1

3
01
Daughter
Sister
 1. Which of these are constituents of A? For each case of a
constituent, what is the mother?
A (a) c + d
(b) g + h
(c) a + b + c
B C (d) a + b + c + d
(e) c + d + e + f
(f) D + E
D E F (g) E + C
(h) F + g + h

a b c d e f g h

2. What are the immediate constituents of (a) A, (b) B, (c) C?

3. What do the following immediately dominate? (a) A; (b) F
4. What are the sisters of g?
5. What is the mother of E?
02
l Ex: John runs. (1)
l sentence (2)

John runs
l Mr. John has run out. (3)

à(3) has the same general structure as (1) = two

constituents in (3) has the same kind (category)
and syntactic functions as those in (1)
• John runs
: subject : predicate
Mr. John has run out
Every well-formed sentence has two daughters (or ICs)
- Subject
- Predicate

Identify the subjects and predicates of these sentences:

1. Birds can fly.
2. These birds are buiding their nests.
3. The beautiful birds in my garden are building their nests at the
top of the trees.
 N.B.1 Question tests for Subject:

- Yes-No questions >

- WH-questions
1. Birds can fly.

2. These birds are buiding their nests.

3. The beautiful birds in my garden are building

their nests at the top of the trees.
4. Carol is doing the gardening.
N.B. Question tests for Subject:

It / There = Expletive
- Yes-No questions >

(a) It is snowing again.

(b) There is nothing to eat.

=> WH-questions do NOT work here

because the subjects are “empty”.
 N.B.3 NPs as Subjects / VPs as Predicates
Use Replacement tests for the subjects when
giving answers to Yes-No questions
(a) Whales spout.
(b) These baby whales are spouting in the sea.

=> The Subject has a Noun/Pronoun as its centre

=> The Predicate has a Verb as its centre
Practice 2: Draw phrase markers as in the
example, using triangles for NP and VP.

1. Elizabeth and Leicester excel at Real Tennis.

2. I am accepting your invitation.
3. The income received from fines can’t be taken into account.
4. A gorilla swinging about in the trees above our heads
interrupted this already lengthy story.
5. One day will be enough for this job.
6. One day, my boy, all this will be yours.
 N.B. Subject-Predicate relation

=> an NP functions as a Subj. in the presence of a

sister VP, and vice versa >
Discussion: "Your invitation" is an NP, but why isn't
it the Subject of the sentence?

I am accepting your invitation.

03
 1 Head

3
 1. Head of a phrase
= the OBLIGATORY element that the phrase is
centred on (p.32)
H
E.g. a nice HAT (NP)
H
IN the garden (PP)
H
is SWIMMING in the pool (VP)
H
rather WORRIED (AP)
2. The modifier-head relation
Phrase – a NP

Two Phrase – b NP1

Phrase – c AP jokes

rather dubious
Two rather dubious jokes
 Phrase – a NP

men Phrase – b PP

from Phrase – c NP1

the ministry

men from the ministry

 HEAD can stand
M alone.
Two H rather dubious jokes
Modifier is
dependent
A modifier has
on HEAD. M
H its function in
the presence of
jokes
its sister (HEAD)
M H
rather dubious
3. The head-complement relation
Phrase - b

beside Phrase - c

a stream
beside a stream
 Complement
H C (obligatory)

beside
HEAD
(obligatory) M H
a stream
VP-Predicate
SUMMARY
Constituents have their functions in respect of their sisters.
1. NODES:
2. Subject (NP), Predicate (VP)
3. Sub-pred >
4. Modifier-Head >
5. Head-Complement >
6. HEAD > centre of its phrase
 Exercise 2 (p.38)
• Identify the category of the following phrases (as NPS, VPs,
or other).
(a) installed for only £199.95
(b) were being given away
(c) too far to drive in a day
(d) obsolescent washing machines
(e) ten long holidays at the Hotel Mortification
(f) which I had bought only the day before
(g) have made me realise that “cheap” does indeed mean
“nasty”
 Exercise 3 (p.38)

• Analyse this ambiguous structure:

(a) more exciting ideas
(b) more exciting ideas

> Underline two different constituents and give

explanations.
> Draw two different phrase markers for illustration.
 Exercise 4 (p.38)
• Analyse these structures:
(a) young car salesmen
(b) used car salesmen
> Draw arrows to show Modifier-Head relations
and give explanations.
> Draw phrase markers for illustration.

Example:
 SEE YOU
NEXT TIME