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 LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR
PROMOTING SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
IN HIGHER EDUCATION
INNOVATIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Series Editor: Patrick Blessinger

Previous Volumes
Volume 2 Inquiry-based Learning for the Arts, Humanities, and
Social Sciences: A Conceptual and Practical Resource
for Educators – Edited by Patrick Blessinger and John
M. Carfora
Volume 3 Inquiry-based Learning for Multidisciplinary Programs:
A Conceptual and Practical Resource for Educators –
Edited by Patrick Blessinger and John M. Carfora
Volume 4 Inquiry-based Learning for Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) Programs: A Conceptual
and Practical Resource for Educators – Edited by
Patrick Blessinger and John M. Carfora
Volume 5 University Partnerships for Community and School
System Development – Edited by Barbara Cozza and
Patrick Blessinger
Volume 6 Emerging Directions in Doctoral Education – Edited by
Patrick Blessinger and Denise Stockley
Volume 7 University Partnerships for Academic Programs and
Professional Development – Edited by Patrick
Blessinger and Barbara Cozza
Volume 8 University Partnerships for International Development –
Edited by Patrick Blessinger and Barbara Cozza
Volume 9 Engaging Dissonance – Edited by Amy Lee and
Rhiannon D. Williams
Volume 10 University Partnerships for Pre-service and Teacher
Development – Edited by Barbara Cozza and Patrick
Blessinger
Volume 11 Refugee Education: Integration and Acceptance of
Refugees in Mainstream Society – Edited by Patrick
Blessinger and Enakshi Sengupta
Volume 12 Contexts for Diversity and Gender Identities in Higher
Education: International Perspectives on Equity and
Inclusion – Edited by Jaimie Hoffman, Patrick
Blessinger and Mandla Makhanya
Volume 13 Strategies, Policies, and Directions for Refugee
Education – Edited by Enakshi Sengupta and Patrick
Blessinger
Volume 14 Perspectives on Diverse Student Identities in Higher
Education – Edited by Patrick Blessinger
Volume 15 Language, Teaching and Pedagogy for Refugee
Education – Edited by Enakshi Sengupta and Patrick
Blessinger
Volume 16 Strategies for Fostering Inclusive Classrooms in Higher
Education – Edited by Jaimie Hoffman, Patrick
Blessinger and Mandla Makhanya
Volume 17 Strategies for Facilitating Inclusive Campuses in Higher
Education: International Perspectives on Equity and
Inclusion – Edited by Jaimie Hoffman, Patrick
Blessinger and Mandla Makhanya
Volume 18 Integrating Sustainable Development into the
Curriculum – Edited by Enakshi Sengupta, Patrick
Blessinger and Taisir Subhi Yamin
Volume 19 Teaching and Learning Strategies for Sustainable
Development – Edited by Enakshi Sengupta, Patrick
Blessinger and Taisir Subhi Yamin
Volume 20 University Partnership for Sustainable Development
Edited by Enakshi Sengupta, Patrick Blessinger and
Taisir Subhi Yamin
Volume 21 Civil Society and Social Responsibility in Higher
Education: International Perspectives on Curriculum
and Teaching Development – Edited by Enakshi
Sengupta, Patrick Blessinger and Craig Mahoney
Volume 22 Introduction to Sustainable Development Leadership
and Strategies In Higher Education – Edited by Enakshi
Sengupta, Patrick Blessinger and Taisir Subhi Yamin
Volume 23 University–Community Partnerships for Promoting
Social Responsibility in Higher Education – Edited by
Enakshi Sengupta, Patrick Blessinger and Craig
Mahoney
INNOVATIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION TEACHING
AND LEARNING VOLUME 24

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES
FOR PROMOTING SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY IN HIGHER
EDUCATION
EDITED BY

ENAKSHI SENGUPTA
Centre for Advanced Research in Higher Education,
New York, USA
International HETL Association, New York, USA

PATRICK BLESSINGER
St. John’s University, New York, USA
International HETL Association, New York, USA

CRAIG MAHONEY
University of the West of Scotland, UK
Created in partnership with the International Higher
Education Teaching and Learning Association

https://www.hetl.org/

United Kingdom – North America – Japan

India – Malaysia – China
Emerald Publishing Limited
Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2020

