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Women Empowerment in Southern Philippines

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The views expressed in this paper are the views of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the views or policies of the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), the Asian
Development Bank (ADB), its Board of Directors, or the governments they represent.
ADBI does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no
responsibility for any consequences of their use. Terminology used may not necessarily
be consistent with ADB official terms.

Women Empowerment in Southern Philippines

Isaias S Sealza
Faculty Program for Public Administration, Graduate School
Xavier University
P.O. Box 24, 9000 Cagayan de Oro City
Philippines
Email: isealza@xu.edu.ph; isealza@yahoo.com

Abstract

The predominance of men in socio-economic and political spheres of patriarchal

societies creates inertia to the achievement of Millennium Development Goal (MDG)
Number 3 that seeks to promote gender equality and women empowerment. In the
Philippines, gender inequality retards development work involving women and
aggravates transparency concerns in governance. In order to circumvent disparity
impediments, a learning and livelihood project (LLP), an innovative community
development work with women in southern Philippines utilized direct participation of
people themselves in planning and implementation. This paper then examines the
empowerment experience of women in LLP supportive of Goal 3. It uses data from
eighteen focus group discussions and seven in-depth interviews.

In LLP, the women underwent 150 hours of functional literacy training. The
remaining time in the four-month project was spent on livelihood and gender sensitivity
exercises. After the LLP the women were able to vote by themselves, work outside the
home (e.g., engage in buy-and-sell business, grow vegetables, raise animals/poultry, or
make bank deposits) and communicate with spouses their reproductive and child rearing
choices. On top of these, they gained self-confidence in associating with people. Along
the MDGs, it is recommended that incipient social capital among women be enhanced
and transformed into a cooperative.

Key Words: Goal 3 of MDGs, Women Empowerment, ARMM, Functional Literacy

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Introduction

Promoting gender equality and women empowerment is among the United

Nations Millennium Development Goals (UN MDGs). In particular, Goal 3 addresses
disparity in ratios of girls to boys in education at all levels, in the proportion of seats held
by women in national parliament and in the share of women in wage employment in the
non-agricultural sector. International donor agencies and aid groups contend that
“removing inequalities gives society a better chance to develop. When men and women
have relative equality, economies grow faster…” (AusAID, 2010; cf., World Bank,
2010). For one, there would be wider range of talents, and more raw and polished labor
as economic resource; and for another, there would be increased productivity across
gender divide.

The journey towards gender equality is long and hard. In many less developed
countries, existing cultural assumptions induce inertia that forestalls initiatives to modify
the gender landscape. Highly patriarchal societies confine women roles in domestic realm
as men control the economic, governance and socio-structural spheres.

AusAID (2010) argues that in the atmosphere of gender equality, there is less
corruption. However, headship positions in the executive arm of government, patterned
after the Weberian model of democratic governance which makes bureaucrats
accountable to elected officials (Levi-Faur, 2007) allows corruption to seep into the
system mostly ruled by men through rigged election results, among other things. Hope is
placed in gender balance to improve the bureaucracy.

A source citing Transparency International, Berlin, March, 2000 said that “higher
levels of women participation in public life are associated with lower levels of
corruption….Women in business seem less likely to pay bribes… (and) they are even
more disadvantaged from the consequences of a corrupt system” (Anticorruption on-line,
n.d.; see also, AllAfrica Global Media, 2007; cf., Transparency International, 2008).

Modes of thinking that permeate the socio-political fiber of society have been
ingrained in each member through social institutions. In order to reshape thought forms
and attune them to development goals, initiatives have to be innovative. The Philippine
State, in particular has tried partnerships, and talents and services outsourcing notably
from non-government organizations (NGOs). But issues abound on pilferage in fund
flows from the machinery of government to NGOs, in addition to problems with fly-by-
night NGOs themselves. Subsequently, some donor and aid groups managed their
development programs, or channeled their funds directly to NGOs with donor consultants
overseeing the whole endeavor.

Finally, inter-agency arrangements and multi-sector dealings involving people’s

organizations’ participation evolved as an innovation (e.g., Sealza, 2004, 2005, 2007;
Sealza and Arban, 2006; Sealza, Burton and Echavez, 2005). This was how the learning

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and livelihood project (LLP) to help women in depressed Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM) in southern Philippines came about.
The main objective of this paper is to examine the empowerment experience of
women with LLP. Stakeholders concerned with the welfare of women should know
whether prevailing cultural circumstances are receptive to new strategies. Also, there is
need to examine whether women have been empowered such that they now have
significant roles in household income generation and decision making in line with Goal 3
of the MDGs. Similarly, it would be useful to know the avenues that have opened up in
the furtherance of women’s newly acquired status, if any.

