Philippine Journal of Science

149 (3): 635-646, September 2020

ISSN 0031 - 7683
Date Received: 13 Apr 2020

Composition and Physicochemical Properties of Colostrum and

Transient Milk of Landrace, Large White, and Their F1 Crosses
in a Swine Breeding Farm in Laguna, Philippines

Orville L. Bondoc1*, Joemary F. Isubol2,

Adonna Jane C. Rama2, and Aldrin O. Ebron1

1Institute of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Food Science

University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines

2International Farms Corporation (INFARMCO), Brgy. San Isidro

Cabuyao City, Laguna 4025 Philippines

This study evaluated the composition (% moisture, % protein, % fat, % solids non-fat or SNF)
and physicochemical properties (density, specific gravity, freezing temperature, conductivity)
of colostrum and transient milk obtained from Landrace, Large White, and their F1 crosses in
a swine breeding farm in Laguna, Philippines. Composition and physicochemical properties
of sow’s milk were invariably affected by the type of milk, sow breed, month of farrowing, and
parity. Colostrum had significantly (P < 0.01) higher % protein (9.19 ± 0.43% vs. 6.89 ± 0.51%),
% SNF (19.11 ± 0.80% vs. 14.58 ± 0.94%), density (75.66 ± 6.65 g/mL vs. 52.63 ± 6.97 g/mL)
and specific gravity (1.070 ± 0.003 g/cm3 vs. 1.050 ± 0.004 g/cm3), but lower % moisture (73.85
± 0.93% vs. 77.77 ± 1.09%) and conductivity (2.95 ± 0.13 mS/cm vs. 3.62 ± 0.15 mS/cm) than
transient milk. Both the density and specific gravity of colostrum were negatively correlated with
pre-weaning mortality (r = –0.30). Parity was negatively correlated with %protein (r = –0.41),
% solids non-fat (r = –0.38), density (r = –0.36), and specific gravity (r = –0.36) of transient
milk. The composition and physicochemical properties of colostrum were not significantly
different (P > 0.05) between pure Landrace and Large White. For transient milk, however,
Landrace had significantly (P < 0.05) higher % protein, density, and specific gravity but lower
% moisture than Large White. “R1 Large White x Landrace” had significantly (P<0.05) higher
density and specific gravity of colostrum than “F1 Landrace x Large White”. For transient
milk, however, “R1 Large White x Landrace” had significantly (P < 0.05) higher % moisture
but lower % protein, % SNF, and specific gravity than “F1 Landrace x Large White”. As %
moisture generally decreases and % fat increases from May–September 2019, % moisture in
transient milk was significantly higher (P < 0.01) than in colostrum in sows farrowing from
May–July only. Percent fat in transient milk was significantly higher (P < 0.01) than in colostrum
in August only. Local pig producers may use these observations in their management to attain
the desired composition and quality of colostrum and transient milk.

Keywords: composition and physicochemical properties, pig colostrum, transient milk