Copyright © 2020 Emerald Publishing Limited

Reprints and permissions service

Contact: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any
form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without
either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying
issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright
Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst
Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald
makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application
and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-83909-427-9 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-83909-426-2 (Online)
ISBN: 978-1-83909-428-6 (Epub)

ISSN: 2055-3641 (Series)

CONTENTS

List of Contributors

Series Editors’ Introduction

PART I
ROLE OF CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY
Chapter 1 Introduction to Leadership
Strategies for Promoting Social Responsibility
in Higher Education
Enakshi Sengupta, Patrick Blessinger and Craig
Mahoney

Chapter 2 Corporate Social Responsibility:

Reflections on Universities in the United Arab
Emirates
Ahmed Ankit and Tharwat El-Sakran

Chapter 3 Civil Society Organizations, Higher

Education Institutions, and Corporate Social
Responsibility in Zambia
Fred Moonga

Chapter 4 Current Understandings of Global

Competency in Shaping Globally Engaged
Citizens
Jacqulyn Ann Williams and Christine Schiwietz

Chapter 5 Teaching Sustainability Activism

to Student Scientists: Peer Learning and
Curricular Design
Jesse Priest

Chapter 6 Imagining a more Inclusive

University
Mary Andall-Stanberry

Chapter 7 GEROCO: A Model for Integrating

Sustainability in Management Education at
HEIs
Anne-Karen Hueske and Caroline Aggestam
Pontoppidan

PART II
LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Chapter 8 Educational Leadership,

Accountability, Social Responsibility – the
California Community Colleges: a Case Study
Fabienne-Sophie Chauderlot

Chapter 9 Ethical Leadership in Higher

Education: Responding to the Rise of For-
Profit Education in the United States
Daniel J. Harper and Laura M. Harrison

Chapter 10 Experience, Skill and

Competence: Boundary Spanning Capabilities
for Leadership and Management of
Transnational Education
Hazel Messenger and Wendy Bloisi

Chapter 11 The Institution as Learner:

Challenging the Metaphor of Debt in Higher
Education
Nicholas J. Shudak and Yasuko Taoka

Chapter 12 The Competition of an American

Public Good: Performance-based Funding and
Other Neoliberal Tertiary Effects in Higher
Education
Shelley R. Price-Williams, Roger “Mitch” Nasser and
Pietro A. Sasso

About the Authors

Name Index

Subject Index
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Mary Andall-Stanberry Canterbury Christ Church

University, UK
Ahmed Ankit Hamdan Bin Mohammed
Smart University, UAE
Patrick Blessinger International Higher Education
Teaching and Learning
Association, USA
Wendy Blois London Metropolitan
University, UK
Fabienne-Sophie Chauderlot Palomar College, USA
Tharwat EL-Sakran American University of
Sharjah, UAE
Daniel J. Harper Ohio University, USA
Laura M. Harrison Ohio University, USA
Anne-Karen Hueske Technische Universitaet,
Germany
Craig Mahoney University of the West of
Scotland, UK
Hazel Messenger London Metropolitan
University, UK
Fred Moonga Mulungushi University, Zambia
Roger “Mitch” Nasser
Caroline Aggestam Pontoppidan
Shelley R. Price-Williams
Jesse Priest
Pietro A. Sasso
Christine Schiwietz
Enakshi Sengupta
Nicholas J. Shudak
Yasuko Taoka
Jacqulyn Ann Williams
Lindenwood University, USA
Copenhagen Business School,
Denmark
University of Northern Iowa,
USA
New Mexico Tech, USA
Southern Illinois University
Edwardsville, USA
Georgetown University, Qatar
International Higher Education
Teaching and Learning
Association, USA
Wayne State College, USA
Wayne State College, USA
Virginia Commonwealth
University, Qatar
SERIES EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION

INNOVATIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

TEACHING AND LEARNING
The purpose of this series is to publish current research and
scholarship on innovative teaching and learning practices in higher
education. The series is developed around the premise that teaching
and learning are more effective when instructors and students are
actively and meaningfully engaged in the teaching–learning process.
The main objectives of this series are to:

(1) present how innovative teaching and learning practices are being
used in higher education institutions around the world across a
wide variety of disciplines and countries;
(2) present the latest models, theories, concepts, paradigms, and
frameworks that educators should consider when adopting,
implementing, assessing, and evaluating innovative teaching and
learning practices; and
(3) consider the implications of theory and practice on policy,
strategy, and leadership.