Gender Issues

The Philippine Senate Economic Planning Office (2005) data showed that the
country ranked 37th in Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM measures gender equality
in economic and political spheres), and 66th in Gender-Related Development Index (GDI
measures the average level of human development with focus on gender), among 177
countries. The country also fares well relative to some Asian neighbors on gender
equality indicators. Table 1 shows that the Philippines ranked 3rd in GDI and 2nd in
female adult literacy rate among eight neighbors. It ranked 3rd in the percentage of seats
in parliament held by women among seven territories, although its current probability of
achieving this goal on parliament seats by 2015 is low (NSCB, 2010).

Table 1. Comparative Indicators

GDI GEM Female Adult % Seat in Ratio of Female
Territory Rank Rank Literacy Rate (% Parliament to Male Earned
ages 15+) 2002 Held by Income
Women
Hongkong 23 - 89.6 - -
Indonesia 90 - 83.4 8.0 0.51
S Korea 29 68 96.6 5.9 0.46
Malaysia 52 44 85.4 16.3 0.40
Philippines 66 37 92.7 17.2 0.59
Singapore 28 20 88.6 16.0 0.50
Thailand 61 57 90.5 9.6 0.61
Vietnam 87 - 86.9 27.3 0.69

The highest educational attainment and access to basic education of men and
women in the country are virtually equal. In schoolyear 2005-06 female elementary-
school participation rate was 85.4 percent against the male’s 83.6. The school- leaver rate
for females was lower than that of males (6.0% and 53.6% respectively). Women have
slight advantage over men in simple literacy rate (94.3% as against 81.9%). In ARMM,
females have slight edge in elementary education ratio of girls to boys (104.1 in 1993 and
105.8 in 2005); and, in secondary education ratio (102.2 in 1993 and 121.6 in 2005)
(UNDP Philippines, 2010a; 2010b; 2010c). In effect, there is optimism for the country
eliminating gender disparity in education by the 2015 target of MDGs (NSCB, 2010).

3
Regional Disparity

Historically, Mindanao was noted for being disadvantaged relative to other parts
of the country. In the 1970s for example, Western Mindanao had a literacy rate of 65.0
percent while Central Luzon had 90.0 and Metro Manila 95.0. As Dolan (1991) noted:
“A survey of elementary school graduates in mid-1970s indicated that many
respondents…revealed major deficiencies in reading, mathematics and
language. Performance was poorest among respondents from
Mindanao…whereas the best performance was in the Central Luzon and
Southern Tagalog regions.”

Regional disparity continues often with Christian-north versus Muslim-south slur.

In 2003, ARMM had the lowest functional literacy rate (reading and writing skills
adequate to cope with daily life) at 62.9 percent and the lowest basic literacy rate at 65.5
percent (Philippine Information Agency, 2009). Data from 1991 to 2002 showed that
elementary school participation rates in ARMM were lower than the national average
(Sealza and Fonollera, 2007). Access to educational opportunities therefore has been
virtually equal between gender groups, but disparity across regions remains
disconcerting.

AusAID and USAID worked together in ARMM to complement the country’s

reading program for children. The result was a reported increase of 85.0 percent on the
level of reading skills among the children (Philippine Information Agency, 2009).

But the circumstance of children is a separate matter. Goal 3 includes share of

women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector. Hence, the World Bank
granted the Philippines US$33.6M loan money for the ARMM Social Fund program
cutting across generations. A component of this program was LLP (Cf., Echavez, 2006).

Learning and Livelihood Project

LLP has strong gender focus:

1) Functional literacy training (enhancement of immediately useful skills:
reading, writing, basic mathematics for 150 hours, the national
standard);
2) Household food production activities (enhancement of food sources
with an initial support of PhP1000 or US$22.22 at 46 to the dollar);
3) Income generating activities (skills training and PhP1000-start-up
capital provision); and,
4) Savings mobilization (forming the habit of saving).

Pilot tests were conducted to finalize LLP parameters and procedures. After a
series of meetings with World Bank consultants, a manual was formulated for the
ground-level implementing team. In the team were representatives from ARMM line
agencies on trade, education, agriculture, science and technology, the Bangsamoro; the

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local government units (LGUs) represented by municipal and provincial facilitators; and
the people’s organizations (POs) as principal ground-level implementers.