*Corresponding Author: orville_bondoc@yahoo.com

olbondoc@up.edu.ph

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INTRODUCTION
Milk production of the sow especially colostrum is
important to provide the piglet with energy for heat
production and metabolism and passive immunity to
help prevent infections (Le Dividich et al. 2005). Early
and high intake of colostrum is especially important for
piglet survival during the early suckling period (Quesnel
et al. 2012). The piglets’ intake of colostrum and milk is
dependent on the production of the sow. The ability to
produce colostrum and milk is highly variable among sows
depending on genotype, parity, age, and bodyweight of
sows, as well as nursing behavior and litter characteristics,
and nutrition of the gestating sow (i.e. level and sources
of energy intake) (Farmer and Quesnel 2009). However,
while the genetic improvement of the prolificacy of sows
has indirectly resulted in an increase in milk production
(Renaudeau and Noblet 2001), selection for large litters
had also indirectly decreased birth weight of piglets
and – at the same time – increased competition between
littermates, thereby contributing to reduced neonatal piglet
survival (Theil et al. 2014).
The survival and growth of piglets are also affected by both
milk yield and milk composition (Declerck et al. 2015;
Skrzypczak et al. 2015; Vadmand et al. 2015; Craig et al.
2019). In Danish Landrace x Danish Yorkshire sows, milk
intake had a major impact on the piglet growth rate, whereas
milk composition per se only played a minor role for piglet
growth in lactation and body composition at weaning
(Hojgaard et al. 2020). Poor efficiency in use of sow’s milk
nutrients rather than a shortage in milk nutrient supply may
also affect the low growth rate of suckling piglets belonging
to the local Iberian breed (Aguinaga et al. 2011).
The components of milk are affected by a variety of
factors, with stage of lactation having the most dramatic
influence on composition. Mammary secretions from
the sow during the initial 24 h after parturition are
generally higher in concentrations of immunoglobulins,
some microminerals and vitamins, and hormones and
growth factors, and lower in concentrations of lactose,
when compared with mature milk. Genetics, parity,
colostrum and milk yield, and ambient temperature also
affect component the composition of colostrum and milk
(Hurley 2015).
Unfortunately, colostrum and subsequent milk production
– especially in the tropics – cannot be easily measured
and evaluated. Reports on milk composition obtained in
tropical countries are uncommon and limited to the general
composition (total solids, protein, fat, and ash contents).
Following Theil et al. (2014), colostrum is defined as the
mammary secreta ingested by neonatal piglets until 24
h after birth of the first piglet. Transient milk is defined
as the mammary secreta being produced from 34 h after
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Bondoc et al.: Composition and Properties of
Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk
parturition until Day 4 of lactation because the milk
becomes rather rich in fat on Day 2–4. Mature milk is
defined as milk secreted from Day 10 of lactation through
the end of lactation because the composition is essentially
constant during that period.
In this regard, the objective of this study was to compare
the composition (moisture, protein, fat, and solids non-
fat) and physicochemical properties (density, specific
gravity, freezing point, and conductivity) of colostrum
and transient milk from a local swine nucleus breeding
farm in Laguna, Philippines using a milk analyzer
commonly used in the dairy industry. The composition
and physicochemical properties were then compared
among sow breeds (i.e. Landrace, Large White and their
F1 crosses). Their correlations with farrowing and weaning
records were also determined separately for colostrum
and transient milk.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted in compliance with the
requirements of the Institutional Animal Care and Use
Committee of the University of the Philippines Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines.
Experimental Animals and Data
A total of 85 milk samples (46 colostrum and 39 transient
milk) were collected from 54 primiparous and multiparous
sows consisting of 15 Landrace, 17 Large White, 13 “F1
Landrace x Large White” cross,” and nine reciprocal “R1
Large White x Landrace” cross at the INFARMCO swine
breeding farm in Barangay San Isidro, Cabuyao City,
Laguna (approx. 14o 14’ 49.69” N, 121o 8’ 34.41” E; see
Table 1). Sows were equally managed to fulfil all welfare
requirements and were kept in individual parturition
pens inside semi-opened buildings about 2 wk before
farrowing until weaning. Sows were fed manually twice
a day with commercial gestation ration until farrowing
(i.e. 3.0–3.5 kg/sow/d) and lactation ration after farrowing
until weaning (i.e. 4.0–6.0 kg/sow/d). The nutritional
content (i.e. % moisture, % crude protein, % crude fat, %
crude fiber, % ash, and net energy) were 10.44%, 15.56%,
4.51%, 6.60%, 8.18%, and 2,310.0 kcal/kg, respectively
for the gestation ration and 10.23%, 15.21%, 4.91%,
5.00%, 7.85%, and 2,440.0 kcal/kg, respectively for the
lactation ration.
Milking from as many functional teats as possible was
performed by hand. Colostrum was collected within the
day after parturition without the use of oxytocin, while
transient milk was collected from the same sow 36–72 h
after farrowing. Colostrum and transient milk samples
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 149 No. 3, September 2020
Table 1. Number and distribution of sows and sow’s milk samples (by sow breed and milk type).
Milk type
Sow breed
Colostrum
Landrace (LDR) 12
Large White (LRW) 16
Purebred sub-total 28
F1 LDR x LRW cross 11
R1 LRW x LDR cross 7 8
F1 cross sub-total 18
Total 46
(approximately 40–50 ml) were placed in conical tubes
and immediately frozen at –20 °C until further analysis.
The EkoMilk Ultra ultrasonic milk analyzer (MILKANA
KAM98-2A, Bulgaria) was used to determine % protein,
% fat, % solids non-fat or SNF, density (g/mL), freezing
point (°C), and conductivity (mS/cm) with corresponding
accuracy of ± 0.2%, ± 0.1%, ± 0.2%, ± 0.0005 g/cm,
± 0.015 °C, and ± 0.2% mS/cm, respectively. The pH
is calibrated at pH 7.00 and 4.00. The results of the
analysis were consistently within the published range of
values on the proximate analysis of pig’s colostrum and
transient milk obtained by classical methods in analytical
laboratories (e.g., Hurley 2015) and thus no further
calibration was made.
Frozen samples were thawed by placing them in room
temperature until melted and water bath of 37 °C for at
least 10 min with occasional stirring to ensure that the
frozen components are dissolved and homogenized. The
sample is gently mixed inside the conical tube to avoid air
in the sample. At least 10 ml of each homogenized sample
was transferred to the measuring mug. The milk analyzer
was initially set to the “buffalo milk” measuring mode
and cleaned for five cycles, where each cycle lasts for
about 1 min. The milk analyzer was also cleaned for five
1-min cycles after every 10 samples analyzed or when the
interval between two consecutive measurements is more
than half an hour. In a seldom case of error displayed in
the results of the analysis, the same 10-ml sample was
re-analyzed for a second time or a new 10 ml sample
was used. The temperature and pH of the frozen-thawed
samples taken right after the analysis were 33.99 ± 2.56
°C and 6.93 ± 1.18, respectively. Percent moisture was
computed as 100 – % total solids, where % total solids
is the sum of % fat and % SNF. Specific gravity (g/cm3)
was computed as: (density, in g/mL + 1000) / 100. The
density, specific gravity, freezing point, and conductivity
or electrolytic conductivity were measured to monitor
changes in milk composition, as is commonly done in
the dairy industry.
Bondoc et al.: Composition and Properties of
Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk
Total no. of sow’s milk
No. of sows
Transient milk samples
12 24 15
10 26 17
22 50 32
9 20 13
15 9
17 35 22
39 85 54
Individual sow farrowing and weaning records (i.e. age
of sow at farrowing, parity, litter size at birth, average
piglet weight at birth, weaning period, litter size at
weaning, average piglet weight at weaning, pre-weaning
average daily gain, pre-weaning mortality, number of
stillborn and mummified piglets, and number of piglet
mortality per farrowing at 0–7 d old) were obtained from
the INFARMCO’s sow productivity recording system.
Statistical Analysis
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients among
components and physicochemical properties of sow’s milk
and their relationships with farrowing and weaning records
were determined separately for colostrum and transient
milk samples using the CORR procedure of SAS (2009).
The general least squares procedures for unbalanced data
were used to examine the principal sources of variation
affecting each milk property. Statistical significance was
set at P < 0.05. The following linear “fixed effects” model
was used to determine, using an F-test (SAS 2009):
yijklm = μ + MTypei + Breedj + (Breed x MType)ij +
(MoFarr x MType)ik + Parityl + eijklm
where yijklm is the dependent variable (i.e. selected milk
properties), μ is the overall mean, MTypei is the fixed
effect for the ith type of milk (i.e. colostrum and transient
milk), Breedj is the fixed effect of the jth breed of sow (i.e.
Landrace, Large White, “F1 Landrace x Large White”
cross, and “R1 Large White x Landrace” cross), (Breed x
MType)ij is the interaction effect between jth breed and ith
type of milk, (MoFarr x MType)ik is the interaction effect
between kth month of farrowing and ith type of milk, Parityl
is the covariate effect of the lth parity of the sow, and eijklm
is the error term assumed to be normally distributed with
the variance of errors as constant across observations.
The least-square means (and standard error) for each
compositional trait and physicochemical property were
used to compare between colostrum and transient milk,
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Vol. 149 No. 3, September 2020 Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk

between sow breeds, and between months of farrowing
within the same type of milk. Regression coefficients (no
intercept model) were also determined for milk properties
found to be significantly associated with parity.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 2 shows that the composition and physicochemical
properties of sow’s milk were invariably affected by the
type of milk, sow breed, month of farrowing, and parity.
The type of milk (i.e. colostrum or transient milk) had
significant effects (P < 0.01) on % moisture, % protein,
% SNF, density, specific gravity, and conductivity.
The breed of sow had significant effects on % moisture
(P < 0.01), % protein (P < 0.05), % fat (P < 0.01), %
SNF (P < 0.05), density (P < 0.05), specific gravity (P
< 0.05), and freezing point (P < 0.05). However, “sow
breed x milk type” interaction had significant (P < 0.01)
effect on % moisture, % protein, % SNF, density, and
specific gravity. This suggests that comparisons between
sow breeds in terms composition and physicochemical
properties should be made separately for colostrum and
transient milk.
The “month of farrowing x milk type” interaction had
significant effects on percent moisture (P < 0.05) and %
fat (P < 0.01) only.
Parity had significant effects on % moisture (P < 0.01),
% protein (P < 0.01), % fat (P < 0.05), % SNF (P <
0.01), density (P < 0.05), and specific gravity (P <
0.05). An increase in parity is related to an increase
in % moisture (1.04%) and a reduction in % protein
(0.41%), % fat (0.35%), % SNF (0.69%), density (2.52
g/mL), and specific gravity (0.002 g/cm3) (see Table 2).
By comparison, Craig et al. (2019) reported no parity
differences in % protein and % fat throughout the different
stages of lactation of Danish Landrace x Danish Yorkshire
sows. The reduction in % fat per unit increase in parity
reported in this study, however, is similar to the work of
Mahan (1998) who reported a linear decrease in colostrum
fat content as parity advances with the largest decline
occurring from Parity 1 to Parity 2 in 75% Large White
– 25% Landrace sows. Peters and Mahan (2008) later
showed a quadratic effect of parity on milk fat between
Parity 1 and Parity 6, with Parities 3 and 4 having the
lowest milk fat content in Yorkshire x Landrace sows.
Differences Between Colostrum and Transient Milk
Sow’s milk composition. Table 3 shows that % moisture
in colostrum (73.85 ± 0.93) was significantly (P <
0.01) lower than in transient milk (77.77 ± 1.09). By
comparison, Theil et al. (2014) reported that % moisture
(i.e. 100% minus % dry matter) was lowest in early
colostrum (73.7%), intermediate in mid-colostrum, late
colostrum and transient milk (77.6–79.4%), and highest
in mature milk (81.1%). The results were in agreement
with the review made by Hurley (2015), who reported that
water makes up approximately 73% of the secretion mass
during and immediately after parturition. Water content
then increases to about 80% by 12 h postpartum and
remains in the 77–81% range throughout lactation. The
increase in water content during the initial day postpartum

Table 2. Mean square F tests results for the effects of sow breed, milk type, “sow breed x milk type” interaction, “month of farrowing x milk
type” interaction, and covariate effect of parity on sow’s milk composition and physicochemical properties
“Sow breed “Month of
Milk Sow Pa-
x milk type” farrowing x milk Reg. coeff. (by.Parity) CV (%)
type breed rity
interaction type” interaction
Composition
% moisture ** ** ** * ** +1.04 ± 0.30 6.32
% protein ** * ** ns ** –0.41 ± 0.14 26.56
% fat ns ** ns ** * –0.35 ± 0.18 41.90
% solid non-fat ** * ** ns ** –0.69 ± 0.14 23.62

Physicochemical properties
Density ** * ** ns * –2.52 ± 1.09 27.86
Specific gravity ** * ** ns * –0.002 ± 0.001 1.64
Freezing point ns * ns ns ns –0.02 ± 0.02 < 0.00
Conductivity ** ns ns ns ns +0.03 ± 0.04 21.12
Note: “ns” means no significant effect of independent variable (P > 0.05).
* means significant effect of independent variable (P < 0.05).
** means highly significant effect of independent variable (P < 0.01).

