precipitation fields of the phases coexisting in the 3-phase field
under consideration. This invariant point does not necessarily
have to lie in the 3-phase field of the sub-solidus.
With this plot it becomes very clear how the temperature for the
occurrence of the first melt drops dramatically into the ternary system
starting from the pure components or the binary phase relations.
Fig. 2.13 The ternary system CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 reduced to the occurring phases with
melting points, melting behavior and tie line relations in the sub-solidus. i
incongruent melting point
Fig. 2.14 The ternary system CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 reduced to the occurring phases with
melting points, melting behaviour, conode relations in the sub-solidus and
registration of the solidus temperatures of the 3-phase fields. i: incongruent melting
point
The representation in the ternary system is also very helpful for the
prediction of crystallization processes. Based on the initial composition
of the melt, the crystallization sequence and the coexistence of phases
can be determined via the stability ranges of the individual phases.
Notes
Often the processes upon temperature increase are interesting, e.g.
when clarifying the question at which temperature which melt of which
composition occurs. To do this, first determine the point of the
composition to be considered from the components. Finally, one
determines the crystallization process with decreasing temperature.
This is now reversed and the course of crystallization is observed with
increasing temperature. The attempt to directly derive the melting
behaviour with increasing temperature often fails, as this method
opens up too many possibilities.
Phase diagrams are important tools for learning to understand

industrial processes. However, some things have to be considered when
transferring them to practice:
All phase diagrams are subject to errors, no matter how carefully
they are studied: +/−20 °C and +/−3% still represent excellent
quality.
Raw materials used in industry – especially in the construction
chemicals and stone and earth industries – are not products of the
highest chemical purity. Impurities of +/−3% or higher contents of
Fe, K, Na, etc. are common and are reflected in temperature
reductions of up to 50 °C. A transfer of phase diagrams to practice
can therefore only give good indications.
Further, in practice, the components are so diverse that one often has
to make a chemically meaningful reduction by combining
components, e.g. Na2O and K2O or Al2O3 and Fe2O3, etc.
2.4 Material Properties

At the beginning of the chapter it was already pointed out that for
single crystals and ceramic materials there is a fundamental
relationship between chemical composition, crystal structure and
physical properties. In polycrystalline ceramic materials, the
microstructure plays a dominant role, since a cumulative effect of the
properties of the individual components occurs here. Without going
into detail, some important properties of inorganic non-metallic
materials will be discussed below.
2.4.1 Mechanical Properties

Various strength parameters are decisive for the industrial use of
ceramic materials. Depending on the stress requirements, these are
primarily compressive, flexural and tensile strength (Fig. 2.15). In
general, ceramic materials exhibit a high compressive strength, but
show a lower flexural strength (brittle behaviour) and, depending on
porosity and cracks, usually a very low tensile strength.
Fig. 2.15 Schematic representation of various strength parameters
The compressive strength can reach similar and even higher values
compared to natural rocks (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 Compressive strength of different materials
Material Compressive strength in MPa

Coarse ceramics (bricks) 10–25
Refractory ceramics 30–100
Fine ceramics (porcelain) 400–600
Oxide ceramics 1000–3000
Granite 210–250
Basalt 160–190
Granulite 180–350
Marble 110–150
Sandstone (12% porosity) 10–40
Figure 2.16 shows some of the factors that influence the strength
properties of ceramic materials. The diagram illustrates the complexity
of the influencing factors.
Fig. 2.16 Influence of various factors on the strength of ceramic materials
2.4.2 Thermal Properties

Important thermal material properties are, for example, the thermal
load capacity, the thermal conductivity, the coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE) or the thermal shock resistance (TSR). They represent
important quality parameters, especially for the practical use of
materials at elevated and/or changing temperatures.
The melting temperature of the components is, of course, an
important reference point for the thermal load capacity. In two- and
multi-component systems, however, more complex conditions are
sometimes encountered due to the occurrence of eutectics. In
particular, the reduction of the melting temperatures due to the effect
of fluxes (e.g. alkalis) must be taken into account.
The thermal conductivity of materials is extremely determined by
the prevailing microstructure, especially the porosity. A low thermal
conductivity and thus good thermal insulation can be achieved by
increasing the porosity. In building materials, this is implemented in
aerated concrete, for example.
The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of polycrystalline
multiphase materials is influenced by a number of factors and thus
shows very complex dependencies. On the one hand, there is a
superposition of the CTE of the different phases, on the other hand, the
microstructure again plays an important role, since, for example, the
orientation of the individual phases or the porosity have an influence
on the CTE (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2 Directional coefficients of thermal expansion of various materials
(10−6 m K −1)
Material α ┴ c axis α ‫ ׀׀‬c-axis
SiO2 (quartz) 140 90

