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Shock Wave and High Pressure Phenomena
Seán Prunty
Introduction
to Simple Shock
Waves in Air
With Numerical Solutions Using
Artificial Viscosity
Second Edition
Founding Editor
Robert A. Graham, USA
Honorary Editors
Lee Davison, USA
Yasuyuki Horie, USA
Editorial Board
Gabi Ben-Dor, Israel
Frank K. Lu, USA
Naresh Thadhani, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/1774

L.L. Altgilbers, M.D.J. Brown, I. Grishnaev, B.M. Novac, I.R. Smith, I. Tkach, and
Y. Tkach: Magnetocumulative Generators
T. Antoun, D.R. Curran, G.I. Kanel, S.V. Razorenov, and A.V. Utkin: Spall Fracture
J. Asay and M. Shahinpoor (Eds.): High-Pressure Shock Compression of Solids
S.S. Batsanov: Effects of Explosion on Materials: Modification and Synthesis Under
High-Pressure Shock Compression
G. Ben-Dor: Shock Wave Reflection Phenomena
L.C. Chhabildas, L. Davison, and Y. Horie (Eds.): High-Pressure Shock Compres-
sion of Solids VIII
L. Davison: Fundamentals of Shock Wave Propagation in Solids
L. Davison, Y. Horie, and T. Sekine (Eds.): High-Pressure Shock Compression of
Solids
V.L. Davison and M. Shahinpoor (Eds.): High-Pressure Shock Compression of
Solids III
R.P. Drake: High-Energy-Density Physics
A.N. Dremin: Toward Detonation Theory
J.W. Forbes: Shock Wave Compression of Condensed Matter
V.E. Fortov, L.V. Altshuler, R.F. Trunin, and A.I. Funtikov: High-Pressure Shock
Compression of Solids VII
B.E. Gelfand, M.V. Silnikov, S.P. Medvedev, and S.V. Khomik: Thermo-Gas Dynam-
ics of Hydrogen Combustion and Explosion
D. Grady: Fragmentation of Rings and Shells
Y. Horie, L. Davison, and N.N. Thadhani (Eds.): High-Pressure Shock Compression
of Solids VI
J. N. Johnson and R. Cherét (Eds.): Classic Papers in Shock Compression Science
V.K. Kedrinskii: Hydrodynamics of Explosion
C.E. Needham: Blast Waves
V.F. Nesterenko: Dynamics of Heterogeneous Materials
S.M. Peiris and G.J. Piermarini (Eds.): Static Compression of Energetic Materials
M. Súceska: Test Methods of Explosives
M.V. Zhernokletov and B.L. Glushak (Eds.): Material Properties under Intensive
Dynamic Loading
J.A. Zukas and W.P. Walters (Eds.): Explosive Effects and Applications
Seán Prunty
Introduction to Simple Shock

Waves in Air
With Numerical Solutions Using Artificial
Viscosity
Second Edition
Seán Prunty
Ballincollig, Cork, Ireland
ISSN 2197-9529 ISSN 2197-9537 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-63605-0 ISBN 978-3-030-63606-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63606-7
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2019, 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface to the Second Edition
Date: January 2021

This second edition incorporates a number of changes with the inclusion of new
material in each of the chapters, while a substantial quantity of additional material
has been included in Chap. 4. A section dealing with typical sound wave parameters
is provided in Chap. 1 and new sections dealing with weak shock waves and the
thickness of the shock wave region have been included in Chap. 3. Additional
material on amplitude effects in wave propagation, short duration impulsive piston
motion and shock decay, as well as some numerical results for shock wave interac-
tions have been included in Chap. 4. The section in Chap. 5 dealing with Taylor’s
estimation of the yield of the first atomic explosion has been extended and a small
amount of additional material has been included in Chap. 6. Two appendices have
been added; the first deals with the piston withdrawal problem with more emphasis
on numerical calculations and computations, and the second deals with the results of
some numerical calculations for the variation in pressure, particle velocity and
density for the shock tube over an extended time interval. Since the first edition of
the text appeared, I have corrected several errors that I discovered, and I trust that I
have identified all errors and that no new ones have crept in with the addition of the
new material. The provision of this new material as outlined above is anticipated to
enhance students’ understanding of shock wave propagation and to increase student
interest in the subject area. I am most grateful to Dr. Sam Harrison, editor at Springer
(Physics), and his production team for all their help in getting this new edition of the
book published.
Ballincollig, Cork, Ireland Seán Prunty
v
Preface to the First Edition
This book provides an elementary introduction to some one-dimensional fluid flow

problems involving shock waves in air. The differential equations of fluid flow are
approximated by finite difference equations, and these in turn are numerically
integrated in a stepwise manner. Artificial viscosity is introduced into the numerical
calculations in order to deal with shocks. The presentation is restricted to the finite
difference approach to solve the coupled differential equations of fluid flow as
distinct from finite volume or finite element methods. It presents the results arising
from the numerical solution using Mathcad programming, and, as I had Mathcad
installed on my computer, it was natural for me to use it in order to obtain solutions
to the examples presented here. Both plane and spherical shock waves are discussed
with particular emphasis on very strong explosive shocks in air.
I am not an expert in fluid dynamics, and I only took an interest in this area within
the past 3 years in an effort to solve some specific problems in compressible fluid
flow involving shock waves in air. The very strong shocks produced by explosions
became a particular interest after reading the book by Bruce Cameron Reed, entitled
The Physics of the Manhattan Project. The book provides an excellent account of the
basic physics in relation to the enormous amount of energy released in nuclear
reactions. My primary interest was not specifically in the area of critical mass
calculations and their ramifications but, instead, on very large quantity of energy
released and the propagation of its effects on the surrounding atmosphere. The
learning process in coming to terms with the subject of gas dynamics was an
interesting adventure for one who had no exposure to the subject at undergraduate
physics level. In fact, my lack of experience in the area is no different from other
physics graduates since the pressure on physics departments to teach other subjects
has meant that the important subject of gas dynamics has received very little
attention in the physics curriculum for many decades. It is important to emphasize
that this book is not an introduction to gas dynamics or to computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), and the method of solution to the problems presented here is a
personal one and makes no attempt to emulate or make reference to the numerical
techniques employed in modern-day CFD. Instead, it presents the results arising
from the numerical solution to several simple examples of compressible fluid flow
vii
viii Preface to the First Edition
involving shock waves that were of interest to the author. Accordingly, the reader is
strongly advised to consult the standard texts on fluid or gas dynamics for a
comprehensive account of fluid motion as well the rapidly growing area of CFD
by the experts in the area. Several textbooks and articles that I found useful can be
found in the references at the end of each chapter.
The book is suitable for both graduate and advanced undergraduate students in
applied mathematics, engineering and physics who are taking courses in fluid
dynamics and who require an introduction to a specific numerical technique for
dealing with shock waves. I decided very early on that the program listings would
not be included for the very good reason that there are good and bad programming
techniques and I would probably fall into the latter category. Nonetheless, the finite
difference representation of the differential equations is presented, and it is hoped
that this will be a starting point to encourage interested students to obtain solutions to
similar problems in compressible flow using their preferred programming language.
It is hoped that the material presented here will renew interest in gas dynamics and
shock waves in the undergraduate physics curriculum.
The book is structured in such a manner as to allow the reader to review some
basic material in relation to the equations of fluid flow. In this respect, a brief review
of the one-dimensional form of the equations is presented in Chap. 1 together with
the propagation of small amplitude disturbances. Chapter 1 also includes some basic
thermodynamic relationships that are relevant to gas dynamics. Waves of finite
amplitude and the formation of shock waves are discussed in Chap. 2. This chapter
also includes a basic introduction to the method of characteristics and to Riemann
invariants. Some important relationships arising from the conservation of mass,
momentum and energy across the shock front are presented in Chap. 3, and these
relationships are used in the subsequent chapters to ascertain the accuracy of the
numerical results obtained. Chapter 4 outlines the numerical procedure employed to
solve some examples of plane shock waves using artificial viscosity: The differential
equations in Lagrangian form are derived, and the corresponding difference equa-
tions are presented. Stability issues in relation to these equations are briefly
discussed as well as the choice of grid interval to be used in the numerical procedure.
Several simple examples of plane shocks arising from piston motion are also
presented and discussed. The remaining chapters deal with spherical shock waves:
Chap. 5 has an almost independent character and deals exclusively with the strong-
shock, point-source solution and its ramifications. Chapter 6 describes the numerical
procedure used when dealing with spherical shock waves, and the appropriate
differential equations in Lagrangian form are derived, and the difference form of
these equations incorporating artificial viscosity is presented. The equations are
numerically integrated to predict the pressure, density and particle velocity as
functions of position outside the strong-shock regime by using the strong-shock,
point-source solution as initial conditions. Finally, the shock waves generated
following the sudden expansion of a high-pressure, high-temperature sphere of air
into the surrounding atmosphere are presented and discussed.
Preface to the First Edition ix
It is assumed that the reader is familiar with differential and integral calculus and
has a solid understanding of the physical principles underpinning the basic equations
of fluid dynamics. Some knowledge of numerical methods would be an advantage,
particularly, to do with the stability issues in relation to the difference equations
involved.
I wish to acknowledge the help received from Diarmuid O’Riordáin in relation to
a computer file storage issue with embedded graphics.
Ballincollig, Cork, Ireland Seán Prunty

Contents
1 Brief Outline of the Equations of Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Eulerian and Lagrangian Form of the Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Some Elements of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Ideal Gas Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.4 Isothermal Expansion or Compression of an
Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.5 Reversible Adiabatic Process for an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.6 Work Done by an Ideal Gas During an
Adiabatic Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.7 Alternate Form of the Equations for Specific
Internal Energy and Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.8 Ratio of the Specific Heats for Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.9 The Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Conservation Equations in Plane Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 Equation of Mass Conservation: The Continuity
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Equation of Motion: The Momentum Equation . . . . . . . 15
1.4.3 Energy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Constancy of the Entropy with Time for a Fluid Element . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Entropy Change for an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Spherical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.7.1 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.7.2 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.7.3 Equation of Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.8 Small Amplitude Disturbances: Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
xi
xii Contents
1.9 Typical Sound Wave Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1.9.1 Typical Sound Intensity in Normal Conversation . . . . . . 40
1.9.2 Loud Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2 Waves of Finite Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Finite Amplitude Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Change in Wave Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4 Formation of a Normal Shock Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Time and Place of Formation of Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.5.1 Example: Piston Moving with Uniform
Accelerated Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5.2 Example: Piston Moving with a Velocity
u ¼ atn, n> 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6 Another Form of the Equations: Riemann Invariants . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6.1 Solution of some First-Order Partial Differential
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.6.2 Nonlinear Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.6.3 An Example of Nonlinear Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.6.4 The Breaking Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.7 Application of Riemann Invariants to Simple Flow Problems . . . . 73
2.7.1 Piston Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.7.2 Piston Withdrawal at Constant Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.7.3 Piston Moving into a Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.7.4 Numerically Integrating the Equations of Motion
Based Riemann’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3 Conditions Across the Shock: The Rankine-Hugoniot Equations . . . 89
3.1 Introduction to Normal Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2 Conservation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2.1 Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.2.2 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.2.3 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3 Thermodynamic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4 Alternative Notation for the Conservation Equations
Across the Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5 A Very Weak Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.6 Rankine-Hugoniot Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.6.1 Pressure and Density Changes for a
Weak Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.7 Entropy Change of the Gas on Its Passage
Through a Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Contents xiii
3.8 Other Useful Relationships in Terms of Mach

Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.9 Entropy Change Across the Shock in Terms of
Mach Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.10 Fluid Motion Behind the Shock in Terms of Shock
Wave Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.11 Reflection of a Plane Shock from a Rigid Plane Surface . . . . . . . 110
3.12 Approximate Analytical Expressions for Weak
Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.12.1 Shock Velocity for Weak Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.12.2 Pressure Ratio for Weak Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.12.3 Density Ratio for Weak Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.12.4 Temperature Ratio for Weak Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.12.5 Sound Speed Ratio for Weak Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.12.6 Entropy Change for Weak Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.12.7 Change in the Riemann Invariant R for
Weak Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.13 Thickness of the Shock Wave Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.14 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4 Numerical Treatment of Plane Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2 The Need for Numerical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3 Lagrangian Equations in Plane Geometry with
Artificial Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.2 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.3 Equation of Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.4 Artificial Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.4.1 Equations for Plane-Wave Motion with
Artificial Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.4.2 A Steady-State Plane Shock with Artificial Viscosity . . . 137
4.4.3 Variation in the Specific Volume Across the Shock . . . . 141
4.5 The Numerical Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.5.1 The Differential Equations for Plane Wave
Motion: A Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.5.2 Finite Difference Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.5.3 The Discrete Form of the Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.6 Stability of the Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.7 Grid Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.8 Numerical Examples of Plane Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.8.1 Piston Generated Shock Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.8.2 Linear Ramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.8.3 Piston Motion According to the Law u ¼ atn; n > 0. . . . . 159
xiv Contents
4.8.4 Tube Closed at End: A Reflected Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