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Table 3. Least square means (± standard error) for composition and
physicochemical properties of pig colostrum and transient
milk
Colostrum Transient milk
Composition
Moisture, % 73.85 ± 0.93b 77.77 ± 1.09a
Protein, % 9.19 ± 0.43a 6.89 ± 0.51b
Fat, % 7.04 ± 0.56a 7.65 ± 0.66a
Solids non-fat, % 19.11 ± 0.80a 14.58 ± 0.94b
Physicochemi-
cal properties
Density, g/mL 69.56 ± 3.40a 50.10 ± 4.00b
Specific gravity, g/cm3 1.070 ± 0.003a 1.050 ± 0.004b
Freezing point, °C –0.31 ± 0.07a –0.44 ± 0.08a
Conductivity, mS/cm 2.95 ± 0.13b 3.62 ± 0.15a
Note: Least square means (and standard error) in the same row followed by different
letters are significantly different from one another (P < 0.01).
occurs as a result of the rapidly declining concentration
of proteins, primarily immunoglobulins, which is only
partially offset by the increase in lactose content during the
same period. Conversely, the total solids content is highest
during the initial 4–6 h after parturition and then declines
to about 20% of the mass of the mammary secretions by 12
h. The transient increase in total solids to 22–23% on Days
2 and 3 reflects a peak of the fat percentage that occurs at
that time. Total solids then remain at approximately 19%
through the remainder of lactation (Hurley 2015).
Percent protein in colostrum (9.19 ± 0.43%) was
significantly (P < 0.01) higher than in transient milk (6.89
± 0.51%). By comparison, Theil et al. (2014) reported
that % protein was highest in early and mid-colostrum
(12.2–17.7%), intermediate in late colostrum, highest
in transient milk (6.1–7.3%) and lowest in mature milk
(4.7%). The most pronounced changes in % protein
occurred from early to late colostrum. According to Hurley
(2015), concentrations of total protein in sow mammary
secretions are highest at parturition, ranging from 7.7–
16.7%. In contrast, the total protein content of milk at
2–3 d after parturition is in the 5.4–10.4% range. Similar
results on % protein were reported by Klobasa et al. (1987)
in their study of the composition of sow milk in German
Landrace. They reported that colostrum has a higher crude
protein and whey protein than transient or mature milk,
but lower levels of caseins. The high protein content in
colostrum is due to the presence of immunoglobulins
(IgG, IgA, and IgM isotypes) and albumins. However,
while immunoglobulins represent most of the % protein in
colostrum, immunoglobulin concentrations in colostrum
Bondoc et al.: Composition and Properties of
Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk
vary too much between individual sows to identify
significant associations with different sow and litter
factors (Vandmand et al. 2015). Other than supplying
energy, the protein fraction of colostrum is important in
the transfer of immunity (immunoglobulins), stimulation
of growth (growth factors), and facilitation of fat
digestions (enzymes). However, increasing dietary protein
concentration in the sow diet is still needed to increase
milk casein and milk protein concentrations since milk
protein concentration or milk protein to energy ratio are
too low to support the maximal growth of lean genotype
piglets (Strathe et al. 2017).
Percent fat in colostrum (7.04 ± 0.56%) was significantly
(P < 0.01) lower than in transient milk (7.65 ± 0.66%),
although the difference was not significant (P > 0.05).
By comparison, Theil et al. (2014) reported that % fat
was lowest in early and mid-colostrum (5.1–5.3%),
intermediate in late colostrum, highest in transient milk
(9.1–9.8%) and lowest in mature milk (8.2%). Based on
a review of 16 colostrum and five milk studies, Hurley
(2015) reported that the fat percentage of colostrum at
parturition ranges from 4.9–10.9%, with an average of
6.4%. Milk fat concentration increases from parturition
to Day 2, with milk fat percent ranging from 6.5–12.9%,
with an average of 10.1%. Together with lactose, the
fat in colostrum provides the main source of energy
as piglets are born deficient of energy but, at the same
time, have a very high energy requirement for physical
activity, thermoregulation, and heat production in the
muscle tissues (Theil et al. 2014). In this study, fat is
the most variable of the components of sow’s milk with
a coefficient variation of 41.90%. Since % fat can be
influenced by the diet, supplementation of dietary fat to
sows has commonly been investigated as a strategic tool
to increase milk fat content and thereby litter performance
(Theil et al. 2014). For example, Farmer and Quesnel
(2009) showed that the concentrations of fat – as well as
proportions of specific fatty acids including fat-soluble
vitamins and some minerals in colostrum and milk – are
affected by the composition of the feed during gestation
and lactation. Fat percentage in colostrum of Landrace
× Large White sows was also significantly affected by
colostrum yield, with higher percentages of fat being
found in colostrum of low yield sows (Foisnet et al. 2010).
Percent SNF in colostrum (19.11 ± 0.80 %) was
significantly (P < 0.01) higher than in transient milk
(14.58 ± 0.94%). The results were similar to reports of
SNF content in earlier studies to estimate the nonfat milk
components, primarily representing protein, lactose, and
ash. It may also contain minerals (mainly calcium and
phosphorus), acids, enzymes, and vitamins (mainly B12
and riboflavin). However, more recent studies have either
reported each major milk component separately or focused
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Vol. 149 No. 3, September 2020
on measuring one or two specific components, such as fat
or immunoglobulin content (Hurley 2015).