This series will appeal to anyone in higher education who is

involved in the teaching and learning process from any discipline,
institutional type, or nationality. The volumes in this series will focus
on a variety of authentic case studies and other empirical research
that illustrates how educators from around the world are using
innovative approaches to create more effective and meaningful
learning environments.
 Innovation teaching and learning are any approach, strategy,
method, practice, or means that has been shown to improve,
enhance, or transform the teaching–learning environment.
Innovation involves doing things differently or in a novel way in
order to improve outcomes. In short, innovation is a positive change.
With respect to teaching and learning, innovation is the
implementation of new or improved educational practices that result
in improved educational and learning outcomes. This innovation can
be any positive change related to teaching, curriculum, assessment,
technology, or other tools, programs, policies, or processes that lead
to improved educational and learning outcomes. Innovation can
occur in institutional development, program development,
professional development, or learning development.
The volumes in this series will not only highlight the benefits and
theoretical frameworks of such innovations through authentic case
studies and other empirical research but also look at the challenges
and contexts associated with implementing and assessing innovative
teaching and learning practices. The volumes represent all disciplines
from a wide range of national, cultural, and organizational contexts.
The volumes in this series will explore a wide variety of teaching and
learning topics such as active learning, integrative learning,
transformative learning, inquiry-based learning, problem-based
learning, meaningful learning, blended learning, creative learning,
experiential learning, lifelong and lifewide learning, global learning,
learning assessment and analytics, student research, faculty and
student learning communities, and other topics.
This series brings together distinguished scholars and educational
practitioners from around the world to disseminate the latest
knowledge on innovative teaching and learning scholarship and
practices. The authors offer a range of disciplinary perspectives from
different cultural contexts. This series provides a unique and
valuable resource for instructors, administrators, and anyone
interested in improving and transforming teaching and learning.

Patrick Blessinger
Founder, Executive Director, and Chief Research Scientist,
International HETL Association

Enakshi Sengupta
Associate Editor, International HETL Association
PART I
ROLE OF CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP
STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY IN HIGHER
EDUCATION
Enakshi Sengupta, Patrick Blessinger and Craig
Mahoney

ABSTRACT
Nations today are faced with unprecedented challenges due to
rapid globalization and global climate change. Universities no
longer operate in isolation but are now a part of society where
they are expected to be socially responsible citizens.
Universities need to have effective strategies in order to be
effective in a highly competitive higher education (HE)
landscape. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a preferred
strategy that can help achieve a good reputation and
competitive advantage for the institutions of HE. Such
institutions imparting HE are engaging in debates and quality
research work to gauge the need of the current generation
with a vision to meet the needs of the future generation
(Sengupta, Blessinger, & Yamin, 2020). This book contains
chapters that review scientific literature with an aim to find out
 the theoretical underpinnings explored in the case studies and
interventions practiced by universities across the globe. This
book provides evidence for CSR and the role of civil societies in
creating an organizational culture that promotes social
competence and human relations. This collective knowledge
will help facilitate continuous improvement in higher education
institutions with external impact and internal capacity building
and a focus toward performance and management.
Keywords: Corporate social responsibility; higher educational
institutions; universities; social ethics; value orientations;
management; impact measurement; case studies; future
generation; climate change; globalization

INTRODUCTION
The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) dates back to
1953 with the publication of Bowen’s “Social Responsibility of
Businessmen.” The term was further refined in 1984 when Peter
Drucker spoke about turning social problems into economic
opportunities. World started viewing the concept of CSR in a
different light and not a charitable giving or wasteful expenditure.
The World Business Council for Sustainable Development defines
CSR as:
the continuous commitment by the business organization to behave ethically and
contribute to the economic development while improving the quality of life of the
workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large.