4.8.5 The Numerical Value of κ for the Artificial Viscosity . . . 169
4.8.6 Piston Withdrawal Generating an Expansion Wave . . . . 170
4.8.7 The Shock Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.8.8 The Effect of Amplitude on Wave Propagation . . . . . . . 177
4.8.9 Short Duration Piston Motion: Shock Decay . . . . . . . . . 188
4.8.10 Some Numerical Results for Shock Wave Interactions . . 204
4.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5 Spherical Shock Waves: The Self-similar Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.2 Shock Wave from an Intense Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.3 The Point Source Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.4 Taylor’s Analysis of Very Intense Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.4.1 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.4.3 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.5 Derivatives at the Shock Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.6 Numerical Integration of the Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.7 Energy of the Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.8 The Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.9 The Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.10 The Pressure-Time Relationship for a Fixed Point . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.11 Taylor’s Analytical Approximations for Velocity,
Pressure and Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.11.1 The Velocity ϕ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.11.2 The Pressure f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.11.3 The Density ψ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.12 The Density for Small Values of η . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.13 The Temperature in the Central Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
5.14 The Wasted Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.15 Taylor’s Second Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.16 Approximate Treatment of Strong Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.16.1 Chernyi’s Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.16.2 Bethe’s Approximation for Small Values of γ 1 . . . . . 256
5.17 Route to an Analytical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.18 Analytical Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
5.18.1 The Analytical Expression for the Velocity . . . . . . . . . . 269
5.18.2 The Analytical Expression for the Density . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.18.3 The Analytical Expression for the Pressure . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Contents xv
6 Numerical Treatment of Spherical Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
6.2 Lagrangian Equations in Spherical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
6.2.1 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.2.3 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.3 Conservation Equations in Spherical Geometry: A Summary . . . . 288
6.4 Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
6.5 Numerical Solution of Spherical Shock Waves:
The Point Source Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.6 Initial Conditions Using the Strong-Shock,
Point-Source Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.6.1 The Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.6.2 The Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.6.3 The Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.7 Specification of Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.8 Results of the Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.9 Shock Wave from a Sphere of High-Pressure,
High-Temperature Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
6.10 Results of the Numerical Integration for the
Expanding Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.10.1 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.10.2 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6.10.3 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
6.11 A Note on Grid Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
6.12 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Chapter 1
Brief Outline of the Equations of Fluid Flow
1.1 Introduction
Those who are familiar with compressible fluid flow are aware that the equations of
motion are nonlinear and, as such, it is very difficult to obtain analytical solutions.
As a consequence, numerical methods are generally employed and the differential
equations are approximated by finite difference equations and these in turn are
solved in a stepwise manner. In many examples involving compressible fluid flow
shocks appear and their presence is a complicating factor since they are characterized
by very steep gradients in the variables describing the flow, such as, in the velocity,
density, pressure and temperature. In fact, the gradients become infinitely steep when
the effects of viscosity and thermal conduction are neglected: this introduces dis-
continuities in the solutions and, as a result, it requires the application of boundary
conditions connecting the values across the shock front but the implementation of
this technique can be quite complex. However, the need for any boundary conditions
can be avoided by using a method proposed in 1950 by Von Neumann and
Richtmyer [1] where an artificially large viscosity is introduced into the numerical
calculations: the present text utilizes this technique. Instead of obtaining a discon-
tinuous solution at the shock front, the shock acquires a thickness comparable to the
spacing of the grid points used in the numerical procedure so that the shock appears
as a near-discontinuity and across which velocity, pressure etc. vary rapidly but
continuously.
A brief review of the fundamental equations of fluid dynamics [2–6] is provided
in this chapter so that the reader can have to-hand the appropriate governing
equations. The one-dimensional form of the equations is presented as they apply
to non-viscous1 flow, so that any physical effects involving friction and thermal
conduction are neglected. A treatment involving the derivation of the full
1
Although the term “non-viscous” implies the absence of viscosity or friction, it also implies “non-
conducting” as well.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

S. Prunty, Introduction to Simple Shock Waves in Air, Shock Wave and High
Pressure Phenomena, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63606-7_1
2 1 Brief Outline of the Equations of Fluid Flow
3-dimensional fluid dynamic equations can be found in the excellent text by Ander-
son [7] where viscous forces and thermal conduction are included. However, as this
present text deals with fluid motion where shocks occur, the neglect of friction and
thermal conduction in the neighbourhood of the shock must be included and,
accordingly, an artificial viscosity is introduced, as we shall see in due course, into
the set of difference equations that approximate the differential equations for
the flow.
1.2 Eulerian and Lagrangian Form of the Equations
The equations governing a fluid or gas in motion are mathematical expressions of the
laws of conservation of mass, momentum and energy. In the case of an ideal gas, for
example, these equations are supplemented by thermodynamic equations; one called
the equation of state and the other called the caloric equation of state. The equations
describing the motion of the fluid can be written in one of two coordinate systems
[6]; one called the Eulerian system and the other called the Lagrangian system (each
named after the mathematicians, Euler and Lagrange). In the Lagrangian system we
follow the path taken by individual particles of fluid and determine the velocity,
pressure, density etc. as a function of the path taken. Accordingly, the Lagrangian
description of motion is connected with a definite particle or mass element of the
fluid; each particle is assigned a symbol x0, for example, indicating its position at
some initial time which is usually taken at time t ¼ 0, while at a later time t the
position of the particle is x(x0, t) and, clearly, x(x0, 0) ¼ x0. The motion of the particle
satisfies Newton’s second law of motion, namely; m(d2x/dt2) ¼ F where m is the
mass of this particle of fluid lying between x0 and x0 + dx0 and F is the force acting
on the particle. Suppose, for example, we wish to determine the flow of air over a
fixed surface, we could imagine a weightless soap bubble released into the air. The
path taken by this bubble as it moves over the surface provides a Lagrangian
description of the flow. To indicate the time-rate of change following the fluid
particle the material derivative, D/Dt rather than the usual d/dt has become standard
notation in fluid dynamics. However, in the present text we will adopt a slightly
different notation as we follow specific particles of fluid and we will be returning to
this aspect in Chaps. 4 and 6.
In the Eulerian description, on the other hand, one is not interested in the motion
of individual particles; instead, one is interested in, say, the velocity at points in
space. This is analogous to setting up a fixed and very fine grid throughout space and
noting, for example, the velocity, pressure or density etc. at each grid point, so in the
case of the Eulerian system we are interested in the properties of the fluid, such as,
velocity, pressure, density etc. as they pass fixed points in space.
Another good example, the source of which cannot be recalled, that distinguishes
the Lagrangian and Eulerian systems involves the acceleration of a log on a steadily
flowing river which has a section of rapids on it. By concentrating on the log one
observes that it accelerates as it enters the rapids which is the Lagrangian
1.3 Some Elements of Thermodynamics 3
acceleration (following the particle). However, an observer on the bank of the river
who concentrates on the velocity at fixed points in the flow will not see any
acceleration as a succession of logs that pass the same point will do so at the same
velocity since the river as a whole is not accelerating.
In mathematical terms, Du/Dt is the Lagrangian acceleration, while ∂u/∂t or more
specifically, (∂u/∂t)x is the Eulerian acceleration, where the subscript indicates that
the acceleration is measured at a particular point x. However, u u(x, t), so that
du Du ∂u ∂u
¼ þu :
dt Dt ∂t ∂x
In relation to the log entering the rapids we have, ∂u/∂t ¼ 0, so that Du/Dt ¼ u
(∂u/∂x); implying that the river exhibits a spatial variation in velocity, thereby
accounting for the Lagrangian acceleration.
1.3 Some Elements of Thermodynamics
A concise review of some elements of thermodynamics is provided in this section.

Only those aspects of thermodynamics that are relevant to gas dynamics are consid-
ered and, in particular, to air which is assumed in this text to behave as an ideal gas.
1.3.1 Ideal Gas Equation
The equation of state for an ideal gas is given by the equation
m
pV ¼ ℜT, ð1:1Þ
M
where p is the pressure, V is the volume of gas of mass m, M is the molecular weight,
ℜ is the universal gas constant (ℜ ¼ 8.31JK1mole1) and T is the temperature. In
this text we will assume that air behaves as an ideal gas. One mole of air has an
approximate molecular weight (based on its composition which contains largely
nitrogen and oxygen) of 28.97 103kg, so that ℜ/M ¼ 287Jkg1K1. Accord-
ingly, Eq. (1.1) for air can be written as
pV ¼ mRT, ð1:2Þ
where R ¼ 287JK1kg1, or we can also write it as
p ¼ ρRT or pυ ¼ RT ð1:3Þ
where ρ is the density and υ is the specific volume (that is, the inverse of the density).
For example, the density of air is ρ ¼ 1.29kgm3 at a pressure of one atmosphere
(equal to 1.013 105Nm2) and at a temperature of 273 K according to Eq. (1.3).
1.3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of an isolated system is
conserved; however, the energy may be transformed from one form to another but
the energy cannot be created nor destroyed. The mathematical form of the first law of
thermodynamics for an infinitesimal change is given by the equation,
dQ ¼ dE þ dW, ð1:4Þ
where dQ is the quantity of heat exchanged between the system and its surroundings,
dE2 is the change in the internal energy of the system and dW is the work done. For a
system of constant mass m that exerts a uniform pressure p on its surroundings, the
first law can be written as
dQ ¼ mde þ pdV,
where de is the change in the specific internal energy, that is, the change in the
internal energy per unit mass and dV is the change in volume. Dividing across by m,
gives,
dq ¼ de þ pdυ, ð1:5Þ
where dq is the quantity of heat transferred per unit mass and dυ is the change in the
specific volume.
1.3.3 Heat Capacity
If a system undergoes a temperature increase of dT following a transfer of heat dq,

the heat capacity of the system is defined as
2
The symbol E is used to represent the internal energy of a system rather than the more commonly
used symbol U, as this symbol is used in this text to represent the velocity of air motion and the
velocity of shock waves.
dq
c¼ :
dT
If the process takes place at constant volume, then the heat capacity at constant
volume is

dq
cV ¼ ð1:6Þ
dT V
and if the process takes place at constant pressure, the heat capacity is

dq
cP ¼ : ð1:7Þ
dT P
If the specific internal energy e is expressed in terms of υ and T, then

∂e ∂e
de ¼ dυ þ dT ð1:8Þ
∂υ T ∂T υ
and the mathematical statement of the first law can be written as

∂e ∂e
dq ¼ dT þ p þ dυ:
∂T υ ∂υ T
For a constant volume process, we have

dq ∂e
¼ ,
dT ∂T υ
hence,

∂e
cV ¼ ð1:9Þ
∂T υ
Defining the specific enthalpy,
h ¼ e þ pυ, ð1:10Þ
then
dh ¼ de þ pdυ þ υdp
¼ dq þ υdp,
hence,
dq ¼ dh υdp: ð1:11Þ
If h is considered a function of p and T, then

∂h ∂h
dh ¼ dp þ dT, ð1:12Þ
∂p T ∂T p
hence,

∂h ∂h
dq ¼ dT þ υ dp, ð1:13Þ
∂T p ∂p T
so that the specific heat at constant pressure is

∂h
cP ¼ : ð1:14Þ
∂T p
Also, for an ideal gas the specific internal energy is a function of the temperature
only, hence, E ¼ f(T ) and, therefore,