Overall, the constituents of colostrum and transient milk in
this study fall within the range of estimates reported in the
literature summarized by Hurley (2015). By comparison,
primiparous and multiparous commercial crossbred sows
in Australia were found to have largely similar colostrum
and milk composition profiles in terms of IgG, total
protein, fat, or total net energy content throughout the
lactation period (Craig et al. 2019).
Physicochemical properties of sow’s milk. In this study,
density is the most variable of the physicochemical
properties sow’s milk, followed by conductivity and
specific gravity, with coefficient variation equal to
27.86%, 21.12%, and 1.64%, respectively. Density of
colostrum (75.66 ± 6.65 g/mL) was significantly (P <
0.01) higher than in transient milk (52.63 ± 6.97 g/mL).
Specific gravity in colostrum (1.070 ± 0.003 g/cm3) was
significantly (P < 0.01) higher than that of transient milk
(1.050 ± 0.004 g/cm3). Colostrum has higher density
and specific gravity than transient milk due to lower
water content. This is in agreement with Hurley (2015)
who showed that sow colostrum at parturition starts at
approximately 1.06 g/ml, reflecting the high concentration
of total protein (rather than the amount of fat) at that time.
It then declines within the first day and stabilizes at about
1.035 g/mL throughout much of lactation.
The freezing point in colostrum (–0.31 ± 0.07 °C) was
higher than in transient milk (–0.44 ± 0.08 °C), although
the difference was not significant (P > 0.05). The freezing
point was slightly higher than the freezing point (–0.56 °C)
for mature milk of sows reported by Sheffy et al. (1952)
[as cited by Hurley (2015)].
Conductivity in colostrum (2.95 ± 0.13 mS/cm) was
significantly lower (P < 0.01) than in transient milk (3.62
± 0.15 mS/cm). The difference in conductivity is similar
to Whittlestone (1952) [as cited by Hurley (2015)] who
showed that conductivity increases during the initial day
of parturition and then declines slowly to about Day 16 of
lactation, where the average conductivity measured from
10 sows is estimated at 3.25 mS/cm.
Associations of Composition and Physicochemical
Properties of Sow’s Milk with Farrowing and
Weaning Records
Correlation among sow’s milk components. Correlations
among sow’s milk components were similar for colostrum
and transient milk. Tables 4 and 5 show that % moisture
is negatively correlated (P < 0.01) with solid components
such as protein, fat, and solids non-fat (i.e. r = –0.74 to
–0.60 in colostrum and r = –0.77 to –0.56 in transient
milk).
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Bondoc et al.: Composition and Properties of
Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk
Percent protein is not correlated (P > 0.05) with % fat in
pig colostrum and transient milk but is highly positively
correlated (P < 0.01) with % SNF (i.e. r = +0.98 in
colostrum and r = +1.00 in transient milk).
Correlation among physicochemical properties of
sow’s milk. Tables 4 and 5 show that density is highly
correlated (P < 0.01) with specific gravity in colostrum
(r = +0.98) and in transient milk (r = +1.00). Density
and specific gravity were positively correlated (P <
0.01) with freezing point (r = +0.75) in colostrum and in
transient milk (r = +0.36). Density and specific gravity
were positively correlated positively correlated (P < 0.01)
with conductivity (r = +0.75) in colostrum and transient
milk (r = +0.36).
Correlation of sow’s milk composition with
physicochemical properties. Table 4 shows that density
and specific gravity were negatively correlated with
%moisture (r = –0.49) and % fat (r = –0.36) but positively
and highly correlated with % protein (r = +0.97 to +0.98),
and % SNF (r = +0.93) in colostrum. Table 5 shows that,
for transient milk, density and specific gravity were
negatively correlated with % moisture (r = –0.63 to –0.64)
but positively and highly correlated with % protein and %
solids non-fat (r = +0.98). Density and specific gravity of
transient milk were not correlated (P > 0.05) with % fat.
Unlike the dairy industry, which depends on milk density
to indicate deviations from the normal milk composition
due to addition of water, the results of this study imply that
measures of density and specific gravity in sow colostrum
and transient milk are largely due to % protein and % SNF,
rather than % fat.
Freezing point in colostrum was negatively correlated (P <
0.05) with % moisture (r = –0.37) but positively correlated
(P < 0.01) with % protein (r = +0.73), and % SNF (r =
+0.74). The freezing point was not correlated (P > 0.05)
with fat percent in colostrum. The freezing point in transient
milk was not correlated to % moisture, % protein, % fat,
and % solids non-fat. The results imply that freezing point
in colostrum is influenced more by % protein and % SNF
and, to a lesser degree, by % moisture. By comparison,
the freezing point of cow milk is also used as a means to
determine if water has been added to the milk.
Conductivity in colostrum was positively correlated
(P < 0.05) with % moisture (r =+0.65) but negatively
correlated with % protein (r = –0.35), fat (r = –0.46), and
% SNF (r = –0.38). On the other hand, conductivity in
transient milk was positively correlated with % protein
(r = +0.46) and % SNF (r = +0.44) but not correlated
(P > 0.05) with % moisture and % fat. While % protein
and % SNF contribute almost equally to the measure of
conductivity, the protein and SNF concentrations are
negatively correlated with conductivity in colostrum but
Philippine Journal of Science Bondoc et al.: Composition and Properties of
Vol. 149 No. 3, September 2020 Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk

Table 4. Pearson correlation coefficients among colostrum composition and physicochemical properties, with farrowing and weaning records.
Colostrum composition and physicochemical properties
% % %
% moisture Density Specific gravity Freezing temp. Conductivity
protein fat SNF
Composition
% moisture – –0.60** –0.64** –0.65** –0.49** –0.49** –0.37* 0.65**
% protein – ns 0.98** 0.97** 0.97** 0.73** –0.35*
% fat – ns –0.36* –0.36* ns –0.46**
% solids non-fat – 0.98** 0.98** 0.74** –0.38**

Physicochemical
properties
Density – 1.00** 0.75** ns
Specific gravity – 0.75** ns
Freezing point – ns

Farrowing and
weaning records
Age at farrowing ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Parity ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Litter size at birth ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Piglet weight at birth ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Litter size at weaning ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Piglet weight at
ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
weaning
Pre-weaning ADG ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Pre-weaning mortality ns ns ns ns –0.30* –0.30* ns ns
No. of stillborn ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
No. of mummified
ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
piglets
No. of piglet
mortality per litter ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
(0–7 d old)
Note: “ns” means correlation coefficient (r) is not significantly different from zero (P > 0.05); * means r is significantly different from zero (P < 0.05);
* means r is significantly different from zero (P < 0.01).

positively correlated with conductivity in transient milk.
The results imply that the disparity in conductivity, which
measures the changes in the concentration of ions in the
milk depending on its composition, is largely a result of
the differences in % protein and % SNF (rather than %
moisture or % fat) in sow colostrum and transient milk.
Correlation of milk components and physicochemical
properties with farrowing and weaning records. In this
study, a total of 544 piglets were produced from 54 litters
(i.e. average litter size at birth was 10.07 ± 1.88 piglets)
from May–September 2019, with average piglet birth
weight of 1.47 ± 0.24 kg. A total of 446 piglets were
weaned 33.4 ± 2.1 d after farrowing (i.e. average litter
size at weaning was 8.26 ± 2.59 piglets), with average
piglet weaning weight of 8.39 ± 1.45 kg. The average
pre-weaning daily gain, pre-weaning mortality, and the
number of piglet mortality per litter was 0.207 ± 0.038
kg/d, 17.25 ± 16.23%, and 1.81 ± 1.77 piglets per litter,
respectively. The average age of the sows and parity was
2.34 ± 0.89 yr and 4.11 ± 1.88, respectively.
Composition and physicochemical properties of colostrum
were not correlated (P > 0.05) with the sow’s age at
farrowing, parity, litter size at birth and at weaning, piglet
weight at birth and at weaning, pre-weaning growth rate,
number of stillbirths and mummified piglets at parturition,
and number of piglet (0–7 d old) mortality per litter. However,
pre-weaning mortality was negatively correlated (P < 0.01)
with density (r = –0.30) and specific gravity (r = –0.30).

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Vol. 149 No. 3, September 2020 Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk

Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients among transient milk composition and physicochemical properties with farrowing and weaning records.
Transient milk composition and physicochemical properties
% % % Specific Freezing
% moisture Density Conductivity
protein fat SNF gravity temp.
Composition
% moisture – –0.75** –0.56** –0.77** –0.63** –0.64** ns ns
% protein – ns 1.00** 0.98** 0.98** ns 0.46**
% fat – ns ns ns ns ns
% solids non-fat – 0.98** 0.98** 0.32* 0.44**

Physicochemical properties
Density – 1.00** 0.36* 0.44**
Specific gravity – 0.36* 0.44**
Freezing point – ns

Farrowing and weaning records

Age at farrowing ns –0.34* ns ns ns ns ns ns
Parity ns –0.41* ns –0.38* –0.36* –0.36* ns ns
Litter size at birth ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Piglet weight at birth ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Litter size at weaning ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Piglet weight at weaning ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Pre-weaning ADG ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
Pre-weaning mortality ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
No. of stillborn ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
No. of mummified piglets ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
No. of piglet mortality per
ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
litter (0–7 d old)
Note: “ns” means correlation coefficient (r) is not significantly different from zero (P > 0.05); * means r is significantly different from zero (P < 0.05); * means r is
significantly different from zero (P < 0.01).

Similar findings were reported by Quesnel et al. (2012)
who reviewed the importance of high intake of colostrum
containing high % protein (i.e. high concentrations of
immunoglobulins) than in milk in reducing piglet mortality.
However, it will be difficult to connect the physicochemical
properties with pre-weaning mortality, which the significant
correlation suggests, especially if colostrum yield and piglet
intake are difficult to measure on-farm and are, therefore, not
considered in the study.
Composition and physicochemical properties of transient
milk were also generally not correlated (P > 0.05) with
sow and litter records, except for age at farrowing and
parity. Age at farrowing was negatively correlated (P
< 0.05) with percent protein (r = –0.34). Parity was
negatively correlated (P < 0.05) with % protein (= –0.41),
% SNF (r = –0.38), density (r = –0.36), and specific gravity
(r = –0.36). Sows at higher parities are thus expected to
have lower % protein, % SNF, density, and specific gravity
in its transient milk.
The negative correlation between parity and % protein
can be indirectly due to the positive relationship between
milk yield (not measured in this study) and parity, and the
negative correlation between milk yield and % protein.
In the former, Beyer et al. (2008) showed that milk
production of Large White x German Landrace sows
increases with parity, and the largest difference is found
when comparing gilts with sows of 2nd parity. Craig et al.
(2019) further explained that multiparous sows produce
more milk once lactation is established due to having a
larger udder and being able to convert more energy into
milk production compared to the primiparous sow, who
is still partitioning energy into her own maturation and
growth. In the latter, Vadmand et al. (2015) showed that
low milk protein concentration in Danish Landrace x
Yorkshire sows was associated with a high milk yield
due to a dilution of secreted milk protein due to increased
milk production without a concomitant increase in the
synthesis of milk solids.