Zr[SiO4] (zircon) 37 62
Na[AlSi3O8] (albite) 40 130
3 Al2O3–2 SiO2 (mullite) 45 57
Al2O3 (corundum) 48 56
BN (hex.) 7 75
CaCO3 (Calcite) −60 250
The conditions for thermal shock resistance (TSR) are similarly

complex. Here, material-specific (e.g. different thermal conductivity and
CTE of the phases) and structure-specific factors (e.g. ratio of
crystalline to vitreous phase, microcracks, grain structure, porosity)
overlap, so that a calculation is not possible. For this reason,
standardized test procedures are used to estimate the CTE.
References
American Ceramic Society (1964) Phase diagrams for ceramists. Diverse Bände,
ständig erweitert, The American Ceramic Society, Westerville
Bergeron CG, Risbud H (1984) Introduction to phase equilibria in ceramics. The

American Ceramic Society, Westerville
Kleber W, Bautsch HJ, Bohm J (1998) Einfü hrung in die Kristallographie, 18. Aufl.
Verlag Technik, Berlin
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-64867-4_3
3. Inorganic Non-metallic Raw

Materials
Germany
Mineral raw materials are components of the earth formed by

geological processes, sufficiently explored and usable due to their
utility properties. They are the blood of the economy and represent the
link between geosciences and engineering/technology. Modern
industry cannot exist without a solid base of raw materials (Lefond
1983; Kužvart 1984). In general, mineral raw materials can be divided
into three main groups based on their properties and fields of
application: Energy raw materials (e.g. coal, oil/natural gas), elemental
raw materials (e.g. ores) and property raw materials (e.g. natural
stones, industrial minerals) (Fig. 3.1).
Fig. 3.1 Classification scheme of mineral raw materials
Inorganic non-metallic property raw materials, also often referred
to as stones, earths and industrial minerals, play a special role here.
Developments in recent decades show that the demand for non-
metallic raw materials is higher and growing faster than the demand
for metallic raw materials (Fig. 3.2).
Fig. 3.2 Order of quantities of mineral raw materials in world consumption (yellow
stones/earths/industrial minerals, orange energy raw materials, red metals). (Data
source: USGS 2012)
If one follows the trends in the international feedstock industry, a
development with a similar trend as the population development is
visible. This development is mainly caused by the industrialization of
former developing and newly industrializing countries. While the per
capita raw material consumption in developing countries is only about
2100 kg a−1, modern industrialized countries consume on average
about 12,600 kg raw materials per year.
Various steps are being taken to secure the supply of raw materials
in the future. These activities include:
Intensification of the search for and exploration of raw material
deposits in areas that are geologically well explored (analogy search),
Geological search on poorly explored territories (undeveloped areas,
marine areas),
Improving territorial development with the aim of using previously
unexploited raw materials,
Improvement of extraction, processing and refining technologies,
Complex use of raw materials (accompanying raw materials),
Substitution possibilities of raw materials (and materials) as well as
Use of secondary raw materials, recycling.
For an effective management of the raw material base and an optimal
use of mineral raw materials, above all the knowledge of the properties
of these natural materials is necessary (Lorenz and Gwosdz 1997, 1998,
1999, 2003). This is the only way to achieve an optimal process
sequence from raw material exploration to mining, processing and use.
In particular, the growing demands of raw material users for specific
raw material properties require a fundamental knowledge of the
mineralogical properties of inorganic non-metallic raw materials. In the
following, this issue will be discussed with reference to some selected
mineral raw materials. An overview of important stones, earths and
industrial minerals is given and the relationships between mineral
properties and technical use are discussed using these examples.
3.1 Natural Stone