∂e de
cV ¼ ¼ ,
∂T υ
dT
hence,
e ¼ cV T ð1:15Þ
and similarly,
h ¼ cP T: ð1:16Þ
Substituting these relationships in the equation, h ¼ e + pυ, we have
cP T ¼ cV T þ RT,
so that
cP ¼ cV þ R: ð1:17Þ
1.3.4 Isothermal Expansion or Compression of an Ideal Gas
Work in thermodynamics is concerned only with the changes that take place between
a system and its surroundings. An infinitesimal amount of work dW is said to be done
by a system when the system undergoes a change in volume dV under the action of
the pressure p that the system exerts on its surroundings, hence,
dW ¼ pdV ð1:18Þ
and if the volume changes from an initial value Vi to a final value Vf the work done by
the system is given by
ZV f
W¼ pdV: ð1:19Þ
Vi
This latter equation cannot be integrated until the pressure is known as a function
of V. This means that dW is not an exact differential; it depends on the path, unlike,
for example, the internal energy function, E, which is an exact differential and only
depends on the initial and final states and therefore independent of the path taken in
going from, say, Ei to Ef.
In the case of an isothermal expansion or compression of an ideal gas whose
equation of state is given by
pV ¼ mRT:
The work done can be calculated by substituting for the pressure, p, hence,
ZV f
mRT
W¼ dV: ð1:20Þ
V
Vi
Since the process of expansion or compression is isothermal (the temperature

T remaining constant during the process), then by performing the integration we
obtain

Vf
W ¼ mRT ln , ð1:21Þ
Vi
where ln in the latter equation denotes the natural logarithm. If Vf>Vi the system does
work on its surroundings and, on the other hand, if Vf<Vi, the surroundings does
work on the system, that is, the system is compressed.
1.3.5 Reversible Adiabatic Process for an Ideal Gas
Let us now consider a change in a system that undergoes an adiabatic process, that
is, changes take place to the system without the addition or removal of heat, hence,
dq ¼ 0. During the process the system departs very little from thermodynamic
equilibrium, so that the change taking place in going from some initial state to
some final state goes through a sequence of equilibrium states. The mathematical
statement of the first law of thermodynamics in infinitesimal form is
dq ¼ de þ pdυ
¼ cV dT þ pdυ: ð1:22Þ
Using the ideal gas law, we have
1
dT ¼ ðpdυ þ υdpÞ
R
and substituting this latter relationship in Eq. (1.22), gives
cV
dq ¼ ðpdυ þ υdpÞ þ pdυ
R
cV c
¼ υdp þ P pdυ:
R R
If the process is adiabatic, dq ¼ 0, hence,
dp dυ
þ γ ¼ 0, ð1:23Þ
p υ
where γ ¼ cP/cV is the ratio of the specific heats. Integrating Eq. (1.23), gives
pυγ ¼ constant ð1:24Þ
or in terms of the density, we have
p
¼ constant: ð1:25Þ
ργ
By using the equation for an ideal gas, one can show that the following relation-
ships apply for an adiabatic process;
T
γ1 ¼ constant and Tυγ1 ¼ constant: ð1:26Þ
p γ
1.3.6 Work Done by an Ideal Gas During an Adiabatic

Expansion
Having established the relationships between the thermodynamic coordinates during

an adiabatic process, let us now determine the work done during an adiabatic
expansion. Writing again the mathematical expression for the first law of thermo-
dynamics as
dq ¼ cV dT þ dW: ð1:27Þ
Since the process is adiabatic, dq ¼ 0, hence,
dW ¼ cV dT ð1:28Þ
and integrating gives

W ¼ cV T i T f , ð1:29Þ
where Ti and Tf are the initial and final temperatures, respectively. Since the
process in going from Ti to Tf passes through equilibrium states, we can use the
ideal gas equation and write the latter equation as
cV
W¼ pi υ i p f υ f ð1:30Þ
R
and using the fact that R ¼ cP cV in conjunction with γ ¼ cP/cV Eq. (1.30) becomes
pi υi p f υ f
W¼ : ð1:31Þ
γ1
Alternatively, by using the relationship between p and υ for an adiabatic process,

one can show that the work done by an ideal gas during an adiabatic expansion is
" γ1 #
pi υ i pf γ
W¼ 1 : ð1:32Þ
γ1 pi
1.3.7 Alternate Form of the Equations for Specific Internal

Energy and Enthalpy
Having defined γ as the ratio of the specific heats we can write
cV pυ
e ¼ cV T ¼ pυ ¼ , ð1:33Þ
R γ1
or in terms of the density ρ as
p
e¼ : ð1:34Þ
ðγ 1Þρ
Similarly,
γp
h¼ : ð1:35Þ
ðγ 1Þρ
1.3.8 Ratio of the Specific Heats for Air
Let us now consider the values for cV and cP or, more specifically, the value of γ for
air. In relation to the Kinetic Theory of Gases, the principle of equipartition of
energy states that the energy associated with each degree of freedom of an atom or
molecule is (1/2)kBT, where kB is Boltzmann’s constant (kB ¼ 1.38 1023JK1).
Each atom or molecule has three translational degrees of freedom; namely, in the
x, y and z-directions, giving (3/2)kBT for its internal energy.
One mole, corresponding to the molecular weight M, contains NA atoms or
molecules (NA ¼ 6.02 1023), so that the specific internal energy of one mole is
(3/2)NAkBT ¼ (3/2)ℜT, where ℜ ¼ NAkB is the universal gas constant.
Air comprises largely N2 and O2 molecules and each molecule contributes two
rotational degrees of freedom in addition to the translational degrees, hence, the
specific internal energy for air amounts to (5/2)RT and the specific enthalpy amounts
to (7/2)RT, hence,
5 7
e ¼ RT and h ¼ RT ð1:36Þ
2 2
and therefore γ ¼ 7/5 ¼ 1.4 for air.

1.3.9 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics was formulated following many attempts

undertaken for the efficient conversion of heat into work and, as such, its early
development was very much focused on engineering applications related to heat
engine efficiency. The second law can be stated in many different ways. The Kelvin-
Planck statement in the context of heat engines can be expressed in the following
manner; “No process is possible whose sole effect is the absorption of heat from a
temperature reservoir and the conversion of this heat completely into work”. The
second law, like the first, is expressed in negative terms like “it is not possible” and,
consequently, the second law places limits on what can be achieved.
When the isothermal expansion of an ideal gas was considered in Sect. 1.3.4 it
was evident that there was no change in the internal energy E of the system. In this
context, one can regard the system as a cylinder fitted with a piston and in contact
with an external reservoir at a constant temperature T as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Since ΔE ¼ 0 for the isothermal process, this implies that Q ¼ W so that all the
heat transfer from the single reservoir has been converted into work and it would
appear that the second law has been violated in this process. Certainly, all the heat
has been converted into work but this is not the “the sole effect” for the process as
specified in the Kelvin-Planck statement of the law: instead, the piston has moved
from some initial position to some final position during the expansion and, accord-
ingly, the absorption of heat and the conversion of this heat completely into work is
not the “sole effect”. It would be necessary for the piston to return to its initial
position following the process of heat transfer and this explains why heat engines
work in a cyclic manner.
A thermodynamic property of a system exists, called the entropy, S, which was
introduced into thermodynamics by Clausius, and an infinitesimal change in this
property is given by
dQrev
dS ¼ , ð1:37Þ
T
Fig. 1.1 Isothermal

expansion of an ideal gas in initial final
contact with a constant
temperature reservoir piston
reservoir T
where the subscript rev on dQ implies that the heat transfer must occur reversibly.3
In the case of a finite change from some initial (i) state to a final ( f ) state, the entropy
change of the system is given by
Zf
dQrev
S f Si ¼ ð1:38Þ
T
i
and the integral must be evaluated along any reversible path connecting the initial
and final states. Entropy, like internal energy, is a property of the system; hence, the
change Sf Si is independent of the path connecting the two states. For a reversible
adiabatic process, dQrev ¼ 0, so that dS ¼ 0, hence, the entropy remains constant and
the process is called isentropic. An adiabatic process is one in which no heat
exchange occurs between the system and its surroundings, so, in general, an adia-
batic process is not necessarily isentropic; the process must be reversible for it to be
isentropic.
If a system undergoes an irreversible process between an initial and a final state as
illustrated in Fig. 1.2, then the change in entropy ΔS is given by
ΔS ¼ S f Si ,
where it is assumed that these initial and final states are equilibrium states. One can
calculate this change in entropy by replacing the irreversible path (broken line in
Fig. 1.2) by any reversible path connecting these initial and final states. The change
in entropy can be obtained by evaluating the integral,
Fig. 1.2 The reversible p

path iAf replaces the
irreversible path to calculate
the entropy change for the initial i
irreversible process shown
state A
(see text)
irreversible
final
process state
f
V
3
A reversible process is one in which the system and its surroundings can be restored to their initial
states following the conclusion of the process without causing any changes elsewhere.
1.4 Conservation Equations in Plane Geometry 13
Z
dQ
T
iAf
where, for example, the integration is carried out for the reversible path iAf that is
shown in Fig. 1.2: the path, i ! A is taken as a constant pressure process and the path
A ! f is taken as a constant volume process.
In calculating any entropy changes one must also include the entropy change of
the surroundings that interact with the system. Hence, the total entropy change is
specified as the entropy change of the universe which is equal to the entropy change
of the system plus the entropy change of the surrounding environment and is given
by
ΔSTotal ¼ ΔSsystem þ ΔSsurroundings : ð1:39Þ
When the second law for a closed system is expressed in terms of entropy change,
we have
ΔSTotal 0, ð1:40Þ
where the equality sign applies to a reversible process and the inequality sign applies
to an irreversible process. Therefore, reversible processes produce no change in the
entropy of the universe while all irreversible processes result in an increase in the
entropy of the universe.
1.4 Conservation Equations in Plane Geometry
Let us now provide a brief review of the one-dimensional equations of fluid flow for
plane geometry. These are the conservation equations for mass, momentum and
energy.
1.4.1 Equation of Mass Conservation: The Continuity

Equation
The continuity equation can be obtained by considering the mass of fluid entering
and leaving a small element of volume Adx lying between x and x + dx as shown in
Fig. 1.3. It is assumed that the motion is one-dimensional so that velocity, density
and pressure are constant over the cross-sectional area A. Mass conservation implies
that the difference between the mass flow rate into the volume element and the mass
flow rate out of the volume element is equal to the rate of accumulation of mass
within the volume element.
Fig. 1.3 Fluid entering and

leaving a small volume
element is shown
The mass of fluid entering

from the left-hand side in a time interval dt is Aρudt
∂
and the mass leaving is A ρu þ ∂x ðρuÞdx dt. Hence, the net increase of mass per unit
time in this volume element is

∂
A ðρuÞdx
∂x
and this must be equal to the rate of increase of mass within this element, that is, Adx
(∂ρ/∂t), hence the one-dimensional continuity equation in Eulerian form is
∂ρ ∂
þ ðρuÞ ¼ 0: ð1:41Þ
∂t ∂x
By writing this latter equation as,
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
þu þρ ¼ 0,
∂t ∂x ∂x
we have the following Lagrangian form of the continuity equation,
Dρ ∂u
¼ ρ , ð1:42Þ
Dt ∂x
while the 3-dimensional form of the latter equation is
Dρ ! !
¼ ρ∇ V : ð1:43Þ
Dt
with
!
V ¼ ðu, v, wÞ
where u, v and w are the velocity components in the x, y and z-directions, respec-
tively, and the gradient operator is

! ∂ ∂ ∂
∇¼ , , :
∂x ∂y ∂z
In terms of its components Eq. (1.43) becomes,

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂v ∂w
þu þv þw ¼ ρ þ þ
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
or
∂ρ ∂ðρuÞ ∂ðρvÞ ∂ðρwÞ

þ þ þ ¼ 0:
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
By writing the derivative in Eq. (1.42) in terms of the specific volume υ ¼ 1/ρ
rather than the density ρ we have,
Dυ ∂u
ρ ¼ : ð1:44Þ
Dt ∂x
1.4.2 Equation of Motion: The Momentum Equation
The law of the conservation of momentum implies that the rate of change in
momentum of the fluid in a volume element between x and x + dx is equal to the
rate at which momentum flows into the volume element at x minus the rate at which
momentum flows out at x + dx plus the net force acting on the volume element.
Expressing this mathematically, we have [8],
∂
ðρuÞAdx ¼ ρðx, t Þu2 ðx, t ÞA ρðx þ dx, t Þu2 ðx þ dx, t ÞA þ pðx, t ÞA
∂t
pðx þ dx, t ÞA
hence,
∂ ∂ ∂pðx, t Þ
ðρuÞAdx ¼ ρðx, t Þu2 ðx, t Þ Adx Adx,
∂t ∂x ∂x
so that
∂ ∂ 2 ∂p
ðρuÞ þ ρu ¼ , ð1:45Þ
∂t ∂x ∂x
which is the momentum equation. By using the continuity equation it is easy to show
that the latter equation can be written in final form as
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
þu ¼ , ð1:46Þ
∂t ∂x ρ ∂x
which is the one-dimensional form of Euler’s equation of motion. The Lagrangian

form of this one-dimensional equation is
Du ∂p
ρ ¼ , ð1:47Þ
Dt ∂x
and for the sake of completeness, the 3-dimensional form of Eq. (1.47) can be
obtained by noting that u, in general, is a function of x, y and z, hence,
u ¼ uðx, y, z, t Þ
and, therefore,
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
du ¼ dt þ dx þ dy þ dz,
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
accordingly,
Du du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
¼ þu þv þw ,
Dt dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
which can be written in vector notation as,
Du ∂u ! !
¼ þ V ∇u,
Dt ∂t
!
where V is given by
!
V ¼ ubx þ vby þ wbz
and (u, v, w) are the velocity components in the x, y and z-directions, respectively,
and ðbx, by,bzÞ are unit vectors in these directions, hence, Eq. (1.47) becomes,
Du ∂u ! ! ∂p
ρ ¼ρ þ ρV ∇u ¼ ð1:48aÞ
Dt ∂t ∂x
Similarly, with v ¼ v(x, y, z, t) and w ¼ w(x, y, z, t), we have the following

additional equations for the other components of the velocity,
Dv ∂v ! ! ∂p
ρ ¼ ρ þ ρV ∇v ¼ ð1:48bÞ
Dt ∂t ∂y
Dw ∂w ! ! ∂p
ρ ¼ρ þ ρV ∇w ¼ ; ð1:48cÞ
Dt ∂t ∂z
leading to the following momentum equations in the x, y and z-directions,

respectively.