European Union describes CSR as:

the concept that an enterprise is accountable for its impact on all relevant
stakeholders. It is the continuing commitment by business to behave fairly and
responsibly, and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of
life of the work force and their families as well as of the local community and society
at large.
European Commission (EC, 2006) emphasis that CSR practices “can
play a key role in contributing to sustainable development while
enhancing Europe’s innovative potential and competitiveness” (p.
24).
CSR has been further defined as “corporate citizenship,
sustainable business, environmental responsibility, the triple bottom
line; social and environmental accountability; business ethics and
corporate accountability” (Moon, Slager, Brunn, Hardi, & Knudsen,
2012, p. 2). It is argued and agreed by educationists that there
exists an urgent need to educate students and enable them to
understand sustainability matters so that while growing up they
assume the role of pro-sustainability citizens, caring for their planet
and surrounding with a futuristic view toward conserving and
preserving the planet for future generations (Sengupta, Blessinger, &
Yamin, 2020). CSR is the crucial bridge that gaps the inequalities
found in our society and universities, NGO’s civic bodies and
government plays a vital role in being a part of this bridge. These
bodies have the capacity to frame a comprehensive set of policies
and practices that can be integrated into curriculum or running of
businesses and impact decision making in an organization. Civil
societies have joined hands with institutions of higher education
(HE) to remediate social problems and create an ethical relationship
in society with a focus toward transparency and accountability.
In keeping with the phenomena of globalization and privatization
of education institutions and the ever-growing competition in HE
industry, it is becoming imperative for higher education institutions
(HEIs) to adapt a corporate approach in the changing face of the
industry (Gioia & Thomas, 1996; Gumport, 2000; Weymans, 2010).
Institutions are resorting to various strategies that are geared
toward discovering the importance of corporate image, corporate
identity, corporate reputation, and use of CSR as a reputation and an
advantage building strategy (Atakan & Eker, 2007; Melewar & Akel,
2005; Porter & Kramer, 2006; Stensaker, 2007). Working with civil
societies and use of CSR toward building competitive advantage is a
direction chosen by the leaders of the institutions. These strategies
are helping the university to move beyond their classroom and
establish relationship with active members of society to help their
students understand and appreciate the current problems and work
on a collaborative effort to create a solution for such issues.
Educational institutions are charged with legitimate duties of
educating the masses, advancing knowledge through research and
contribute to economic development in a sustainable manner
(Sengupta et al., 2020). Leaders in educational institutions have
shown a commitment to CSR through “actions that appear to further
some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is
required by law” (McWilliams & Siegel, 2001, in Strand, 2011).
Leadership in educational institutions is considered to be crucial for
CSR as they are actively involved in securing the commitment of
management and develops a system of incentives to reward staff
and faculty members who develop and push for the adoption of
sustainability practices at all levels (Székely & Knirsch, 2005). A
conscious effort is needed on the part of the active individual that is
both a good leader and a good manager to transform the institution
into a sustainable and socially responsible body who is both
accountable to its stakeholders and helps inculcate it in the running
of the institution (Székely & Knirsch, 2005).
A university’s decision to engage in CSR comes from its leader
and is viewed as a strategic choice. While talking about the
involvement of leaders in CSR academics have stated that “decisions
regarding CSR activities are made by managers and stem from their
mental models regarding their sense of who they are in the world”
(Basu & Palazzo, 2008, p. 124) and from “their own perceptions of
what they think is important or their own moral values” (Waldman,
2008, p. 118), while it holds true for businesses the same is
applicable in an institution of HE. Leaders can give directional
guidance and motivate the entire institution toward creating a
conducive atmosphere and help create “a proactive strategy in
shaping the perspectives of future leaders through sustainability
related management education, research, management, and training
programmes” (Lee et al., 2013, p. 4).
 LITERATURE REVIEW