The chosen villages have experienced natural disasters or devastations from

armed conflict that resulted in internal displacements, poverty and vulnerability. A survey
made earlier helped identify beneficiaries. Table 2 shows phases of LLP.
Table 2. LLP Phases
Phases Performance Indicator
Functional Literacy Training *Literacy training
(FLT) *Recognition of Learners/Beneficiaries
*Orientation/Seminar on cross-cutting issues
Household Food Sufficiency *Technical assistance
Activities (HFSA) *Fund support
*Food sufficiency projects
Income Generating Activities *Skills training
(IGA) *Start-up capital
* Food sufficiency projects

Table 3 contains skills indicators.

Table 3. Skills Performance Indicators
Indicator
Language Numeracy
Performance Reading Writing Reading Writing Computation
Level 0 Nil Inability to hold pen Nil Nil Nil
correctly
Level 1 *Recognition *Proper holding of *Reading *Writing *Counting
of Filipino pencil numbers 1 - 9 numbers 1 - numbers 1 -
alphabet *Writing straight 9 500
*Syllabic lines
reading *Writing arcs and
*Word form circles
recognition *Tracing/Copying
letters of the
alphabet
Level 2 *Word reading *Writing letters of *Reading *Writing *Counting
*Phrase the alphabet numbers 101- numbers 101 numbers 501 –
reading * Writing own name 500 - 500 1000
*Sentence and signature *Adding 1-
reading *Writing other digit numbers
*Reading of names *Subtracting 1-
labels, names *Writing words digit numbers
of places
Level 4 *Paragraph * Writing names of *Reading * Writing *Adding 2- &
reading months numbers 501 numbers 501 3-digit
* Writing names of - 1000 - 1000 numbers
days of the week *Subtracting 2-
& 3-digit
numbers
Level 4 *Full reading *Writing sentences - - *Multiplying
ability *Filling out bio-data with 1-digit
form multipliers
*Dividing with
1-digit divisors

5
 There were 14,527 women beneficiaries in 168 villages in the provinces of Sulu,
Tawi-Tawi and Maguindanao. The project ran for four months: 150 hours for FLT and
the rest for other activities.

Methodology

Eighteen focus group discussions (FGDs) and seven in-dept interviews (IDIs)
with a purposive sample of 231 participants/informants were conducted in 11 villages in
2009. FGD participation was based on age, ethnicity and marital status. Key informants
in IDIs were selected on the basis of additional insights they could offer because of their
position in government, POs, and so on. The FGDs and IDIs were conducted after free
and informed consent have been obtained. Guide questions were used to generate
information.

Findings

A vast majority (78%) of women respondents had some elementary education or

had never been to formal school at all. A few (2.0%) had been to vocational or Madrasah
(school). The remaining 20 percent had relatively higher educational attainment.

FGDs revealed that the protocol of LLP provided occasion for active participation
of POs in its implementation. The POs were given opportunity to carry out activities and
manage finances, and the beneficiaries to identify their own projects. The FGD
participants felt that the procedure departed from traditional scheme where aid funds
would pass through LGUs which decide what projects to implement. The old scheme had
monetary pilferages and transparency became suspect. In the LLP, money would go
directly to community bank account through its PO.

This PO empowerment was paralleled by women’s experiences. A woman said,

“I used to be very shy. I did not want to associate with people in the
community. I was conscious about my inability to read and write. I could
not vote by myself (during elections). When I had learned to write my name,
the feeling was indescribable. Today, I feel that I am like the rest. I know
something that they know.” (46 years old, FGD)

Functional literacy was felt as need. It supported Goal 3 on the non-agricultural income-
generating activities for women.

6
 “Knowing how to read, count and calculate enabled me now to go into
business. I tried earlier, but because I did not know how to calculate, I
would end up losing money. If I gave extra change the customers would
walk away quietly. If they were short-changed they would shout invectives
at me.” (54-year-old Female, FGD).

The project implementation report substantiated claims in FGDs that learning

took place (Table 4). At baseline, a plurality of the beneficiaries was in Level 0. At post
test, a plurality moved up to Level 2.

Table 4. LFT Impact

Literacy Baseline% Post Test %
Level 0 35.2 1.4
Level 1 34.0 28.8
Level 2 19.0 32.3
Level 3 10.4 22.2
Level 4 1.4 15.3
Total 100.0 100.0

Change in Women’s Roles

Traditionally, Muslim culture in southern Philippines discouraged women from

working. Cultural perspectives change, but women have to surmount the remaining
socio-psychological barriers (Burton, 2006). With LLP, women’s skills were enhanced.
Literacy along with other trainings enabled them to augment household income and food
sources. The co-provider role has given them a sense of self-worth: “Most mothers used
to be idle. Now they are productive. They plant vegetables or tend animals” (54-year-old
Female, FGD).