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p
ρ þu þv þw ¼ ð1:49aÞ
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p
ρ þu þv þw ¼ ð1:49bÞ
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y

∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p
ρ þu þv þw ¼ ð1:49cÞ
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z
1.4.3 Energy Balance Equation
Let us now consider how the energy within the small volume element Adx changes
with time, this energy is comprised of two parts; kinetic energy due to gas motion
and internal energy due to molecular motion. The rate of change of this energy with
time is
2
∂ u
ρ þ e Adx
∂t 2
where e is the internal energy per unit mass (for an ideal gas e ¼ p/(γ 1)ρ). This
rate is equal to the rate of flow of energy into this volume element at x minus the rate
of flow of energy out of the volume element at x + dx, plus the rate at which pressure
forces does work at x minus the rate at which pressure forces does work at x + dx.
Expressing this mathematically, we have [8],
2 h i
∂ u 1
ρ þ e Adx ¼ ρðx, t Þu2 ðx, t Þ þ ρðx, t Þeðx, t Þ uðx, t ÞA
∂t 2 2
h i
1
ρðx þ dx, t Þu2 ðx þ dx, t Þ þ ρðx þ dx, t Þeðx þ dx, t Þ uðx þ dx, t ÞAþ
2
pðx, t Þuðx, t ÞA pðx þ dx, t Þuðx þ dx, t ÞA:
By carrying out a Taylor expansion to first order in dx, namely, for example,
ρðx þ dx, t Þ ¼ ρðx, t Þ þ ∂ρ
∂x
dx with similar expansions for u(x + dx, t) and e(x + dx, t),
it is straightforward to show (after neglecting terms of the order of dx2) that
2
∂ u 3 2 ∂u u3 ∂ρ ∂e ∂u ∂ρ
ρ þ e Adx ¼ Adx ρu þ þ ρu þ ρe þ ue
∂t 2 2 ∂x 2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂ðpuÞ
Adx
∂x

∂ ρu3 ∂ ∂ðpuÞ
¼ Adx þ ðuρeÞ Adx
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x
2
∂ u ∂ðpuÞ
¼ Adx ρu þ e Adx :
∂x 2 ∂x
Hence,
2 2
∂ u ∂ u
ρ þe þ ρu þ e þ pu ¼ 0, ð1:50Þ
∂t 2 ∂x 2
which is the one-dimensional energy balance equation in Eulerian form. The three
equations; continuity, motion and energy are supplemented by two other equations;
an equation of state of the form, p ¼ p(ρ, T) and a caloric equation of the form, e ¼ e
(ρ, T ). For an ideal gas we have already seen that these equations are p ¼ ρRT and
e ¼ cVT ¼ p/ρ(γ 1), respectively. These five equations are sufficient to determine
all five quantities, u, p, ρ, Tand e. It is important to note that external forces such as
gravity as well viscous forces have been neglected in the momentum equation;
similarly, heat transport arising from temperature gradients as well as viscous forces
have also been neglected in the energy balance equation. In real fluids, however,
these quantities are never quite zero but in the case of idealized flow the neglect of
these quantities forms a substantial and useful part of fluid dynamics.
Writing Eq. (1.50) as
∂ ∂
½ρϖ þ ½ρuϖ þ pu ¼ 0
∂t ∂x
2
where ϖ ¼ u2 þ e. Hence,
∂ ∂
½ρϖ þ ½uðρϖ þ pÞ ¼ 0
∂t ∂x
and carrying out the differentiation we have
∂ ∂ ∂u
ðρϖ Þ þ u ðρϖ þ pÞ þ ðρϖ þ pÞ ¼0
∂t ∂x ∂x
and expanding we obtain,
∂ ∂ ∂p ∂u ∂u
ðρϖ Þ þ u ðρϖ Þ þ u þ ρϖ þp ¼ 0:
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Hence,
∂ϖ ∂ρ ∂ϖ ∂ρ ∂p ∂u ∂u
ρ þϖ þ uρ þ uϖ þu þ ρϖ þp ¼0
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
and collecting terms we have

∂ϖ ∂ϖ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂p ∂u ∂u
ρ þu þϖ þu þu þ ρϖ þp ¼ 0,
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
which can be written as

∂ϖ ∂ϖ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂p ∂u
ρ þu þϖ þu þρ þu þp ¼ 0:
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
The quantity in square brackets in the latter equation goes to zero as we recognise
it as the terms appearing in the continuity equation, hence,

∂ϖ ∂ϖ ∂p ∂u
ρ þu þu þp ¼0 ð1:51Þ
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
2
Now using; ϖ ¼ u2 þ e, we have
∂ϖ ∂u ∂e ∂ϖ ∂u ∂e
¼u þ and ¼u þ
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
and substituting these relationships in Eq. (1.51) we have

∂e ∂e ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂u
ρ þu þu ρ þu þ þp ¼ 0:
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
Similarly, the quantity in square brackets in this latter equation goes to zero
according to the momentum equation; hence,

∂e ∂e ∂u
ρ þu þp ¼ 0:
∂t ∂x ∂x
By substituting for ∂u/∂x using the continuity equation this latter equation can be
written in the following form;

∂e ∂e p ∂ρ ∂ρ
ρ þu þu ¼0 ð1:52Þ
∂t ∂x ρ ∂t ∂x
or writing it in Lagrangian form as
De p Dρ
ρ ¼ 0: ð1:53Þ
Dt ρ Dt
As ρ ¼ 1/υ, where υ is the specific volume (that is, the volume per unit mass of
material), then
Dρ Dυ
¼ ρ2 ,
Dt Dt
so that the energy balance equation in Lagrangian form becomes,
De Dυ
¼ p : ð1:54Þ
Dt Dt
If the caloric equation for an ideal gas in the form,
pυ
e¼
γ1
is substituted in Eq. (1.54) it is easy to verify that
Dðpυγ Þ
¼ 0,
Dt
so that

∂ ∂
þu ðpυγ Þ ¼ 0:
∂t ∂x
It is important to appreciate that this result has been obtained by assuming that the
fluid element is non-conducting, devoid of viscosity and obeys the ideal gas equation
1.5 Constancy of the Entropy with Time for a Fluid Element 21
with constant heat capacities. The latter equation implies that the product pυγ
remains constant as we follow the fluid element in its motion. If, for example, the
fluid element has pressure p0 and specific volume υ0 at some instant in time, then its
pressure p and specific volume υ at later times are related according to the equation,
pυγ ¼ p0 υγ0 :
Consequently, the quantity pυγ remains constant in the flow and, as such, it
assumes the status of a state variable which, we will see in the subsequent discussion,
is related to another state variable called the specific entropy s, where we show in
Sect. 1.6 that
s ¼ cV ln ðpυγ Þ þ constant:
1.5 Constancy of the Entropy with Time for a Fluid

Element
Provided the fluid motion experiences no abrupt changes in any of the quantities, u,p
or ρ etc., the conservation of energy implies the constancy of entropy [9, 10]. Accord-
ingly, if the fluid element is in thermodynamic equilibrium during the motion the
entropy of a fluid element will remain constant with time. In order to see this we need
to consider reversible changes taking place in thermodynamic systems. For a
reversible thermodynamic change we have [11],
TdS ¼ dE þ pdV
where dS is the change in entropy, dE is the change in internal energy and pdV
represents the work done in the process. Writing the latter equation as
dE ¼ TdS pdV
and dividing both sides of this latter equation by the mass m of a fluid element we
have
de ¼ Tds pdυ
where e is the internal energy per unit mass, ds is the entropy change per unit mass
and υ is the specific volume. As υ ¼ 1/ρ, we have dυ ¼ (1/ρ2)dρ, so that
p
de ¼ Tds þ dρ: ð1:55Þ
ρ2
Expressing the internal energy e as a function of s and ρ, we can write
e ¼ eðs, ρÞ,
so that

∂e ∂e
de ¼ ds þ dρ: ð1:56Þ
∂s ρ ∂ρ s
Hence, by comparing Eqs. (1.55) and (1.56) we have,

∂e p ∂e
T¼ and ¼ ð1:57Þ
∂s ρ ρ2 ∂ρ s
From Eq. (1.56) we can write the following two equations;

∂e ∂e ∂s ∂e ∂ρ
¼ þ
∂t ∂s ρ ∂t ∂ρ s ∂t
and

∂e ∂e ∂s ∂e ∂ρ
¼ þ ,
∂x ∂s ρ ∂x ∂ρ s ∂x
hence
∂e ∂s p ∂ρ
¼T þ
∂t ∂t ρ2 ∂t
and
∂e ∂s p ∂ρ
¼T þ ,
∂x ∂x ρ2 ∂x
after using Eq. (1.57). Substituting these latter two equations in Eq. (1.52) we obtain,

∂s p ∂ρ ∂s up ∂ρ p ∂ρ ∂ρ
ρ T þ þ uT þ þu ¼ 0,
∂t ρ2 ∂t ∂x ρ2 ∂x ρ ∂t ∂x
so that
1.6 Entropy Change for an Ideal Gas 23

∂s ∂s
ρT þu ¼0
∂t ∂x
or
Ds
¼ 0: ð1:58Þ
Dt
This equation implies that the entropy of the fluid element or particle does not
change with time along the element’s path of motion and, as a result, the flow is
called isentropic. However, if discontinuities, such as, shock waves occur in the
flow, even in the case of an ideal fluid, there will be an increase in entropy across the
discontinuity and the equation Ds/Dt ¼ 0 no longer applies.
1.6 Entropy Change for an Ideal Gas
If the fluid is an ideal gas, we can calculate the entropy change (per unit mass) as
follows;
Tds ¼ de þ pdυ and pυ ¼ RT
Hence,
cV dT pdυ
ds ¼ þ ,
T T
where de ¼ cVdT, therefore,

pdυ þ υdp Rdυ
ds ¼ cV þ
pυ υ
dυ dp
¼ ðcV þ RÞ þ cV ,
υ p
where cP ¼ cV + R, hence,
dυ dp
ds ¼ cP þ cV ,
υ p
therefore,
ds dυ dp
¼γ þ ,
cV υ p
where γ ¼ cP/cV. Integrating the latter equation we have
Zs Zυ Zp
ds dυ dp
¼γ þ ,
cV υ p
s0 υ0 p0
hence,
s s0 υ p pυγ
¼ γ ln þ ln ¼ ln ,
cV υ0 p0 p0 υ 0 γ
so that
pυγ ss0
γ ¼ e cV :
p0 υ 0
Accordingly, constancy of the entropy as expressed by Eq. (1.58) implies that the
fluid element lies on the same adiabatic curve when it commenced its motion, hence,