The controversy that surrounds HE is its role in economic prosperity
of a nation and to what extent should it function as an ancillary unit
in creating economic capital. The property that is zealously guarded
by every university is its intellectual capital. Academics have argued
in the past that the role of a university should be restricted to
creation of intellectual capital. However, the intellectual capital is a
source of economic prosperity of a nation. It is the source of
research and development and growth and progress of manpower.
CSR is noted as an approach that can help in creating a higher
academic quality of life. The leaders along with their team of faculty,
staff, and student should help accelerate the integration of civil
society and CSR in the curriculum of students with an academic goal
toward creating a solution to all those which are considered as social
evil.
In recent years academic institutions have shifted their focus of
working from a self-contained viewpoint to one that is collaborative
in nature. Institutions of HE have realized that it can no longer thrive
in an environment that enjoys predictable funding and student
enrollment without having much of a competitive edge between
institutions (Dill, 2003; Gioia & Thomas, 1996). Globalization and
internationalization of HE have put institutions into an ambiguous
arena that looks more like a consumer goods marketplace (Gioia &
Thomas, 1996). There is a severe struggle to attract high quality
students and academic staff not only within national borders but also
in an international level (Melewar & Akel, 2005). This strategic
change has led institutions to adopt a business-like approach to
compete and survive in this industry (Gioia & Thomas, 1996).
Universities have no alternative but to reform themselves and
customize their approach toward education to new economic
realities (Weymans, 2010).
Managing an institution of HE and making it financially
sustainable is a large task that not only faces a global competitive
environment but also faces financial realities that are looming large
along with the pressure to alternative sources of resource
commitment (Gumport, 2000). A traditional business talks about
customers and implementing CSR in the company to garner market
share and win favorable customer feedback and brand loyalty is
considered to be a good strategy. However, treating students as
customers is still not looked upon as a favorable approach to market
an institution of HE.
Therefore, this uphill task can only be completed if educational
institutions start changing their traditional mode of management and
ushers in a multifaceted approach with help from civil society and
government. Academics are not allowed to have an ivory tower
approach any longer. The problem lies in the core where till date
academia enjoys being self-contained, governing itself and focusing
on knowledge activities that functions in isolation determined largely
by themselves. This approach may have been suitable in the past
century (Weymans, 2010). In the current global market
environment, the social pressures on businesses have increased and
stakeholders are demanding a commitment toward well-being of all,
and concern for the CSR is not manifested only by academics but by
the public and the shareholders as well (Popa, 2010).
To steer an educational institution in achieving its competitive
edge and imbibe CSR not only in education but as an approach for
management can only be done by an effective leader of the
institution. Leaders are capable of promoting clear CSR goals and
missions through a well-chalked-out strategic plan. Amagoh (2009)
argues that it is only leaders that can be responsible for innovations,
and he further views effective leadership as responders who can
initiate change and are those individuals who will find ways to
creatively address challenges while sustaining high performance of
their institutions. Neera, Anjanee, and Shoma (2010) state that the
concept of leadership remains ambiguous due to the changing
environment of our time but the leader is definitely those who thinks
and make decisions ahead of their time. Fairholm (1998) and Kanji
(2008) discuss the significance of a leader who is capable of
articulating the vision as a means of demonstrating support for the
program being implemented.
 In this case implementing CSR and tie-ups with civil society
organization (CSO) to provide a meaningful and wholistic learning
experience to students lies with the leaders. It is now nearly
impossible to manage an educational institution in a traditional
market-oriented manner. As Stensaker (2007) points out the
challenges lie in managing an educational institution in keeping with
the changing environment and its tasks and at the same time
maintaining the organizational identities and inner characteristics
which is the core of any institution of HE.