With an air of self-fulfillment, a 30-year-old beneficiary said,

“Right now I have 30 chickens; I have sold more than 20. I have recovered
my capital and have some savings. What's more, I was able to buy a gold
ring as a reward for myself (showing the ring to everyone in the group).”

Another added, “Women now do whatever they have to for family needs” (52-year-old
FGD participant). A 35-year-old literacy teacher reported happily in an IDI: “The literacy
training was a big help. Now, women know how many ducks or goats they have. They
know how many eggs to sell and how much to earn.”

With inputs on gender sensitivity, the women realized their roles in reproductive tasks
and day-to-day management of the household. This realization facilitated better
communication between spouses as responsibility sharing slowly becomes the family
norm (Cf., Alcantara, 1994). According to a 52-year-old participant,

7
 “From the training we learned how to read simple words, write our names,
count and do simple computations. Aside from these, we learned about
gender roles, environmental protection, gardening, and entrepreneurship.”

Women in Decision Making

On reproductive rights and family responsibilities, a 38-year-old woman said that,

“Family planning was not allowed in the past. Gradually, it became acceptable. And now
there are women in the community who use it.” It may be mentioned in passing that in
2004, a Fatwah was issued by Muslim religious leaders signifying the acceptability of
family planning (USAID, 2010; Sealza, 2004).

Communication lines between husband and wife became more open as women became
aware of roles that men and women play for stronger family relationships. A 37-year-old
mother said in an FGD,

“Wives were expected to give in all the time to the husbands’ sexual desires.
Lately, they have learned to talk this over with them whenever they (wives) do
not feel like having sex. Women now work to help support the needs of the
family. They are being listened to. In the past fathers would send the children out
to sea to fish. At present, mothers would insist that children go to school. We do
not want our children to be just like us. We now put greater value on education.”

A 44-year-old male municipal facilitator confirmed in an IDI that better power balance
now obtains between husband and wife:

“The women now can ask their husband to wash dishes or care for the
children while they are out to meet with other women. One beneficiary
confided to me that whenever she is called to do home service for
manicure and pedicure, she no longer waits for her husband to arrive
home.”

Avenues for the Furtherance of Gains

The major gains of women in LLP have been manifested in functional literacy, livelihood
activities, and their sense of self-worth. Opportunities offer continued use of these gains.
Furthermore, social capital build-up shows up.

For example, elections are a regular feature of democracy. According to a 38-year-old

beneficiary: “In the past since I did not how to write, someone would fill in my ballot and
I would affix my thumb mark. Recently, I personally signed forms after I cast my
vote….” A 45-year-old woman added, “I could not describe how I felt the first time I
voted on my own.”

8
In addition to this, a 42-year-old woman admitted: “I used to be afraid of going to the
bank because I did not know how to write…But now, every time I had extra money, I
would make a deposit.”

Social capital ensued from the activities as a 40-year-old male said: “Muslim mothers are
now interacting with other people. Previously, they would hide whenever there were
visitors.” This indicates liminal horizontal social capital which is noteworthy in a society
where a woman is by tradition prohibited to talk with a man other than her husband.

Noticeably, there was the making of a cooperative when women pooled money for some
undertaking.
“When we received the PhP1000 initial allowance from the project, we
decided to put the money together, and we bought vegetable seedlings and
fertilizer in bulk at discounted price…. We agreed on the activities we
needed to work on as a group. There was a time when we decided to plant
corn and apply the fertilizer ourselves” (45-year-old female).

“The project has really helped us. One time our cluster bought a sack of
rice with money earned from our communal vegetable garden. We had it
divided among ourselves” (41-year-old female).

Conclusion

On Goal 3, government data show that the target of eliminating disparity in education
between boys and girls will very likely be achieved by 2015; and, the probability of
achieving the target 50 percent seats held by women in parliament is low. In primarily
farming and fishing communities in southern Philippines, women wage employment in
non-agricultural sector is nil. Some women are into personal services and micro-
enterprises to augment family income.

The prevailing cultural circumstances of Muslim women in southern Philippines indicate

receptiveness to development innovations that use POs as major actor. There are
indications of women empowerment in shared household responsibilities, and in
improved husband-wife communication. Involvement of some women in non-agricultural
activities should be a welcome development for Goal 3. It is recommended that area
coverage of LLP be expanded.

Certain patterns also tend to support the furtherance of gains. Women now
interact freely with outside groups in social and economic contexts. It is also
recommended that this interaction be enhanced in the spirit of incipient cooperativism.
Cooperatives hold promise to serve members’ needs for livelihood transactions
(“bridging” social capital) and for fellowship (“bonding” social capital). Cooperatives
may eventually generate non-agricultural employment for women in support of the UN
MDGs.

9
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