Natural stones are among the most important mineral raw materials,
with an annual world consumption of several billion tonnes. In terms of
the quantity used, approx. 5–10% are currently used as natural stones
in a fixed form and dimension (so-called ashlars) and 90–95% as
crushed natural stones (e.g. for road construction, track construction,
aggregate for the construction industry, etc.). Due to the extraction
situation and utilisation properties, surficial deposits of carbonate and
silicate rocks are preferred.
The usable rocks with mono- and polymineral variable grain
structure are representatives of the property raw materials, i.e. the
primary physico-chemical and technical properties are decisive for the
technical use (Fig. 3.3).
Fig. 3.3 Relationship between properties and utility value of natural stone
An important factor for the characterization of natural stones is

mineralogical-geochemical analysis. Whereas in the past only a few
relevant technical properties such as compressive strength and water
absorption capacity were investigated, today a wide range of
geoscientific investigation methods are used. This is due to the close
dependence of the utility value on material composition and
microstructure. The decisive factor for the selection of the analytics
used is in particular the question of whether the material is fresh
natural stone (application properties for industrial use) or already
installed material (weathering influences, structural damage).
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From all that has been said, therefore, this becomes manifest, that
the Gods, employing many instruments as media, send indications to
men; and that they also use the ministrant aid of dæmons and souls,
and the whole of nature, and of every thing in the world which is
willingly obedient to them, they being the primordial leaders of all
these, and transmitting the motion which descends from them
wherever they please. Hence, they being separate from all things, and
liberated from all habitude and coarrangement with things in
generation, lead all that generation and nature contains, according to
their own proper will. This explanation, therefore, of divination
accords with the doctrine of the fabricative energy and providence of
the Gods. For it does not draw down the intellect of more excellent
natures to sublunary concerns and to us, but this intellect being
established in itself, converts to itself signs and the whole of
divination, and discovers that these proceed from it.
CHAP. XVII.
In the next place you inquire “concerning the mode of divination,