CONCLUSION
This transition of an institutions from a traditional approach to that
of a CSR-oriented modules and curriculum is imperative and cannot
be avoided as there are increasing cases of global warming,
deforestation, chemical warfare, uprooting of humans which have
created a huge impact on our interconnected ecosystem, food chain,
and the overall quality of life (Blessinger, Sengupta, & Makhanya,
2019). Students need to be aware of such issues and while studying
in the institutions should be exposed to find solutions through their
projects, research, and curriculum of study. The courses should be
designed around concepts like CSR, ethics, human rights, and social
values to promote equality, inclusiveness, and social justice among
students and other members in the university. Vocational training,
scientific research, publications, and workshops are to be
encouraged, which will help further the CSR agenda of the
institution. Integrating CSR with the help of institutional leaders and
making them a part of their strategic plan is the need of the hour to
which all institution must cater.

CHAPTER OVERVIEWS
“Corporate Social Responsibility: Reflections on Universities in the
United Arab Emirates,” written by Ahmed Ankit and Tharwat EL-
Sakran, discusses about CSR as a concept which can be applicable in
public service institutions, where responsibility means that the
organization is capable of partaking and carving a solution toward
urgent social needs. Universities are institutions in which social
responsibility emerges not only because of their fundamental mission
in the dissemination of knowledge, training, and creation but also
because of the enormous challenges they face being a part of a
greater society. A university is created to serve its society by
graduating people who can contribute to its social and economic
development. In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the
number of private universities in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
The academic and professional programs offered by local universities
have been developed to follow the revenue-generating practices that
are widely used in other different regions of the world. The Country
has also seen a growing interest in CSR. The chapter investigates
the CSR-related evidence as envisaged in UAE and further
emphasizes the four levels of responsibilities, namely, academic
responsibility, social responsibility, responsibility toward
disadvantaged groups, and environmental responsibility, which are
seen as essentials.
“Civil Society, Higher Education Institutions, and Corporate Social
Responsibility in Zambia,” authored by Fred Moonga, speaks about
the abundant scholarship on the role of CSOs in promoting
community and social development in the low-income countries in
general, and Zambia in particular. However, there is limited
scholarship on the role of CSOs in HEIs, and vice versa, and how the
two have become key partners in CSR. Historically, CSOs were
preoccupied with community work partly because of their mandate
to help vulnerable people access resources for meeting basic needs,
and at times actual provision of these resources. Lately however,
these organizations have taken keen interest in generating learning
materials and assistance in designing curricula for some HEIs. This
has been partly because of their practical experiences in policy and
intervention implementation among other issues that position them
well to inform curriculum development. HEIs too, have over time,
changed their approach to pedagogical issues from perceiving
themselves as the sole generators of knowledge to appreciating
partnerships and reflecting on their relationship and contribution to
society. The focus of this chapter is on analyzing the relationship
between CSOs and HEIs and how these complement each other in
CSR.
“Current Understandings of Global Competency in Shaping
Globally Engaged Citizens,” by Jacqulyn Ann Williams and Christine
Schiwietz, talks about colleges and universities playing a significant
role in preparing students to navigate the many issues and
challenges that characterize contemporary societies, challenges that
are simultaneously local, national, and global in nature. This has led
to increased calls within HE to re-envision educational practices to
prioritize global competency. However, ambiguity persists regarding
how faculty in transnational HE contexts, specifically international
branch campuses, understand global competency and conceive of
their role in shaping students’ sense of self, perspective-taking, and
social responsibility systematically. Using a social constructivist lens,
this chapter outlines initial case study research, informed by King
and Baxter Magolda’s (2004) constructive-developmental model of
intercultural maturity, Kegan’s (1994) scholarship on self-authorship,
as well as Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory. This
investigative research as cited in the chapter will be useful in terms
of understanding how administrators and educators facilitate the
environmental conditions and educational practices that lead to
global competency and socially responsible global citizens. The
broader implications of such study could potentially inform
educational change policy and confirm the important role universities
play in shaping and transforming societies.
“Teaching Sustainability Activism to Student Scientists: Peer
Learning and Curricular Design,” authored by Jesse Priest, discusses
a case study analysis of one undergraduate program that focuses on
training science majors to perform sustainability outreach in their
communities; this study offers pedagogical suggestions for how