∂ ∂
þu ðpυγ Þ ¼ 0, ð1:59Þ
∂t ∂x
or expressed in terms of the density ρ as,

∂ ∂
þu ðpργ Þ ¼ 0: ð1:60Þ
∂t ∂x
1.7 Spherical Geometry
Let us now turn our attention to the conservation equations in spherical geometry as
we will be requiring these equations later on when spherical motion is discussed.
Initially, we will present the general form of these equations in spherical coordinates
before considering the case where the motion is confined to take place in the radial
direction and the equations reduce to their one-dimensional form.
1.7 Spherical Geometry 25
Initially, we will spend some time developing various vector relationships that
will be required for writing the conservation equations in spherical geometry.
Relationships Between the Unit Vectors
!
In a Cartesian coordinate system the position vector r is given by the equation,
!
r ¼ xbx þ yby þ zbz,
where bx, by and bz are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions, respectively. In terms of
the spherical coordinate system as shown in Fig. 1.4, the latter equation becomes,
!
r ¼ ðrSinθCosϕÞbx þ ðrSinθSinϕÞby þ ðrCosθÞbz,
since x ¼ rSinθCosϕ, y ¼ rSinθSinϕ and z ¼ rCosθ from Fig. 1.4. Tangent vectors in
! ! !
the r, θ, ϕ directions are given by ∂ r =∂r, ∂ r =∂θ and ∂ r =∂ϕ, respectively, and
unit vectors (br , b b in these directions as shown in Fig. 1.4 are given by
θ, ϕ)
! ! !
∂ r =∂r b ∂ r =∂θ b ¼ ∂ r =∂ϕ :
br ¼ ! , θ¼ ! and ϕ !
∂ r =∂r ∂ r =∂θ ∂ r =∂ϕ
!
By carrying out the differentiation of the vector r as prescribed by these latter
equations, we obtain the following set of relationships for the unit vectors in the
spherical coordinate system in terms of the unit vectors in the Cartesian coordinate
system,
Fig. 1.4 Spherical (r, θ, ϕ)

coordinate system is shown
with unit vectors in the br , b
θ
b directions
and ϕ
br ¼ ðSinθCosϕÞbx þ ðSinθSinϕÞby þ ðCosθÞbz
b
θ ¼ ðCosθCosϕÞbx þ ðCosθSinϕÞby ðSinθÞbz
b ¼ ðSinϕÞbx þ ðCosϕÞby
ϕ
or in matrix form the latter three equations can be written as

0 1 0 10 1
br SinθCosϕ SinθSinϕ Cosθ bx
BbC B CB C
@ θ A ¼ @ CosθCosϕ CosθSinϕ Sinθ A@ by A:
b
ϕ Sinϕ Cosϕ 0 bz
By forming the following dot products, namely, br b b and ϕ

θ, br ϕ b b
θ, it is easy to
b b
show that these unit vectors are orthogonal, that is, br θ ¼ 0, br ϕ ¼ 0 and ϕ b bθ¼0
. Inverting the above matrix we find that
0 1 0 10 1
bx SinθCosϕ CosθCosϕ Sinϕ br
B C B CB b C
@ by A ¼ @ SinθSinϕ CosθSinϕ Cosϕ A@ θ A:
bz Cosθ Sinθ 0 b
ϕ
Derivatives of the Unit Vectors

Later on we will be requiring various derivatives when dealing with the momentum
and continuity equations; accordingly, we obtain the following results from the
previous equations;
∂br ∂b
θ b
∂ϕ
¼ 0, ¼ 0 and ¼0
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂br
¼ ðCosθCosϕÞbx þ ðCosθSinϕÞby ðSinθÞbz ¼ b
θ
∂θ
∂b
θ
¼ ðSinθCosϕÞbx ðSinθSinϕÞby ðCosθÞbz ¼ br
∂θ
b
∂ϕ
¼0
∂θ
∂br b
¼ ðSinθSinϕÞbx þ ðSinθCosϕÞby ¼ ϕSinθ
∂ϕ
∂b
θ b
¼ ðCosθSinϕÞbx þ ðCosθCosϕÞby ¼ ϕCosθ
∂ϕ
b
∂ϕ
¼ ðCosϕÞbx ðSinϕÞby ¼ ðSinθÞbr ðCosθÞb
θ
∂ϕ
Incremental Vector Path in Spherical Coordinates

!
An expression for a small increment in the vector path length d r in terms of the
spherical coordinates is given by

! ∂br ∂br ∂br
d r ¼ dðrbr Þ ¼ br dr þ rdbr ¼ br dr þ r dr þ dθ þ dϕ
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
and by using the previous relationships for the derivatives of these unit vectors we
can write the previous equation in the form,
!
d r ¼ br dr þ b b
θrdθ þ ϕrSinθdϕ:
→
The Vector Differential Operator del, Written as — , in Spherical Coordinates
!
The differential operator ∇ in a Cartesian coordinate system is
! ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ¼ bx þ by þ bz ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
and we need to express this operator in terms of the unit vectors br , b b in the
θ, ϕ
spherical coordinate system. In order to so this, let us consider a function Ψ that
depends on r, θ, ϕ, that is, Ψ ¼ Ψ(r, θ, ϕ), then the derivative dΨ is
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
dΨ ¼ dr þ dθ þ dϕ
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
and this can also be written as
! !
dΨ ¼ ∇Ψ d r
! ! !
¼ ∇Ψ dr þ ∇Ψ rdθ þ ∇Ψ rSinθdϕ,
r θ ϕ
!
after substituting for d r , hence,
! ∂Ψ ! 1 ∂Ψ ! 1 ∂Ψ
∇Ψ ¼ , ∇Ψ ¼ and ∇Ψ ¼
r ∂r θ r ∂θ ϕ rSinθ ∂ϕ
and, therefore, the vector differential operator in spherical coordinates becomes,
! ∂ b1 ∂ b 1 ∂ :
∇ ¼ br þθ þϕ ð1:61Þ
∂r r ∂θ rSinθ ∂ϕ
→
Divergence of a Vector A in Spherical Coordinates
! !
Performing the following dot product of ∇ with the vector A we have

! ! ∂ 1 ∂ b 1 ∂ Arbr þ Aθ b
∇ A ¼ br þ b
θ þϕ b
θ þ Aϕ ϕ
∂ ∂ ∂
¼ br ðArbr Þ þ br Aθ b
θ þ br b
Aϕ ϕ
∂r ∂r ∂r
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
þb
θ ðA br Þ þ b θ Abθ þb θ A ϕb
r ∂θ r r ∂θ θ r ∂θ ϕ
b 1 ∂ ðArbr Þ þ ϕ
þϕ b 1 ∂ Aθ b θ þϕ b 1 ∂ Aϕ ϕb
rSinθ ∂ϕ rSinθ ∂ϕ rSinθ ∂ϕ
Carrying out the differentiation of the various terms and by using the previously
developed derivatives of the unit vectors, we find that the latter equation reduces to,
! ! ∂Ar Ar 1 ∂Aθ Ar Aθ Cosθ 1 ∂Aϕ

∇A ¼ þ þ þ þ þ ,
∂r r r ∂θ r rSinθ rSinθ ∂ϕ
and this is generally written in the following standard form,
! ! 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ
∇A ¼ r Ar þ ðAθ SinθÞ þ : ð1:62Þ
r ∂r
2 rSinθ ∂θ rSinθ ∂ϕ
This completes our brief look at the various relationships that are required for the
subsequent discussion of the conservation equations in spherical geometry.
1.7.1 Continuity Equation
From Eq. (1.43) we have
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ! !
þu þv þw þ ρ∇ V ¼ 0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
which can be written as
∂ρ ! ! ! !
þ V ∇ρ þ ρ∇ V ¼ 0
∂t
and, therefore, this latter equation becomes
∂ρ ! !
þ ∇ ρV ¼ 0:
∂t
This is the vector form of the continuity equation. Using Eq. (1.62) in this latter
equation we obtain the following continuity equation in spherical geometry;

∂ρ 1 ∂ðρr 2 ur Þ 1 ∂ðρuθ SinθÞ 1 ∂ ρuϕ
þ þ þ ¼ 0,
∂t r 2 ∂r rSinθ ∂θ rSinθ ∂ϕ
!
with V ¼ urbr þ uθ b b where ur, uθ and uϕ are the components of the velocity
θ þ uϕ ϕ,
b b
vector in the br , θ and ϕ directions, respectively. If the motion takes place purely in
the radial direction (uθ ¼ 0 and uϕ ¼ 0), then the latter equation becomes
∂ρ 1 ∂ðρr 2 ur Þ
þ ¼ 0,
∂t r 2 ∂r
and by carrying out the differentiation we obtain the following continuity equation,

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u 2u
þu þρ þ ¼ 0, ð1:63Þ
∂t ∂r ∂r r
where we have set u ¼ ur as the material velocity is assumed to be wholly in the

radial direction.
1.7.2 Equation of Motion
Recalling Eq. (1.48) and writing the components of the equation of motion in the
form,
∂u ! ! 1 ∂p
þ V ∇ u¼
∂t ρ ∂x
∂v ! ! 1 ∂p
þ V ∇ v¼
∂t ρ ∂y
∂w ! ! 1 ∂p
þ V ∇ w¼ :
∂t ρ ∂z
Multiplying the first of these equations above by bx, the second equation by by and
the third equation by bz, yielding,
∂ubx ! ! 1 ∂p
þ V ∇ ubx ¼ bx ,
∂t ρ ∂x
∂vby ! ! 1 ∂p
þ V ∇ vby ¼ by
∂t ρ ∂y
∂wbz ! ! 1 ∂p
þ V ∇ wbz ¼ bz ,
∂t ρ ∂z
by adding all three components of the above equation we can write it as a single
equation in the form,

∂ ! ! 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
ðubx þ vby þ wbzÞ þ V ∇ ðubx þ vby þ wbzÞ ¼ bx þ by þ bz p,
∂t ρ ∂x ∂y ∂z
which gives the following momentum equation for inviscid flow in vector notation,
!
∂V ! ! ! 1!
þ V ∇ V ¼ ∇p, ð1:64Þ
∂t ρ
! !
where V ¼ ubx þ vby þ wbz and ∇ ¼ bxð∂=∂xÞ þ byð∂=∂yÞ þ bzð∂=∂zÞ.
!
We have already noted that the velocity vector V in terms of the orthogonal
spherical velocity components, ur, uθ, uϕ, is given by
!
V ¼ urbr þ uθ b b
θ þ uϕ ϕ
!
and we have shown that the vector differential operator ∇ for this spherical
coordinate system is
! ∂ b1 ∂ b 1 ∂ ,
∇ ¼ br þθ þϕ
! !
hence V ∇ in Eq. (1.64) becomes,
! ! ∂ uθ ∂ uϕ ∂
V ∇ ¼ ur þ þ
! ! !
and forming the product V ∇ V we have

! ! ! ∂ uθ ∂ uϕ ∂
V ∇ V ¼ ur þ þ urbr þ uθ b b
θ þ uϕ ϕ
∂ ∂ ∂ b þ uθ ∂ ðurbr Þ þ uθ ∂ uθ b
¼ ur ðurbr Þ þ ur uθ b
θ þ uϕ ϕ θ
∂r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ
u ∂ b þ uϕ ∂ ðurbr Þ þ uϕ ∂ uθ b uϕ ∂ b :
þ θ uϕ ϕ θ þ u ϕ
r ∂θ rSinθ ∂ϕ rSinθ ∂ϕ rSinθ ∂ϕ ϕ
Carrying out the differentiation in this latter equation and using the previously
established results for the derivatives of the unit vectors, we can write the r-compo-
nent, the θ-component and the ϕ-component of Eq.(1.64), in the following form,
∂ur ∂u u ∂ur uϕ ∂ur u2θ þ u2ϕ 1 ∂p

þ ur r þ θ þ ¼
∂t ∂r r ∂θ rSinθ ∂ϕ r ρ ∂r
∂uθ ∂u u ∂uθ uϕ ∂uθ ur uθ u2ϕ 1 ∂p

þ ur θ þ θ þ þ Cotθ ¼
∂t ∂r r ∂θ rSinθ ∂ϕ r r ρr ∂θ
∂uϕ ∂uϕ uθ ∂uϕ uϕ ∂uϕ ur uϕ uθ uϕ 1 ∂p