what it is, and what the quality is by which it is distinguished,”
which we have already explained, both generally and particularly.
But you, in the first place, represent diviners as asserting, “that all of
them obtain a foreknowledge of future events through Gods or
dæmons, and that it is not possible for any others to know that
which is future, than those who are the lords of futurity.”
Afterwards you doubt, “whether divinity is so far subservient to
men, as not to be averse to some becoming diviners from meal.” You
do not, however, properly apprehend the abundance of the power of
the Gods, their transcendent goodness, and the cause which
comprehends all things, when you denominate their providential
care and defence of us subserviency. And, besides this, you are
ignorant of the mode of divine energy, that it is not drawn down and
converted to us, but that it has a separate precedency, and gives
itself, indeed, to its participants, yet neither departs from itself, nor
becomes diminished, nor is ministrant to those that receive it; but,
on the contrary, uses all things as subservient to itself. The present
doubt also appears to me to be erroneous in another respect, for
supposing the works of the Gods to be like those of men, it inquires
how they are effected. For because we are converted to our works,
and sometimes adhere to the passions of the things which we
providentially attend to, on this account you badly conjecture that
the power of the Gods is subservient to the natures which are
governed by them. But this power is never drawn down to its
participants either in the production of the worlds, or in the
providential inspection of the realms of generation, or in predicting
concerning it. For it imparts to all things good, and renders all things
similar to itself. It likewise benefits the subjects of its government
most abundantly, and without envy, and by how much the more it
abides in itself, by so much the more it is filled with its own proper
perfection. And it does not itself, indeed, become any thing belonging
to its participants, but it causes the things which receive it to partake
of its peculiarities, and preserves them in an all perfect manner. It
also abides at the same time perfectly in itself, and comprehends
them at once in itself, but is neither vanquished nor comprehended
by any one of them. In vain, therefore, are men disturbed by a
suspicion of this kind. For divinity is not divided together with the
above mentioned modes of divination, but produces all of them
impartibly. Nor does he effect different things at a different time, in a
distributed manner, but produces all of them according to one
energy, collectively and at once. Nor is he detained about signs, being
comprehended in, or divided about, them; but contains them in
himself, and in one order, and comprehends them in unity, and
produces them from himself, according to one invariable will.
If, also, the power of the Gods proceeds in premanifestation as far
as to things inanimate, such as pebble stones, rods,[76] pieces of
wood, stones, corn, or wheat, this very thing is most admirable in the
presignification of divine prophesy; because it imparts soul to things
inanimate, motion to things immoveable, and makes all things to be
clear and known, to partake of reason, and to be defined by the
measures of intellection, though possessing no portion of reason
from themselves. Another divine miracle also divinity appears to me
to exhibit through signs in these things. For, as he sometimes makes
some stupid man to speak wisely, through which it becomes manifest
to every one, that this is not a certain human but a divine work; thus,
also, he reveals through things which are deprived of knowledge,
conceptions which precede all knowledge. And, at the same time, he
declares to men that the signs which are exhibited are worthy of
belief, and that they are superior to nature, from which he is exempt.
Thus he makes things to be known which are naturally unknown,
and things which are without knowledge gnostic. Through them,
also, he inserts in us wisdom, and through every thing which is in the
world excites our intellect to the truth of real beings, of things which
are in generation, and of future events. From these things, therefore,
I think it is manifest, that the mode of divination is perfectly contrary
to what you suspected it to be. For it is of a ruling and primordial
nature, of an unrestrained power, and transcendent nature,
comprehending in itself all things, but not being comprehended by
any thing, nor enclosed by its participants. For it ascends into, and
rules over, all things simultaneously, and without circumscription,
and collectively signifies future events. Hence, from what has been
said, you may easily dissolve these vulgar doubts, which disturb most
men, and may in a becoming manner elevate yourself to the
intellectual, divine, and irreprehensible presignification of the Gods
from all things. Through this, therefore, we have evinced, that
divinity is not drawn down to the signs employed by divination.
CHAP. XVIII.
Another contest, however, awaits us, not less than that in which we