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Vol. 149 No. 3, September 2020 Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk

In general, the estimates of density, specific gravity,
freezing point, and conductivity in sow colostrum and
transient milk are largely influenced by % protein and
% SNF.
Effects of “Sow Breed x Milk Type” Interaction
Table 6 shows that the composition and physicochemical
properties of colostrum were not significantly different (P
> 0.05) between pure Landrace and Large White sows. For
transient milk however, Landrace sows had significantly
(P < 0.05) higher % protein (9.76% vs. 7.45%), density
(75.66 g/mL vs. 52.63 mL), and specific gravity (1.076
g/cm3 vs. 1.053 g/cm3), but lower % moisture (72.75%
vs. 76.72%) than Large White sows. These differences
observed between Landrace and Large White sows
indicate that selection strategies could be used to improve
% moisture, % protein, density, and specific gravity of
transient milk.
Between F1 crossbred sows used as specialized dam
lines in the production of triple-cross market hogs, the
“R1 Large White x Landrace” sows had significantly (P
< 0.05) higher density (78.44% vs. 61.82%) and specific
gravity (1.078 g/cm3 vs. 1.062 g/cm3) of colostrum
than “F1 Landrace x Large White” sows. For transient
milk however, “R1 Large White x Landrace” sows had
significantly (P < 0.05) higher % moisture (85.58% vs.
76.54%) but lower % protein (3.71% vs. 6.65%), % SNF
(8.28% vs. 14.06%), and specific gravity (1.026 g/cm3 vs.
1.046 g/cm3) than “F1 Landrace x Large White” sows. The
advantages of “F1 Landrace x Large White” sows over
“R1 Large White x Landrace” sows especially in terms of
% protein and % SNF in transient milk reflect maternal
quality (reciprocal effects). This implies the preferred
use of Large White sows mated to Landrace boars in the
production of F1 crossbred gilts.
No clear differences in the average composition and milk
properties of colostrum were noted between purebred and
crossbred sows, implying that heterosis in these traits due
to non-additive genes by crossbreeding is not important.
Furthermore, the composition and physicochemical
properties of both colostrum and transient milk were

Table 6. Least square means (± standard error) for sow’s milk composition and physicochemical properties in colostrum and transient milk
produced by different sow breeds
Colostrum Landrace (LDR) Large White (LRW) F1 LDR x LRW R1 LRW x LDR
Composition
Moisture, % 73.71 ± 1.68bc 72.25 ± 1.56bc 73.90 ± 1.70bc 75.56 ± 2.00bc
Protein, % 9.05 ± 0.80ab 9.33 ± 0.72ab 8.32 ± 0.78ab 10.07 ± 0.92a
Fat, % 7.34 ± 1.01a 8.41 ± 0.94a 8.46 ± 1.02a 3.94 ± 1.20a
Solids non-fat, % 18.95 ± 1.44a 19.34 ± 1.34a 17.64 ± 1.46a 20.50 ± 1.72a

Physicochemical properties
Density, g/mL 68.67 ± 6.14ab 69.29 ± 5.71ab 61.82 ± 6.21b 78.44 ± 7.30a
Spec. gravity, g/cm3 1.069 ± 0.006ab 1.069 ± 0.006ab 1.062 ± 0.006b 1.078 ± 0.007a
Freezing temp., °C –0.30 ± 0.12a –0.34 ± 0.12a –0.55 ± 0.12a –0.02 ± 0.15a
Conductivity, mS/cm 2.95 ± 0.23a 2.86 ± 0.22a 2.62 ± 0.24a 3.38 ± 0.28a

Transient milk Landrace (LDR) Large White (LRW) F1 LDR x LRW R1 LRW x LDR
Composition
Moisture, % 72.25 ± 1.82c 76.72 ± 1.91b 76.54 ± 2.14b 85.58 ± 1.92a
Protein, % 9.76 ± 0.86a 7.45 ± 0.88b 6.65 ± 0.99b 3.71 ± 0.89c
Fat, % 7.20 ± 1.09a 7.87 ± 1.14a 9.40 ± 1.28a 6.14 ± 1.15a
Solids non-fat, % 20.55 ± 1.57a 15.41 ± 1.64b 14.06 ± 1.84b 8.28 ± 1.65c

Physicochemical properties
Density, g/mL 75.66 ± 6.65a 52.63 ± 6.97bc 46.18 ± 7.81cd 25.92 ± 7.03d
Spec. gravity, g/cm3 1.076 ± 0.007a 1.053 ± 0.007bc 1.046 ± 0.008c 1.026 ± 0.007d
Freezing temp., °C –0.28 ± 0.13a –0.28 ± 0.14a –0.71 ± 0.16a –0.50 ± 0.14a
Conductivity, mS/cm 3.86 ± 0.26a 3.55 ± 0.28a 3.72 ± 0.30a 3.34 ± 0.29a
Note: least square means (and standard error) in the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different from one another (P > 0.05).