þ ur þ þ þ þ Cotθ ¼ :
∂t ∂r r ∂θ rSinθ ∂ϕ r r ρrSinθ ∂ϕ
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smoothbore, his mother a pair of the famous La Roche dueling
pistols and a prayer book. The family priest gave him a rosary and
cross and enjoined him to pray frequently. Traveling all summer, they
arrived at Lake Winnipeg in the autumn and wintered there. As soon
as the ice went out in the spring the journey was continued and one
afternoon in July, Monroe beheld Mountain Fort, a new post of the
company’s not far from the Rocky Mountains.
“Around about it were encamped thousands of Blackfeet waiting
to trade for the goods the flotilla had brought up and to obtain on
credit ammunition, fukes (trade guns), traps and tobacco. As yet the
company had no Blackfoot interpreter. The factor perceiving that
Monroe was a youth of more than ordinary intelligence at once
detailed him to live and travel with the Piegans (a Blackfoot tribe)
and learn their language, also to see that they returned to Mountain
Fort with their furs the succeeding summer. Word had been received
that, following the course of Lewis and Clarke, American traders
were yearly pushing farther and farther westward and had even
reached the mouth of the Yellowstone. The company feared their
competition. Monroe was to do his best to prevent it.
“‘At last,’ Monroe told me, ‘the day came for our departure, and I
set out with the chiefs and medicine men at the head of the long
procession. There were eight hundred lodges of the Piegans there,
about eight thousand souls. They owned thousands of horses. Oh,
but it was a grand sight to see that long column of riders and pack
animals, and loose horses trooping over the plains. We traveled on
southward all the long day, and about an hour or two before
sundown we came to the rim of a valley through which flowed a
cotton wood-bordered stream. We dismounted at the top of the hill,
and spread our robes intending to sit there until the procession
passed by into the bottom and put up the lodges. A medicine man
produced a large stone pipe, filled it and attempted to light it with flint
and steel and a bit of punk (rotten wood), but somehow he could get
no spark. I motioned him to hand it to me, and drawing my sunglass
from my pocket, I got the proper focus and set the tobacco afire,
drawing several mouthfuls of smoke through the long stem.
“‘As one man all those round about sprang to their feet and
rushed toward me, shouting and gesticulating as if they had gone
crazy. I also jumped up, terribly frightened, for I thought they were
going to do me harm, perhaps kill me. The pipe was wrenched out of
my grasp by the chief himself, who eagerly began to smoke and
pray. He had drawn but a whiff or two when another seized it, and
from him it was taken by still another. Others turned and harangued
the passing column; men and women sprang from their horses and
joined the group, mothers pressing close and rubbing their babes
against me, praying earnestly meanwhile. I recognized a word that I
had already learned—Natos—Sun—and suddenly the meaning of
the commotion became clear; they thought that I was Great
Medicine; that I had called upon the Sun himself to light the pipe,
and that he had done so. The mere act of holding up my hand above
the pipe was a supplication to their God. They had perhaps not
noticed the glass, or if they had, had thought it some secret charm or
amulet. At all events I had suddenly become a great personage, and
from then on the utmost consideration and kindness was accorded to
me.
“‘When I entered Lone Walker’s lodge that evening—he was the
chief, and my host—I was greeted by deep growls from either side of
the doorway, and was horrified to see two nearly grown grizzly bears
acting as if about to spring upon me. I stopped and stood quite still,
but I believe that my hair was rising; I know that my flesh felt to be
shrinking. I was not kept in suspense. Lone Walker spoke to his pets,
and they immediately lay down, noses between their paws, and I
passed on to the place pointed out to me, the first couch at the
chief’s left hand. It was some time before I became accustomed to
the bears, but we finally came to a sort of understanding with one
another. They ceased growling at me as I passed in and out of the
lodge, but would never allow me to touch them, bristling up and
preparing to fight if I attempted to do so. In the following spring they
disappeared one night and were never seen again.’
“Think how the youth, Rising Wolf, must have felt as he
journeyed southward over the vast plains, and under the shadow of
the giant mountains which lie between the Saskatchewan and the
Missouri, for he knew that he was the first of his race to behold
them.” We were born a little too late!
“Monroe often referred to that first trip with the Piegans as the
happiest time of his life.”
In the moon of falling leaves they came to Pile of Rocks River,
and after three months went on to winter on Yellow River. Next
summer they wandered down the Musselshell, crossed the Big River
and thence westward by way of the Little Rockies and the Bear Paw
Mountains to the Marias. Even paradise has its geography.
“Rifle and pistol were now useless as the last rounds of powder
and ball had been fired. But what mattered that? Had they not their
bows and great sheaves of arrows? In the spring they had planted
on the banks of the Judith a large patch of their own tobacco which
they would harvest in due time.
“One by one young Rising Wolf’s garments were worn out and
cast aside. The women of the lodge tanned deerskins and bighorn
(sheep) and from them Lone Walker himself cut and sewed shirts
and leggings, which he wore in their place. It was not permitted for
women to make men’s clothing. So ere long he was dressed in full
Indian costume, even to the belt and breech-clout, and his hair grew
so that it fell in rippling waves down over his shoulders.” A warrior
never cut his hair, so white men living with Indians followed their
fashion, else they were not admitted to rank as warriors. “He began
to think of braiding it. Ap-ah’-ki, the shy young daughter of the chief,
made his footwear—thin parfleche (arrow-proof)—soled moccasins
(skin-shoes) for summer, beautifully embroidered with colored
porcupine quills; thick, soft warm ones of buffalo robe for winter.
“‘I could not help but notice her,’ he said, ‘on the first night I
stayed in her father’s lodge.... I learned the language easily, quickly,
yet I never spoke to her nor she to me, for, as you know, the
Blackfeet think it unseemly for youths and maidens to do so.
“‘One evening a man came into the lodge and began to praise a
certain youth with whom I had often hunted; spoke of his bravery, his
kindness, his wealth, and ended by saying that the young fellow
presented to Lone Walker thirty horses, and wished, with Ap-ah’-ki,
to set up a lodge of his own. I glanced at the girl and caught her
looking at me; such a look! expressing at once fear, despair and
something else which I dared not believe I interpreted aright. The
chief spoke: “Tell your friend,” he said, “that all you have spoken of
him is true; I know that he is a real man, a good, kind, brave,
generous young man, yet for all that I can not give him my daughter.”
“‘Again I looked at Ap-ah’-ki and she at me. Now she was smiling
and there was happiness in her eyes. But if she smiled I could not. I
had heard him refuse thirty head of horses. What hope had I then,
who did not even own the horse I rode? I, who received for my
services only twenty pounds a year, from which must be deducted
the various articles I bought. Surely the girl was not for me. I
suffered.
“‘It was a little later, perhaps a couple of weeks, that I met her in
the trail, bringing home a bundle of fire-wood. We stopped and
looked at each other in silence for a moment, and then I spoke her
name. Crash went the fuel on the ground, and we embraced and
kissed regardless of those who might be looking.
“‘So, forgetting the bundle of wood, we went hand in hand and
stood before Lone Walker, where he sat smoking his long pipe, out
on the shady side of the lodge.
“‘The chief smiled. “Why, think you, did I refuse the thirty
horses?” he asked, and before I could answer: “Because I wanted
you for my son-in-law, wanted a white man because he is more
cunning, much wiser than the Indian, and I need a counselor. We
have not been blind, neither I nor my women. There is nothing more
to say except this: be good to her.”
“‘That very day they set up a small lodge for us, and stored it
with robes and parfleches of dried meat and berries, gave us one of
their two brass kettles, tanned skins, pack saddles, ropes, all that a
lodge should contain. And, not least, Lone Walker told me to choose
thirty horses from his large herd. In the evening we took possession
of our house and were happy.’
“Monroe remained in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company
a number of years, raising a large family of boys and girls, most of
whom are alive to-day. The oldest, John, is about seventy-five years
of age, but still young enough to go to the Rockies near his home
every autumn, and kill a few bighorn and elk, and trap a few beavers.
The old man never revisited his home; never saw his parents after
they parted with him at the Montreal docks. He intended to return to
them for a brief visit some time, but kept deferring it, and then came
letters two years old to say that they were both dead. Came also a
letter from an attorney, saying that they had bequeathed him a
considerable property, that he must go to Montreal and sign certain
papers in order to take possession of it. At the time the factor of
Mountain Fort was going to England on leave; to him, in his simple
trustfulness Monroe gave a power of attorney in the matter. The
factor never returned, and by virtue of the papers he had signed the
frontiersman lost his inheritance. But that was a matter of little
moment to him then. Had he not a lodge and family, good horses
and a vast domain actually teeming with game wherein to wander?
What more could one possibly want?
“Leaving the Hudson’s Bay Company, Monroe sometimes
worked for the American Fur Company, but mostly as a free trapper,
wandered from the Saskatchewan to the Yellowstone and from the
Rockies to Lake Winnipeg. The headwaters of the South
Saskatchewan were one of his favorite hunting grounds. Thither in
the early fifties he guided the noted Jesuit Father, De Smet, and at
the foot of the beautiful lakes just south of Chief Mountain they
erected a huge wooden cross and named the two bodies of water
Saint Mary’s Lakes.” Here the Canada and United States boundary
climbs the Rocky Mountains.
“One winter after his sons John and François had married they
were camping there for the season, the three lodges of the family,
when one night a large war party of Assiniboins attacked them. The
daughters Lizzie, Amelia and Mary had been taught to shoot, and
together they made a brave resistance, driving the Indians away just
before daylight, with the loss of five of their number, Lizzie killing one
of them as he was about to let down the bars of the horse corral.
“Besides other furs, beaver, fisher, marten and wolverine, they
killed more than three hundred wolves that winter by a device so
unique, yet simple, that it is well worth recording. By the banks of the
outlet of the lakes they built a long pen twelve by sixteen feet at the
base, and sloping sharply inward and upward to a height of seven
feet. The top of the pyramid was an opening about two feet six
inches wide by eight feet in length. Whole deer, quarters of buffalo,
any kind of meat handy was thrown into the pen, and the wolves,
scenting the flesh and blood, seeing it plainly through the four to six
inch spaces between the logs would eventually climb to the top and
jump down through the opening. But they could not jump out, and
there morning would find them uneasily pacing around and around in
utter bewilderment.
“You will remember that the old man was a Catholic, yet I know
that he had much faith in the Blackfoot religion, and believed in the
efficiency of the medicine-man’s prayers and mysteries. He used
often to speak of the terrible power possessed by a man named Old
Sun. ‘There was one,’ he would say, ‘who surely talked with the
gods, and was given some of their mysterious power. Sometimes of
a dark night he would invite a few of us to his lodge, when all was
calm and still. After all were seated his wives would bank the fire with
ashes so that it was as dark within as without, and he would begin to
pray. First to the Sun-chief, then to the wind maker, the thunder and
the lightning. As he prayed, entreating them to come and do his will,
first the lodge ears would begin to quiver with the first breath of a
coming breeze, which gradually grew stronger and stronger till the
lodge bent to the blasts, and the lodge poles strained and creaked.
Then thunder began to boom, faint and far away, and lightning dimly
to blaze, and they came nearer and nearer until they seemed to be
just overhead; the crashes deafened us, the flashes blinded us, and
all were terror-stricken. Then this wonderful man would pray them to
go, and the wind would die down, and the thunder and lightning go
on rumbling and flashing into the far distance until we heard and saw
them no more.’”
LIII
A. D. 1819
SIMON BOLIVAR
ONCE at the stilted court of Spain young Ferdinand, Prince of the