have been before engaged, and which you immediately announce,
concerning the causes of divination, “whether a God, an angel, or a
dæmon, or some other power, is present in manifestations, or
divinations, or certain other sacred energies.” But our reply to your
question is simply this, that it is not possible for any thing to be
performed in a manner adapted to sacred concerns in divine works,
without the presence of some one of the more excellent natures, as
inspecting and giving completion to the sacred energy. And where
the felicitous operations are perfect, sufficient to themselves, and
unindigent, of these the Gods are the leaders. But where they are
media, and in a small degree fall short of the extremes, they have
angels as the powers that perfect and unfold them into light. And it is
the province of dæmons to effect those operations which rank as the
last. But the right performance of actions which are effected in a
divine manner, is entirely to be ascribed to some one of the more
excellent natures. For since it is not possible to speak rightly about
the Gods without the Gods, much less can any one perform works
which are of an equal dignity with divinity, and obtain the
foreknowledge of every thing without [the inspiring influence of] the
Gods. For the human race is imbecile, and of small estimation, sees
but a little, and possesses a connascent nothingness; and the only
remedy of its inherent error, perturbation, and unstable mutation, is
its participation, as much as possible, of a certain portion of divine
light. But he who excludes this, does the same thing as those who
attempt to produce soul from things inanimate, or to generate
intellect from things unintelligent. For without the cooperation of a
cause, he constitutes divine works from things which are not divine.
Let it be granted, therefore, that a God, a dæmon, or an angel,
gives completion to more excellent works, yet we must not on this
account admit what you adduce as a thing acknowledged, “that they
affect these things, in consequence of being drawn through us by the
necessities with which invocation is attended.” For divinity is
superior to necessity, and this is likewise the case with all the choir of
more excellent natures that is suspended from him. Nor is he alone
exempt from the necessity which is introduced by men, but also from
that which comprehends in itself the world; because it is not the
province of an immaterial nature, and which does not receive any
adventitious order, to be subservient to any necessity introduced
from any thing else. And in the next place, invocation, and the things
performed by a scientific operator, accede and are conjoined to more
excellent natures through similitude and alliance, and do not
accomplish their energies through violence. Hence, the effects which
are seen to take place in diviners, do not happen as you think, from
the scientific theurgist being passively affected; nor is divination thus
effected through necessity, passion preoccupying the predictor; for
these things are foreign from, and incongruous to, the essence of
more excellent natures.
CHAP. XIX.
But neither does the cause [of the energies] of more excellent
natures subsist as a certain middle instrument,[77] nor does he who
invokes operate through him who prophesies; for to assert these
things is impious. And it is much more true to say, that God is all
things, is able to effect all things, and that he fills all things with
himself, and is alone worthy of sedulous attention,[78] esteem, the
energy of reason, and felicitous honour; that which is human being
vile, of no account, and ludicrous, when compared with that which is
divine. Hence I laugh, when I hear it said, that divinity is
spontaneously present with certain persons or things, either through
the period of generation, or through other causes. For thus that
which is unbegotten will no longer be more excellent, if it is led by
the period of generation; nor will it be primarily the cause of all
things, if it is coarranged with certain things, according to other
causes. These assertions, therefore, are unworthy of the conceptions
which we should frame of the Gods, and foreign from the works
which are effected in theurgy.[79] But an investigation of this kind
suffers the same thing as the multitude suffer, about the fabrication
of the universe and providence. For not being able to learn what the
mode is in which these are effected, and refusing to ascribe human
cares and reasonings to the Gods, they wholly abolish the
providential and fabricative energy of divinity. As, therefore, we are
accustomed to answer these, that the divine mode of production and
providential inspection is very different from that which is human,
and which it is not proper wholly to reject through ignorance, as if it
had not from the first any subsistence; thus, also, it may be justly
contended against you, that all prediction, and the performance of
divine works, are the works of the Gods, as they are not effected
through other and these human causes, but through such as are
alone known to the Gods.
CHAP. XX.
Omitting, therefore, these things, we may reasonably adduce a