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similar (P > 0.05) between pure Large White and “F1
Landrace x Large White” crossbred sows.
While the composition of sow milk from different breeds
in other countries has been studied for a long time, very
few studies reported significant effects of sow breed
on milk composition. In the USA, for example, % fat
in colostrum was higher in Chinese Meishan sows than
crossbred sows representing several breeds of European
origin (Alston-Mills et al. 2000). In Canada, % fat in
non-colostrum milk was higher in Meishan-derived sows
than Yorkshires (Farmer et al. 2001). Later, Farmer et
al. (2007) reported greater protein concentrations in
colostrum from Duroc sows compared to Landrace and
Yorkshire sows. The same study found no significant
differences in % fat in the colostrum of Belgian
Landrace/Pietrain, Duroc, Landrace, and Yorkshire. In
the French West Indies, % protein and % fat in milk of
Large White sows was higher than in local Creole sows
(Gourdine et al. 2005). In Belgium, the percentage
of fat in colostrum was higher in Hypor sows than in
PIC, Topigs, and Danbred commercial crossbred sows
(Declerck et al. 2015). In Italy, the lactose and metabolite
content in colostrum was higher in Large White than
Landrace and Duroc sows (Picone et al. 2018).
Reports describing physicochemical properties of
colostrum and subsequent milk from different sow breeds
are also very limited (Hurley 2015), unlike in the dairy
industry where they were often used to detect cows’ health
problems and milk adulteration.
Effects of “Month of Farrowing x Milk Type”
Interaction
Table 7 shows that % moisture generally decreases while
% fat increases from May–September 2019. Percent
moisture in transient milk was significantly higher (P <
0.01) than colostrum in sows farrowing from May–July
2019 only. However, % moisture was not significantly
different between colostrum and transient milk for sows
farrowing from August–September 2019 (P > 0.05).
Table 7. Least square means (± standard error) for percent moisture and percent milk in colostrum and transient milk of sows farrowing at
different months of the year
Percent moisture
Colostrum
May 2019 76.32 ± 2.13b
June 2019 74.16 ± 1.72b
July 2019 74.59 ± 1.21b
August 2019 72.39 ± 1.61a
September 2019 71.81 ± 3.85a
Note: least square means (and standard error) in the same row (for % moisture and % fat) followed by the same letter are not significantly different from one another
(P > 0.05).
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Bondoc et al.: Composition and Properties of
Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk
Percent fat in transient milk was significantly higher (P <
0.01) than in colostrum for sows farrowing in the month
of August 2019 only. Percent fat was not significantly
different between colostrum and transient milk for
sows farrowing in May, June, July, and September
2019 (P > 0.05). The transition from May–September
marks the end of the hot dry-summer season going into
the cooler wet-rainy season. In the Philippines, this is
usually associated with a drop in maximum ambient
temperature (from about 33–34 °C to 28–29 °C), which
may result in better appetite and higher sow feed intake.
The significant differences in % moisture and % protein
between colostrum and transient milk from May–
September may indicate the effects of environmental
conditions in the tropics on the composition of pig’s
milk. The results are similar to reports conducted in
other countries describing the detrimental effects of
hot environments on sow’s milk composition, milk
yield, and piglet performance. In France, for example,
Renaudeau and Noblet (2001) reported the negative
effect of hot (29 °C) constant ambient temperatures
on milk yield of multiparous Large White x Landrace
crossbred sows but higher dry matter and energy contents
without a change in the protein content of milk. They
emphasized the importance of creep feed supply to
improve pre- and postweaning growth of piglets in hot
climatic conditions. In the tropical humid climate of
the French West Indies, Gourdine et al. (2005) reported
similar milk yield and dry matter content but higher %
fat of sow’s milk during the hot season (26.0 °C, 85%
RH) than during the warm season (23.8 °C, 85% RH)
for both Large White and Creole breeds. In addition to
the reduction in milk yield, the high ambient temperature
and relative humidity in the tropics is also related to the
reduction of voluntary feed consumption and reduced
ability of the sow to mobilize maternal body reserves.
In Italy, Picone et al. (2018) suggested that different
temperatures occurring during the year (i.e. farrowing
season) affected sow’s metabolism and, in turn, can also
affect colostrum composition.
Percent fat
Transient milk Colostrum Transient milk
84.20 ± 3.57a 4.01 ± 1.28x 4.55 ± 2.14x
81.95 ± 1.62a 5.48 ± 1.03x 5.10 ± 0.97x
80.97 ± 1.34a 5.04 ± 0.72x 5.39 ± 0.80x
71.43 ± 2.00a 8.63 ± 0.96y 12.78 ± 1.20x
71.81 ± 3.85a 12.03 ± 2.31x 10.43 ± 2.27x
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 149 No. 3, September 2020
CONCLUSION
Considering the importance of sow’s colostrum and
milk for the survival, growth, development, and immune
status of piglets, this study showed significant sow breed
differences (Landrace vs Large White and “F1 Landrace
x Large White” vs “R1 Large White x Landrace”) for %
moisture, % protein, % SNF, density, and specific gravity,
which may also vary considerably between colostrum and
transient milk under Philippine conditions.
While new information on the breed (genetic) differences
are important in managing breeding animals segregated
by breed/genotype in the local nucleus breeding farm,
this study also showed that % moisture and % fat can also
vary in colostrum or transient milk at different months
of farrowing. This suggests that environmental factors
in a tropical production system such as high ambient
temperature and its negative relation to the sow’s feed
intake and milk yield may also influence the composition
of colostrum and transient milk. In this regard, new
housing and feeding/nutritional strategies for sows and
feeding piglets – perhaps with additional milk replacer or
creep feed towards late lactation – are needed to anticipate
changes in composition and physicochemical properties of
colostrum and transient milk due to various environmental
(non-genetic) factors.
For similar experiments in the future, the results of the
study using the available milk analyzer may be further
validated with the results of the local analysis of pig
colostrum and transient milk samples obtained by classical
methods in the analytical laboratory.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by grants from the Philippine
Agriculture and Fisheries Biotechnology Program under
the Department of Agriculture Biotechnology Program
(DA-BIOTECH) – R1807. The authors acknowledge
Tony Chua, Jimmy N. Chua, and Marc Anthony P. Chua of
INFARMCO Swine Breeding Farm, San Isidro, Cabuyao
City, Laguna for supplying their animals, feeding, care of
the animals, and for their assistance in the sampling of
milk and diets. The authors would also like to thank Ana
Rose Ramos and Mark C. Agsunod for their valuable
assistance in handling and analysis of milk samples.
STATEMENT ON NO CONFLICT OF
INTEREST
There is no conflict of interest between the authors and
other people and organizations.
Bondoc et al.: Composition and Properties of
Pig Colostrum and Transient Milk
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