Asturias, had the condescension to play at tennis with a mere
colonial; and the bounder won.
Long afterward, when Don Ferdinand was king, the colonial
challenged him to another ball game, one played with cannon-balls.
This time the stake was the Spanish American empire, but
Ferdinand played Bolivar, and again the bounder won.
“Now tell me,” a lady said once, “what animal reminds one most
of the Señor Bolivar?”
And Bolivar thought he heard some one say “monkey,” whereat
he flew into an awful passion, until the offender claimed that the
word was “sparrow.” He stood five feet six inches, with a bird-like
quickness, and a puckered face with an odd tang of monkey. Rich,
lavish, gaudy, talking mock heroics, vain as a peacock, always on
the strut unless he was on the run, there is no more pathetically
funny figure in history than tragical Bolivar; who heard liberty, as he
thought, knocking at the door of South America, and opened—to let
in chaos.
“I don’t know,” drawled a Spaniard of that time, “to what class of
beasts these South Americans belong.”
They were dogs, these Spanish colonials, treated as dogs,
behaving as dogs. When they wanted a university Spain said they
were only provided by Providence to labor in the mines. If they had
opinions the Inquisition cured them of their errors. They were not
allowed to hold any office or learn the arts of war and government.
Spain sent officials to ease them of their surplus cash, and keep
them out of mischief. Thanks to Spain they were no more fit for
public affairs than a lot of Bengali baboos.
They were loyal as beaten dogs until Napoleon stole the Spanish
crown for brother Joseph, and French armies promenaded all over
Spain closely pursued by the British. There was no Spain left to love,
but the colonials were not Napoleon’s dogs. Napoleon’s envoys to
Venezuela were nearly torn to pieces before they escaped to sea,
where a little British frigate came and gobbled them up. The sea
belonged to the British, and so the colonials sent ambassadors,
Bolivar and another gentleman, to King George. Please would he
help them to gain their liberty? George had just chased Napoleon out
of Spain, and said he would do his best with his allies, the
Spaniards.
In London Bolivar unearthed a countryman who loved liberty and
had fought for Napoleon, a real professional soldier. General
Miranda was able and willing to lead the armies of freedom, until he
actually saw the Venezuelan troops. Then he shied hard. He really
must draw the line somewhere. Yes, he would take command of the
rabble on one condition, that he got rid of Bolivar. To get away from
Bolivar he would go anywhere and do anything. So he led his rabble
and found them stout fighters, and drove the Spaniards out of the
central provinces.
The politicians were sitting down to draft the first of many comic-
opera constitutions when an awful sound, louder than any thunder,
swept out of the eastern Andes, the earth rolled like a sea in a storm,
and the five cities of the new republic crashed down in heaps of ruin.
The barracks buried the garrisons, the marching troops were totally
destroyed, the politicians were killed, and in all one hundred twenty
thousand people perished. The only thing left standing in one church
was a pillar bearing the arms of Spain; the only districts not wrecked
were those still loyal to the Spanish government. The clergy pointed
the moral, the ruined people repented their rebellion, and the
Spanish forces took heart and closed in from every side upon the
lost republic. Simon Bolivar generously surrendered General
Miranda in chains to the victorious Spaniards.
So far one sees only, as poor Miranda did, that this man was a
sickening cad. But he was something more. He stuck to the cause
for which he had given his life, joined the rebels in what is now
Colombia, was given a small garrison command and ordered to stay
in his fort. In defiance of orders, he swept the Spaniards out of the
Magdalena Valley, raised a large force, liberated the country, then
marched into Venezuela, defeated the Spanish forces in a score of
brilliant actions, and was proclaimed liberator with absolute power in
both Colombia and Venezuela. One begins to marvel at this heroic
leader until the cad looms out. “Spaniards and Canary islanders!” he
wrote, “reckon on death even if you are neutral, unless you will work
actively for the liberty of America. Americans! count on life even if
you are culpable.”
Bolivar’s pet hobbies were three in number: Resigning his job as
liberator; writing proclamations; committing massacres. “I order you,”
he wrote to the governor of La Guayra, “to shoot all the prisoners in
those dungeons, and in the hospital, without any exception
whatever.”
So the prisoners of war were set to work building a funeral pyre.
When this was ready eight hundred of them were brought up in
batches, butchered with axes, bayonets and knives, and their bodies
thrown on the flames. Meanwhile Bolivar, in his office, refreshed
himself by writing a proclamation to denounce the atrocities of the
Spaniards.
Southward of the Orinoco River there are vast level prairies
called Llanos, a cattle country, handled by wild horsemen known as
the Llaneros. In Bolivar’s time their leader called himself Boves, and
he had as second in command Morales. Boves said that Morales
was “atrocious.” Morales said that “Boves was a man of merit, but
too blood-thirsty.” The Spaniards called their command “The Infernal
Division.” At first they fought for the Revolution, afterward for Spain,
but they were really quite impartial and spared neither age nor sex.
This was the “Spanish” army which swept away the second
Venezuelan republic, slaughtering the whole population save some
few poor starving camps of fugitives. Then Boves reported to the
Spanish general, “I have recovered the arms, ammunition, and the
honor of the Spanish flag, which your excellency lost at Carabobo.”
From this time onward the situation was rather like a dog fight,
with the republican dog somewhere underneath in the middle. At
times Bolivar ran like a rabbit, at times he was granted a triumph, but
whenever he had time to come up and breathe he fired off volleys of
proclamations. In sixteen years a painstaking Colombian counted six
hundred ninety-six battles, which makes an average of one every
ninth day, not to mention massacres; but for all his puny body and
feeble health Bolivar was always to be found in the very thick of the
scrimmage.
Europe had entered on the peace of Waterloo, but the ghouls
who stripped the dead after Napoleon’s battles had uniforms to sell
which went to clothe the fantastic mobs, republican and royalist, who
drenched all Spanish America with blood. There were soldiers, too,
whose trade of war was at an end in Europe, who gladly listened to
Bolivar’s agents, who offered gorgeous uniforms and promised
splendid wages—never paid—and who came to join in the war for
“liberty.” Three hundred Germans and nearly six thousand British
veterans joined Bolivar’s colors to fight for the freedom of America,
and nearly all of them perished in battle or by disease. Bolivar was
never without British officers, preferred British troops to all others,
and in his later years really earned the loyal love they gave him,
while they taught the liberator how to behave like a white man.
It was in 1819 that Bolivar led a force of two thousand five
hundred men across a flooded prairie. For a week they were up to
their knees, at times to their necks in water under a tropic deluge of
rain, swimming a dozen rivers beset by alligators. The climate and
starvation bore very heavily upon the British troops. Beyond the flood
they climbed the eastern Andes and crossed the Paramo at a height
of thirteen thousand feet, swept by an icy wind in blinding fog—hard
going for Venezuelans.
An Irishman, Colonel Rook, commanded the British contingent.
“All,” he reported, “was quite well with his corps, which had had quite
a pleasant march” through the awful gorges and over the freezing
Paramo. A Venezuelan officer remarked here that one-fourth of the
men had perished.
“It was true,” said Rook, “but it really was a very good thing, for
the men who had dropped out were all the wastrels and weaklings of
the force.”
Great was the astonishment of the royalists when Bolivar
dropped on them out of the clouds, and in the battle of Boyacá they
were put to rout. Next day Colonel Rook had his arm cut off by the
surgeons, chaffing them about the beautiful limb he was losing. He
died of the operation, but the British legion went on from victory to
victory, melting away like snow until at the end negroes and Indians
filled its illustrious companies. Colombia, Venezuela and Equador,
Peru and Bolivia were freed from the Spanish yoke and, in the main,
released by Bolivar’s tireless, unfailing and undaunted courage. But
they could not stand his braggart proclamations, would not have him
or any man for master, began a series of squabbles and revolutions
that have lasted ever since, and proved themselves unfit for the
freedom Bolivar gave. He knew at the end that he had given his life
for a myth. On the eighth December, 1830, he dictated his final
proclamation and on the tenth received the last rites of the church,
being still his old braggart self. “Colombians! my last wishes are for
the welfare of the fatherland. If my death contributes to the cessation
of party strife, and to the consolidation of the Union, I shall descend
in peace to the grave.” On the seventeenth his troubled spirit
passed.
LIV
A. D. 1812
THE ALMIRANTE COCHRANE
WHEN Lieutenant Lord Thomas Cochrane commanded the brig of