second cause, assigned by you, of the above mentioned particulars:
viz. “that the soul says and imagines these things, and that they are
the passions of it, excited from small incentives.” Neither, however,
does nature possess these passions, nor does reason admit them. For
every thing which is generated is generated from a certain cause, and
that which is of a kindred nature derives its completion from a
kindred nature. But a divine work is neither casual, for a thing of this
kind is without a cause, and is not entirely arranged, nor is it
produced by a human cause. For this is a thing foreign and
subordinate; but that which is more perfect cannot be produced from
the imperfect. All works, therefore, which have a similitude to
divinity germinate from a divine cause. For the human soul is
contained by one form, and is on all sides darkened by body, which
he who denominates the river of Negligence, or the water of
Oblivion, or ignorance and delirium,[80] or a bond through passions,
[81]
or the privation of life, or some other evil, will not by such
appellations sufficiently express its turpitude. How, therefore, is it
possible that the soul, which is detained by so many evils, can ever
become sufficient to an energy of this kind? It is, indeed, by no
means reasonable to suppose that she can. For if at any time we
appear to be capable of effecting this, it is alone through
participating of, and being illuminated by, the Gods, that we enjoy
the divine energy. Hence the soul does not participate of divine
works, so far as she possesses her own proper virtue and wisdom;
though if works of this kind pertained to the soul, every soul would
perform them, or that soul alone which possessed its proper
perfection. Now, however, neither of these is sufficiently prepared for
this purpose; but even the perfect soul is imperfect as with reference
to divine energy. The theurgic energy, therefore, is a different thing,
and the felicitous accomplishment of divine works is imparted by the
Gods alone. For if this were not the case, the worship of the Gods
would not, in short, be requisite, but divine goods might be present
with us from ourselves, without the exercise of religion. If, therefore,
these opinions are insane and stupid, it is proper to abandon an
hypothesis of this kind, as not affording a cause which deserves to be
mentioned of the accomplishment of divine works.
CHAP. XXI.
Is, therefore, what you add in the third place more true; viz. “that
there is a certain mixed form of hypostasis, consisting of our soul
and divine inspiration externally derived?” Consider this then more
accurately, lest we should be deceived by it, being impeded by its
plausibility. For wherever one thing is effected from two, this one
thing is wholly of a similar species, nature, and essence. Thus the
elements which concur in the same thing, produce one certain thing
from many, and many souls coalesce in one total soul. That, however,
which is perfectly exempt, can never become one with that which
departs from itself;[82] so that neither will there be one certain form
of hypostasis with the soul and divine inspiration. For if divinity is
unmingled, the soul will not be mingled with it; and if he is
immutable, he will not be changed through a concretion into that
which is common, from the simplicity of his subsistence. Some,
therefore, prior to us, were of opinion that certain small sparks excite
in us divine forms. It is impossible, however, that these sparks,
whether they are physical, or in some other way corporeal-formed,
should be transferred from things of a casual nature to things which
are divine. But in what is now asserted by you, the soul is said to be a
concause of the divine commixture; and it is evident, this being
admitted, that the soul becomes of an equal dignity with the Gods,
that it gives a certain part to them and receives a part from them, and
that it also affords a measure to natures more excellent than itself,
and is itself bounded by them. That likewise follows which is asserted
by some, and is most dire, that the Gods precedaneously subsisting
in the order of elements, are inherent in their effects, and there will
be a certain thing produced in time, and from a mixture according to
time, which will contain the Gods in itself. What, likewise, is this
comingled form of subsistence? For if it is both [soul and divine
inspiration externally derived], it will not be one thing consisting of
two, but a certain composite, and a coacervation from two things.
But if it is as something different from both, eternal natures will be
mutable, and divine natures will in no respect differ from physical
substances in generation.[83] And as it is absurd to admit that an
eternal nature is produced through generation, it is still more absurd
to suppose that any thing which consists of eternal natures can be
dissolved. Neither, therefore, is this opinion concerning divination
by any means reasonable; and besides this, it is also paradoxical,
whether it is considered as one supposition or as two.
CHAP. XXII.
You say, therefore, “that the soul generates the power which has
an imaginative perception of futurity, through motions of this kind,
or that the things which are adduced from matter constitute
dæmons through the powers that are inherent in them, and
especially things adduced from the matter which is taken from
animals.” It appears to me, however, that what is now asserted by
you exhibits a dire illegality with reference to the whole of theology
and the theurgic energy. For one absurdity in it, and which is the first
that presents itself to the view, is this, that it makes dæmons to be
generable and corruptible. And another, which is more dire than
this, is that things which are prior will be produced from things
which are posterior to themselves. For dæmons exist prior to soul,
and to the powers which are distributed about bodies. In addition to
these things, also, how can the energies of a partible soul which is
detained in body, become essence, and be by themselves separate out
of soul? Or how can the powers which are divided about, be
separated from bodies, though they have their very being in bodies?
And who is it that liberating them from a corporeal condition of
subsistence, again collects the corporeal dissolution, and causes it to
coalesce in one thing? For thus a thing of this kind will be a dæmon,
who will have an existence prior to his being constituted. This
assertion, likewise, is attended with certain common doubts. For how
can divination be produced from things which have no divining
power? And how can soul be generated from things which are
without soul? And, in short, how can things which are more perfect
be the progeny of such as are more imperfect? The mode, likewise, of
production appears to me to be impossible. For it is impossible that
essence should be produced through the motions of the soul, and
through the powers which are in bodies. For from things which are
without essence, it is impossible that essence should be generated.
Whence, also, does the imagination, receiving from a certain thing
a divining power, become prophetic of futurity? For we do not see
that any one of the things which are sown through generation
possess any thing more than what is imparted to it by its first
generating cause. But, in the present instance, the imagination will
receive a certain more excellent addition from that which has no
existence. Unless some one should say, that dæmons preside over the
matter which is derived from animals, and that when this matter is
adduced, the presiding dæmon is sympathetically moved towards it.
According to this opinion, therefore, dæmons are not generated from
the powers in bodies; but preceding and having an existence prior to
bodies, they are moved in conformity to them. Let it, however, be
admitted, that dæmons are thus sympathetic, yet I do not see after
what manner there will be something true respecting futurity. For
the foreknowledge and premanifestation of futurity is not the
province of a copassive and material power, which is detained in a
certain place and body; but, on the contrary, this pertains to a power
which is liberated from all these. Such, therefore, are the corrections
of this opinion.
CHAP. XXIII.
The animadversions which are after this adduced, at first, indeed,