educators in universities might incorporate sustainability and
activism into their curricular design. This chapter discusses the
relationship between the hard-academic knowledge of the classroom
and the outreach work done by the students by examining how
curricular design and classroom activities lead to outreach work.
Drawing on interviews, curriculum materials, and observations of
staff meetings, this chapter examines how the course teachers use a
peer-learning model to collaboratively develop the pedagogy of the
classroom. This model of teacher training through engagement with
the content material of the course represents reflective learning
practices. By being asked to break down and contextualize class
themes and units for themselves as thinkers, the teachers first
reflect on their own learning process and disciplinary participation as
a way of developing course material for their students, who are
themselves not incredibly far behind their facilitators in their own
learning development. The effectiveness of this practice suggests
possibilities for using teacher training as a way to model the
classroom space that each discipline believes best serve their
learning goals. By first reflecting on their own individual relationship
to the subject material, the teachers engage in a re-negotiation with
knowledge that is synonymous with effective learning. The
knowledge of the discipline is constantly re-negotiated around why
that knowledge matters for each individual member of the discipline.
By considering how the classroom in this program combines
disciplinary knowledge of environmental science with outreach and
activist-oriented praxis, this case study analysis allows for
pedagogical techniques that instructors might use with similar goals
of combining traditional academic discourse with public outreach and
participation.
“Imagining a More Inclusive University,” by Mary Andall-Stanberry,
explores the factors that encourage or discourage a successful
university experience and how is this subjectively understood by
Black (African, Caribbean, and Asian) students? How might
university cultures and subcultures better enhance the development
of Black students and staff, particularly Black women in the UK? This
will be considered by imagining what a more inclusive academy
might look like, in the light of associated theorizing. There is, as part
of the above, an interrogation of what being a university is and
might be. There can be emptiness in policy statements, as well as
avoidance, on the one hand; on the other, moments of courage, and
struggle, to remind us of what a university can be; a place where
difficult issues are addressed, in reflexive, intellectual yet also
humane ways. A Critical Race Theory framework is used to theorize
and examine the way race and racism implicitly and explicitly impact
on social structures, practices, and discourse, and asserts itself
within the corridors of HE. It paints a picture of what the more
inclusive university might be like, alongside an understanding of how
difficult it is for humans to engage with the complexity, of race,
stereotyping, and discrimination.
“GEROCO: A Model for Integrating Sustainability in Management
Education at HEIs,” by Anne-Karen Hueske and Caroline Aggestam
Pontoppidan, writes about the increasing emphasis on universities as
agents promoting and advancing sustainability. This chapter
addresses how sustainability is integrated into management
education at HEIs. It is based on a systematic literature review that
teases out governance, education, research, outreach, and campus
operations (GEROCO) as key elements for embedding sustainability
in management education. In addition, it identifies the important
role of having an overall governing strategic direction that serves to
anchor sustainability. The chapter highlights that sustainability and
responsible management education initiatives are interconnected
and are complex to embed through the university system.
“Educational Leadership, Accountability, Social Responsibility –
The California Community Colleges: A Case Study,” by Fabienne-
Sophie Chauderlot, discusses that in spite of millions of dollars
funding increases in the California Community College system,
statistics show that less than 50% of students complete their two-
year degree in six years. The 114 colleges that serve over two
million students have therefore been mandated to implement
student success programs under the Chancellor’s Vision for Success
strategy. Dr Ortiz Oakley’s plans to decrease attrition and graduation
time while improving equity entail additional responsibilities for the
instructors because one of its measures ties a percentage of funding
to quantifiable increases in success rates. Such connection was one
of the reasons for a no confidence motion voted against the
Chancellor by the Faculty Association. Though circumscribed, this
case calls attention to the general question of accountability in the
classroom. Can instructors be held responsible for students passing
their classes? In face of rates of failure that are rare in other
professional fields and unacceptable given community college
students’ vulnerability and the vital importance of degrees to enter
the workforce and earn living wages, this chapter examines how
weaving a social justice component into instructors’ mission of
knowledge dissemination leads to the constitution of a beneficial civil
society but generates conflict among the Colleges’ leaders.
“Ethical Leadership in Higher Education: Responding to the Rise
of For-Profit Education in the United States,” written by Daniel J.
Harper and Laura M. Harrison, discusses HE in the United States,