war Speedy, he used to carry about a whole broadside of her
cannon-balls in his pocket. He had fifty-four men when he laid his toy
boat alongside a Spanish frigate with thirty-two heavy guns and
three hundred nineteen men, but the Spaniard could not fire down
into his decks, whereas he blasted her with his treble-shotted pop-
guns. Leaving only the doctor on board he boarded that Spaniard,
got more than he bargained for, and would have been wiped out, but
that a detachment of his sailors dressed to resemble black demons,
charged down from the forecastle head. The Spaniards were so
shocked that they surrendered.
For thirteen months the Speedy romped about, capturing in all
fifty ships, one hundred and twenty-two guns, five hundred prisoners.
Then she gave chase to three French battle-ships by mistake, and
met with a dreadful end.
In 1809, Cochrane, being a bit of a chemist, and a first-rate
mechanic, was allowed to make fireworks hulks loaded with
explosives—with which he attacked a French fleet in the anchorage
at Aix. The fleet got into a panic and destroyed itself.
And all his battles read like fairy tales, for this long-legged, red-
haired Scot, rivaled Lord Nelson himself in genius and daring. At war
he was the hero and idol of the fleet, but in peace a demon, restless,
fractious, fiendish in humor, deadly in rage, playing schoolboy jokes
on the admiralty and the parliament. He could not be happy without
making swarms of powerful enemies, and those enemies waited
their chance.
In February, 1814, a French officer landed at Dover with tidings
that the Emperor Napoleon had been slain by Cossacks. The
messenger’s progress became a triumphal procession, and amid
public rejoicings he entered London to deliver his papers at the
admiralty. Bells pealed, cannon thundered, the stock exchange went
mad with the rise of prices, while the messenger—a Mr. Berenger—
sneaked to the lodgings of an acquaintance, Lord Cochrane, and
borrowed civilian clothes.
His news was false, his despatch a forgery, he had been hired by
Cochrane’s uncle, a stock-exchange speculator, to contrive the
whole blackguardly hoax. Cochrane knew nothing of the plot, but for
the mere lending of that suit of clothes, he was sentenced to the
pillory, a year’s imprisonment, and a fine of a thousand pounds. He
was struck from the rolls of the navy, expelled from the house of
commons, his banner as a Knight of the Bath torn down and thrown
from the doors of Henry VII’s Chapel at Westminster. In the end he
was driven to disgraceful exile and hopeless ruin.
Four years later Cochrane, commanding the Chilian navy, sailed
from Valparaiso to fight the Spanish fleet. Running away from his
mother, a son of his—Tom Cochrane, junior—aged five, contrived to
sail with the admiral, and in his first engagement, was spattered with
the blood and brains of a marine.
“I’m not hurt, papa,” said the imp, “the shot didn’t touch me. Jack
says that the ball is not made that will hurt mama’s boy.” Jack proved
to be right, but it was in that engagement that Cochrane earned his
Spanish title, “The Devil.” Three times he attempted to take Callao
from the Spaniards, then in disgusted failure dispersed his useless
squadron, and went off with his flag ship to Valdivia. For lack of
officers, he kept the deck himself until he dropped. When he went
below for a nap, the lieutenant left a middy in command, but the
middy went to sleep and the ship was cast away.
Cochrane got her afloat; then, with all his gunpowder wet, went
off with his sinking wreck to attack Valdivia. The place was a Spanish
stronghold with fifteen forts and one hundred and fifteen guns.
Cochrane, preferring to depend on cold steel, left the muskets
behind, wrecked his boats in the surf, let his men swim, led them
straight at the Spaniards, stormed the batteries, and seized the city.
So he found some nice new ships, and an arsenal to equip them, for
his next attack on Callao.
He had a fancy for the frigate, Esmeralda, which lay in Callao—
thought she would suit him for a cruiser. She happened to be
protected by a Spanish fleet, and batteries mounting three hundred
guns, but Cochrane did not mind. El Diablo first eased the minds of
the Spaniards by sending away two out of his three small vessels,
but kept the bulk of their men, and all their boats, a detail not
observed by the weary enemy. His boarding party, two hundred and
forty strong, stole into the anchorage at midnight, and sorely
surprised the Esmeralda. Cochrane, first on board, was felled with
the butt end of a musket, and thrown back into his boat grievously
hurt, in addition to which he had a bullet through his thigh before he
took possession of the frigate. The fleet and batteries had opened
fire, but El Diablo noticed that two neutral ships protected
themselves with a display of lanterns arranged as a signal, “Please
don’t hit me.” “That’s good enough for me,” said Cochrane and
copied those lights which protected the neutrals. When the
bewildered Spaniards saw his lanterns also, they promptly attacked
the neutrals. So Cochrane stole away with his prize.
Although the great sailor delivered Chili and Peru from the
Spaniards, the patriots ungratefully despoiled him of all his pay and
rewards. Cochrane has been described as “a destroying angel with a
limited income and a turn for politics.” Anyway he was
misunderstood, and left Chili disgusted, to attend to the liberation of
Brazil from the Portuguese. But if the Chilians were thieves, the
Brazilians proved to be both thieves and cowards. Reporting to the
Brazilian government that all their cartridges, fuses, guns, powder,
spars and sails, were alike rotten, and all their men an encumbrance,
he dismantled a squadron to find equipment for a single ship, the
Pedro Primeiro. This he manned with British and Yankee
adventurers. He had two other small but fairly effective ships when
he commenced to threaten Bahia. There lay thirteen Portuguese
war-ships, mounting four hundred and eighteen guns, seventy
merchant ships, and a garrison of several thousand men. El Diablo’s
blockade reduced the whole to starvation, the threat of his fireworks
sent them into convulsions, and their leaders resolved on flight to
Portugal. So the troops were embarked, the rich people took ship
with their treasure, and the squadron escorted them to sea, where
Cochrane grinned in the offing. For fifteen days he hung in the rear
of that fleet, cutting off ships as they straggled. He had not a man to
spare for charge of his prizes, but when he caught a ship he staved
her water casks, disabled her rigging so that she could only run
before the wind back to Bahia, and threw every weapon overboard.
He captured seventy odd ships, half the troops, all the treasure,
fought and out-maneuvered the war fleet so that he could not be
caught, and only let thirteen wretched vessels escape to Lisbon.
Such a deed of war has never been matched in the world’s annals,
and Cochrane followed it by forcing the whole of Northern Brazil to
an abject surrender.
Like the patriots of Chili and Peru, the Brazilians gratefully
rewarded their liberator by cheating him out of his pay; so next he
turned to deliver Greece from the Turks. Very soon he found that
even the Brazilians were perfect gentlemen compared with the
Greek patriots, and the heart-sick man went home.
England was sorry for the way she had treated her hero, gave
back his naval rank and made him admiral with command-in-chief of
a British fleet at sea, restored his banner as a Knight of the Bath in
Henry VII’s chapel, granted a pension, and at the end, found him a
resting-place in the Abbey. On his father’s death, he succeeded to
the earldom of Dundonald, and down to 1860, when the old man
went to his rest, his life was devoted to untiring service. He was
among the first inventors to apply coal gas to light English streets
and homes; he designed the boilers long in use by the English navy;
made a bitumen concrete for paving; and offered plans for the
reduction of Sebastopol which would have averted all the horrors of
the siege. Yet even to his eightieth year he was apt to shock and
terrify all official persons, and when he was buried in the nave of the
Abbey, Lord Brougham pronounced his strange obituary. “What,” he
exclaimed at the grave side, “no cabinet minister, no officer of state
to grace this great man’s funeral!” Perhaps they were still scared of
the poor old hero.
LV
A.D. 1823
THE SOUTH SEA CANNIBALS
FAR back in the long ago time New Zealand was a crowded happy
land. Big Maori fortress villages crowned the hilltops, broad farms
covered the hillsides; the chiefs kept a good table, cooking was
excellent, and especially when prisoners were in season, the people
feasted between sleeps, or, should provisions fail, sacked the next
parish for a supply of meat. So many parishes were sacked and
eaten, that in the course of time the chiefs led their tribes to quite a
distance before they could find a nice fat edible village, but still the
individual citizen felt crowded after meals, and all was well.
Then came the Pakehas, the white men, trading, with muskets
for sale, and the tribe that failed to get a trader to deal with was very
soon wiped out. A musket cost a ton of flax, and to pile up enough to
buy one a whole tribe must leave its hill fortress to camp in
unwholesome flax swamps. The people worked themselves thin to
buy guns, powder and iron tools for farming, but they cherished their
Pakeha as a priceless treasure in special charge of the chief, and if a
white man was eaten, it was clear proof that he was entirely useless
alive, or a quite detestable character. The good Pakehas became
Maori warriors, a little particular as to their meat being really pig, but
otherwise well mannered and popular.
Now of these Pakeha Maoris, one has left a book. He omitted his
name from the book of Old New Zealand, and never mentioned
dates, but tradition says he was Mr. F. C. Maning, and that he lived
as a Maori and trader for forty years, from 1823 to 1863 when the
work was published.
In the days when Mr. Maning reached the North Island a trader
was valued at twenty times his weight in muskets, equivalent say, to
the sum total of the British National Debt. Runaway sailors however,
were quite cheap. “Two men of this description were hospitably
entertained one night by a chief, a very particular friend of mine,
who, to pay himself for his trouble and outlay, ate one of them next
morning.”
Maning came ashore on the back of a warrior by the name of
Melons, who capsized in an ebb tide running like a sluice, at which
the white man, displeased, held the native’s head under water by
way of punishment. When they got ashore Melons wanted to get
even, so challenged the Pakeha to a wrestling match. Both were in
the pink of condition, the Maori, twenty-five years of age, and a
heavy-weight, the other a boy full of animal spirits and tough as
leather. After the battle Melons sat up rather dazed, offered his hand,
and venting his entire stock of English, said “How do you do?”
But then came a powerful chief, by name Relation-eater. “Pretty
work this,” he began, “good work. I won’t stand this not at all! not at
all! not at all!” (The last sentence took three jumps, a step and a turn
round, to keep correct time.) “Who killed the Pakeha? It was Melons.
You are a nice man, killing my Pakeha ... we shall be called the
‘Pakeha killkillers’; I shall be sick with shame; the Pakeha will run
away; what if you had killed him dead, or broken his bones”.... (Here
poor Melones burst out crying like an infant). “Where is the hat?
Where the shoes? The Pakeha is robbed! he is murdered!” Here a
wild howl from Melons.
The local trader took Mr. Maning to live with him, but it was
known to the tribes that the newcomer really and truly belonged to
Relation-eater. Not long had he been settled when there occurred a
meeting between his tribe and another, a game of bluff, when the
warriors of both sides danced the splendid Haka, most blood-
curdling, hair-lifting of all ceremonials. Afterward old Relation-eater
singled out the horrible savage who had begun the war-dance, and
these two tender-hearted individuals for a full half-hour, seated on
the ground hanging on each other’s necks, gave vent to a chorus of
skilfully modulated howling. “So there was peace,” and during the
ceremonies Maning came upon a circle of what seemed to be Maori
chiefs, until drawing near he found that their nodding heads had
nobody underneath. Raw heads had been stuck on slender rods,
with cross sticks to carry the robes, “Looking at the ’eds, sir?” asked
an English sailor. “’Eds was werry scarce—they had to tattoo a slave
a bit ago, and the villain ran away, tattooin’ and all!”
“What!”
“Bolted before he was fit to kill,” said the sailor, mournful to think
how dishonest people could be.
Once the head chief, having need to punish a rebellious vassal,
sent Relation-eater, who plundered and burned the offending village.
The vassal decamped with his tribe.
“Well, about three months after this, about daylight I was
aroused by a great uproar.... Out I ran at once and perceived that M
—’s premises were being sacked by the rebellious vassal who ...
was taking this means of revenging himself for the rough handling he
had received from our chief. Men were rushing in mad haste through
the smashed windows and doors, loaded with everything they could
lay hands upon.... A large canoe was floating near to the house, and
was being rapidly filled with plunder. I saw a fat old Maori woman
who was washerwoman, being dragged along the ground by a huge
fellow who was trying to tear from her grasp one of my shirts, to
which she clung with perfect desperation. I perceived at a glance
that the faithful old creature would probably save a sleeve.
“An old man-of-war’s man defending his washing, called out, ‘Hit
out, sir! ... our mob will be here in five minutes!’
“The odds were terrible, but ... I at once floored a native who was
rushing by me.... I then perceived that he was one of our own people
... so to balance things I knocked down another! and then felt myself
seized round the waist from behind.
“The old sailor was down now but fighting three men at once,
while his striped shirt and canvas trousers still hung proudly on the
fence.
“Then came our mob to the rescue and the assailants fled.
“Some time after this a little incident worth noting happened at
my friend M—’s place. Our chief had for some time back a sort of
dispute with another magnate.... The question was at last brought to
a fair hearing at my friend’s house. The arguments on both sides
were very forcible; so much so that in the course of the arbitration
our chief and thirty of his principal witnesses were shot dead in a
heap before my friend’s door, and sixty others badly wounded, and
my friend’s house and store blown up and burnt to ashes.
“My friend was, however, consoled by hundreds of friends who
came in large parties to condole with him, and who, as was quite
correct in such cases, shot and ate all his stock, sheep, pigs, ducks,
geese, fowls, etc., all in high compliment to himself; he felt proud....
He did not, however, survive these honors long.”
Mr. Maning took this poor gentleman’s place as trader, and
earnestly studied native etiquette, on which his comments are
always deliciously funny. Two young Australians were his guests
when there arrived one day a Maori desperado who wanted
blankets; and “to explain his views more clearly knocked both my
friends down, threatened to kill them both with his tomahawk, then
rushed into the bedroom, dragged out all the bedclothes, and burnt
them on the kitchen fire.”
A few weeks later, Mr. Maning being alone, and reading a year-
old Sydney paper, the desperado called. “‘Friend,’ said I; ‘my advice
to you is to be off.’
“He made no answer but a scowl of defiance. ‘I am thinking,
friend, that this is my house,’ said I, and springing upon him I placed
my foot to his shoulder, and gave him a shove which would have
sent most people heels over head.... But quick as lightning ... he
bounded from the ground, flung his mat away over his head, and
struck a furious blow at my head with his tomahawk. I caught the
tomahawk in full descent; the edge grazed my hand; but my arm,
stiffened like a bar of iron, arrested the blow. He made one furious,
but ineffectual attempt to wrest the tomahawk from my grasp; and
then we seized one another round the middle, and struggled like
maniacs in the endeavor to dash each other against the boarded

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Introduction to Simple Shock Waves in

Air With Numerical Solutions Using

Introduction to Graph Theory: With Solutions to

Solutions Manual to accompany An Introduction to

Introduction to the Mathematical Physics of Nonlinear

Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis: With

Introduction to Python for Engineers and Scientists:

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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/1774

Introduction to Simple Shock

ISSN 2197-9529 ISSN 2197-9537 (electronic)

Date: January 2021

Ballincollig, Cork, Ireland Seán Prunty

This book provides an elementary introduction to some one-dimensional ﬂuid ﬂow

Ballincollig, Cork, Ireland Seán Prunty

1 Brief Outline of the Equations of Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.9 Typical Sound Wave Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.8 Other Useful Relationships in Terms of Mach

4.8.4 Tube Closed at End: A Reﬂected Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

6 Numerical Treatment of Spherical Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

1.2 Eulerian and Lagrangian Form of the Equations

1.3 Some Elements of Thermodynamics

A concise review of some elements of thermodynamics is provided in this section.

1.3.1 Ideal Gas Equation

The equation of state for an ideal gas is given by the equation

where R ¼ 287JK1kg1, or we can also write it as

1.3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics

1.3.3 Heat Capacity

If a system undergoes a temperature increase of dT following a transfer of heat dq,

If the speciﬁc internal energy e is expressed in terms of υ and T, then

and the mathematical statement of the ﬁrst law can be written as

For a constant volume process, we have

Deﬁning the speciﬁc enthalpy,

If h is considered a function of p and T, then

so that the speciﬁc heat at constant pressure is

Substituting these relationships in the equation, h ¼ e + pυ, we have

1.3.4 Isothermal Expansion or Compression of an Ideal Gas

Since the process of expansion or compression is isothermal (the temperature

1.3.5 Reversible Adiabatic Process for an Ideal Gas

Using the ideal gas law, we have

and substituting this latter relationship in Eq. (1.22), gives

If the process is adiabatic, dq ¼ 0, hence,

pυγ ¼ constant ð1:24Þ

or in terms of the density, we have

1.3.6 Work Done by an Ideal Gas During an Adiabatic

Having established the relationships between the thermodynamic coordinates during

Since the process is adiabatic, dq ¼ 0, hence,

and integrating gives

Alternatively, by using the relationship between p and υ for an adiabatic process,

1.3.7 Alternate Form of the Equations for Speciﬁc Internal

Having deﬁned γ as the ratio of the speciﬁc heats we can write

or in terms of the density ρ as

1.3.8 Ratio of the Speciﬁc Heats for Air

and therefore γ ¼ 7/5 ¼ 1.4 for air.

1.3.9 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics was formulated following many attempts

Fig. 1.1 Isothermal

Fig. 1.2 The reversible p

ΔSTotal ¼ ΔSsystem þ ΔSsurroundings : ð1:39Þ

1.4 Conservation Equations in Plane Geometry

By forming the following dot products, namely, br b b and ϕ