doubt about the mode of divination, but as they proceed, endeavour
entirely to subvert it. We shall, therefore, discuss both these. And, in
the first place, we shall begin to dissolve the former of these doubts.
“For in sleep, when we are not employed about any thing, we
sometimes obtain a knowledge of the future.” Not that the cause of
divination is derived both from us and externally: for in things the
principle of which definitely subsists in us, and that which is
consequent is externally derived, if these two have a coarrangement
and connexion with each other, in this case the works of the two are
definitely effected, and the things which are suspended from them
follow their precedaneous causes. But when the cause is independent
of us, and preexists by itself, the end is not defined on account of us,
but the whole depends on things external to us. Now, therefore, since
the truth which is in dreams does not entirely concur with our works,
but frequently shines forth from itself, it shows that divination is
externally derived from the Gods, that it possesses an independent
power, and that it benevolently unfolds futurity when it pleases, and
in such a way as it pleases. These things, therefore, should have an
answer of this kind.
CHAP. XXIV.
In what follows, while you endeavour to unfold divination, you

entirely subvert it. For if a passion of the soul is admitted to be the
cause of it, what wise man will attribute to an unstable and stupid
thing orderly and stable foreknowledge? Or how is it possible that
the soul, which is in a sane and stable condition according to its
better powers, viz. those that are intellectual and dianoetic, should
be ignorant of futurity; but that the soul which suffers according to
disorderly and tumultuous motions, should have a knowledge of
what is future? For what has passion in itself adapted to the theory of
beings? And is it not rather an impediment to the more true
intellection of things? Farther still, therefore, if the things contained
in the world were constituted through passions, in this case passions,
through their similitude, would have a certain alliance to them. But if
they are produced through reasons and through forms, there will be
another foreknowledge of them, which is liberated from all passion.
Again, passion alone perceives that which is present, and which now
has a subsistence; but foreknowledge apprehends things which do
not yet exist. Hence, to foreknow is different from being passively
affected.
Let us, however, consider your arguments in support of this
opinion. That “the senses are occupied,” therefore tends to the
contrary to what you say; for it is an indication that no human
phantasm is then excited. But “the fumigations which are
introduced,” have an alliance to divinity, but not to the soul of the
spectator. And “the invocations” do not excite the inspiration of the
reasoning power, or corporeal passions in the recipient; for they are
perfectly unknown and arcane, and are alone known to the God
whom they invoke. But that “not all men, but those that are more
simple and young are more adapted to divination,” manifests that
such as these are more prepared for the reception of the externally
acceding and inspiring spirit. From these indications, however, you
do not truly conjecture that enthusiasm is a passion. For it follows
from these signs, that the influx of it, in the same manner as the
inspiration, is externally derived. In this way, therefore, these things
subsist.
CHAP. XXV.
That which follows in the next place, descends from a divine

alienation of mind to an ecstasy of the reasoning power which leads
it to a worse condition, and absurdly says, “that the cause of
divination is the mania which happens in diseases.” For, as we may
conjecture, it assimilates enthusiasm to the redundancy of the black
bile, to the aberrations of intoxication, and to the fury which happens
from mad dogs. It is necessary, therefore, from the beginning, to
divide ecstasy into two species, one of which leads to a worse
condition of being, and fills us with stupidity and folly; but the other
imparts goods which are more honourable than human temperance.
One species also deviates to a disorderly, confused, and material
motion; but the other gives itself to the cause which rules over the
orderly distribution of things in the world. And the one, indeed, as
being deprived of knowledge, wanders from wisdom; but the other
conjoins with natures that transcend all our wisdom. The one,
likewise, is unstable, but the other is immutable. The one is
preternatural, but the other is above nature. The one draws down the
soul, but the other elevates it. And the one entirely separates us from
a divine allotment, but the other connects us with it.
Why, therefore, does your assertion so much wander from the
proposed hypothesis, as to decline from things primary and good to
the last evils of insanity? For in what is enthusiasm similar to
melancholy, or intoxication, or any other delirium excited by the
body? Or what prediction can ever be produced from diseases of the
body? Is not a derivation of this kind a perfect corruption, but divine
inspiration the perfection and salvation of the soul? And does not
depraved enthusiasm take place through imbecility, but the
enthusiasm which is more excellent through a plenitude of power? In
short, the latter being quiescent, according to its own proper life and
intelligence, gives itself to be used by another [power which is
superior to itself]; but the former, energizing according to its proper
energies, renders these most depraved and turbulent. This, therefore,
is a difference the most manifest of all others, because all the works
of divine natures differ [in a transcendent degree] from the works of
other beings. For as the more excellent genera are exempt from all
others, thus also their energies do not resemble those of any other
nature. Hence, when you speak of divine mania, immediately remove
from it all human perversions. And if you ascribe a sacred “sobriety
and vigilance” to divine natures, you must not consider human
sobriety and vigilance as similar to it. But by no means compare the
diseases of the body, such as suffusions, and the imaginations excited
by diseases, with divine imaginations. For what have the two in
common with each other? Nor again, must you compare “an
ambiguous state,” such as that which takes place between a sober
condition of mind and ecstasy, with sacred visions of the Gods, which
are defined by one energy. But neither must you compare the most
manifest surveys of the Gods with the imaginations artificially
procured by enchantment. For the latter have neither the energy, nor
the essence, nor the truth of the things that are seen, but extend
mere phantasms, as far as to appearances only.
All such doubts as these, however, which are adduced foreign to
the purpose, and tend from contraries to contraries, we do not
consider as pertinent to the present hypothesis. Hence, as we have
shown the unappropriateness of them, we do not think it requisite to
discuss them any further, because they are contentiously introduced,
and not with philosophical investigation.
CHAP. XXVI.
There are many other contentious innovations also, which may be

the subject of wonder. But some one may justly be astonished at the
contrariety of opinions produced by admitting either that the truth of
divination is with enchanters, the whole of which subsists in mere
appearances alone, but has no real existence; or that it is with those
who are incited by passion or disease, since every thing which they
have the boldness to utter is fraudulently asserted. For what
principle of truth, or what auxiliary of intelligence, either smaller or
greater, can there be in those who are thus insane? It is necessary,
however, not to receive truth of such a kind as that which may be
fortuitous; for this, it is said, may happen to those that are rashly
borne along. Nor must such truth be admitted as that which subsists
between agents and patients, when they are concordantly
homologous with each other; for truth of this kind is present with the
senses and imaginations of animals. Hence this truth has nothing
peculiar, or divine, or superior to common nature. But the truth of
divination is established in energy with invariable sameness, has the
whole knowledge of beings present with it, and is connascent with
the essence of things. It likewise employs stable reasons, and
perfectly, aptly, and definitely knows all things. This truth, therefore,
is adapted to divination. Hence, it is very far from being a certain
natural prescience, such as the preperception which is inherent in
some animals of earthquakes and rain. For this arises from
sympathy, when certain animals are moved in conjunction with
certain parts and powers of the universe; or when, through the
acuteness of a certain sense, they antecedently perceive things which
happen in the air, before they accede to places about the earth.
If, therefore, these assertions are true, though we derive from
nature impressions by which we obtain a knowledge of things, or
come into contact with futurity, it is not proper to consider an
impression of this kind as prophetic foreknowledge; but it is, indeed,
similar to this knowledge, yet falls short of it in stability and truth, is
conversant with that which frequently, but not always, happens, and
apprehends the truth in certain, but not in all things. Hence, if there
is a discipline which foresees the future in the arts, as, for instance,
in the piloting or medical art, this does not all pertain to divine
foreknowledge. For it conjectures the future by certain signs, and
these such as are not always credible, nor such as have that of which
they are the signs, connected with them with invariable sameness.
But with divine providence, a stable knowledge of the future
precedes; [and this is attended with] an immutable faith suspended
from causes; an indissoluble comprehension of all things in all; and a
perpetually abiding and invariable knowledge of all things as present
and definite.

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Introduction To Applied Mineralogy Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences Geography and Environment First Edition Jens Götze

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Introduction to Applied Mineralogy

Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences

Transmitted Light Microscopy of Rock-Forming Minerals:

Stable Isotope Geochemistry (Springer Textbooks in

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics II: Stratified / Rotating

Assessment of Ore Deposit Settings, Structures and

Introduction to Infinity Categories Compact Textbooks

Problems of Geocosmos 2020 Proceedings of the XIII

Business in Context: An Introduction to Business and

Introduction to Geography, 16e (ePub convert) Mark

Introduction to Applied Mineralogy

ISBN 978-3-662-64866-7 e-ISBN 978-3-662-64867-4

This book is a translation of the original German „Einfü hrung in die

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-

Mineralogy deals with the predominantly crystalline building blocks of

Fig. 1.1 Aspects of modern mineralogy/applied mineralogy

In professional practice, geoscientific knowledge is increasingly

2. Introduction to Materials and

In applied mineralogy, the relationships between chemical composition,

2.1 Single Crystals

2.1.1 Chemical Deviation From Stoichiometry

2.1.2 Structural Defects

Fig. 2.8 Dependence of diamond morphology on pressure and temperature during

Fig. 2.9 Parameters for quantitative microstructure description

Ceramics can be regarded as rocks of technical origin. Consequently,

2.3 Material Systems

Mineral Chemical formula Oxide components

2.3.1 Example System CaO-Al2O3-SiO2

Phase diagrams are important tools for learning to understand

2.4 Material Properties

2.4.1 Mechanical Properties

Fig. 2.15 Schematic representation of various strength parameters

Material Compressive strength in MPa

Fig. 2.16 Influence of various factors on the strength of ceramic materials

2.4.2 Thermal Properties

Material α ┴ c axis α ‫ ׀׀‬c-axis

SiO2 (quartz) 140 90

The conditions for thermal shock resistance (TSR) are similarly

Bergeron CG, Risbud H (1984) Introduction to phase equilibria in ceramics. The

3. Inorganic Non-metallic Raw

Mineral raw materials are components of the earth formed by

3.1 Natural Stone

An important factor for the characterization of natural stones is

In the next place you inquire “concerning the mode of divination,

Omitting, therefore, these things, we may reasonably adduce a

The animadversions which are after this adduced, at first, indeed,

In what follows, while you endeavour to unfold divination, you

That which follows in the next place, descends from a divine

There are many other contentious innovations also, which may be

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