which aims to nurture civically engaged and democratically minded
individuals. During its long history, non-profit HE has successfully
responded to that call. While for-profit HE is not new, in recent
decades its expanded reach and career-focused influence have
begun to drastically challenge our thinking about all of HE and
specifically the character and practices of non-profit institutions. At
the same time, for-profit institutions of HE have been highly
criticized for their administrative practices, their cost, and their
questionable outcomes. Given this criticism, there has been only
limited study of the student experience with for-profits. This chapter
introduces a brief history of for-profit education in the United States
and offers an overview of studies exploring the student experience
at for-profit institutions. It examines the relationship between
administrative practices at for-profit institutions and how those
practices have affected students and their educational choices, both
before enrolling and after graduation. By doing so, the reader is
challenged to consider the past, present, and future of HE along with
its role and mission of shaping individuals and society.
“Experience, Skill and Competence: Boundary Spanning
Capabilities for Leadership and Management of Transnational
Education,” by Hazel Messenger and Wendy Bloisi, relates to
identifying the experience, skills, and competencies of those
responsible for operationalizing and developing transnational
education (TNE) partnerships. Despite the growth of TNE
internationally, little detailed attention has been paid to these
individuals, often called academic liaison (or link) tutors. They are
good examples of “boundary spanners” (Williams, 2013, p. 17) or
“third space professionals” (Whitchurch, 2008, p. 378). Using
concepts associated with “distributed leadership” (Gronn, 2002, p.
423) to explain leadership in collaborative provision as distributed
practice, the research represented in the chapter made use of
activity theory (Engeström, 1987) to identify the range of contextual
factors that an academic liaison tutor needs to take into account in
developing a TNE partnership. Findings indicate that an academic
liaison tutor needs experience of working in complex environments,
in-depth understanding of organizational procedures, the ability to
manage power differentials, sophisticated communication and
interpersonal skills, the ability to create and lead a cultural context
for learning and development, change management, and the ability
to resolve difficulties. These factors provide the foundation for
suggestions for staff recruitment, development, and training.
“The Institution as Learner: Challenging the Metaphor of Debt in
Higher Education,” written by Nicholas J. Shudak and Yasuko Taoka,
discusses the operational paradigms guiding leadership strategies
and practices, and their related policies, are archaic, and neither
varied nor flexible. Arguably, many institutions of HE still operate on
an economized production paradigm of product-profit. The
unintended consequence of such a paradigm is the continued
dehumanization and objectification of all those involved. This chapter
challenges the particular uses of metaphors in HE that, on our view,
continue the reified product-profit paradigm. By crafting an
alternative conceptual metaphor for HE as a learner rather than
debtor, we help those in HE begin to make institutions more socially
responsible and more democratic simply by calling upon those within
HE to reduce the amount of human commodification occurring
through the language we use. The authors does this by sketching
the history of the institution as debtor, making clear and transparent
the consequences and impact of this metaphor, and by providing an
alternative metaphorical paradigm for institutions of HE.
“The Competition of an American Public Good: Performance-
Based Funding and Other Neoliberal Tertiary Effects in Higher
Education,” by Shelley R. Price-Williams, Roger “Mitch” Nasser, Jr,
and Pietro A. Sasso, quotes how St. John, Daun-Barnett, and
Moronski-Chapman (2012) maintained ideological shifts in American
culture and politics, which are important for the study of HE policy
because of the influence on public finance, government regulation,
and curriculum. From the Great Depression through the Cold War to
the present, human capital theory has guided HE (St. John et al.,
2012). Veiled concepts of accessibility and equity were substantial
during this era to mask more nefarious attempts to shift to the
privatization away from the public good of American HE (Astin &
Oseguera, 2004). This chapter focuses on the role of accountability
as a neoliberal ideology, and the impact of this ideology, as a form of
corporatization on HE. Furthermore, this focus on corporatization
intersects specifically with the discourse pertaining to CSR, which
can be understood as transparent actions that guide an organization
to benefit society, such as in funding and accessibility. In this
chapter, the authors engage in a critical analysis of neoliberalism,
and academic capitalism, as threats to the institution of HE as a
public good.
Furthermore, this focus on corporatization intersects with the
discourse pertaining to CSR, which can be understood as transparent
actions in promoting the public good of American HE. The authors
initially provide a framing of the public to private dichotomy of
American HE in explaining the various products produced and
expected outcomes. A historical context for performance-based
funding in American HE is provided as an understanding of the
nature and scope of the contemporary model. To understand the
influence of public funding policies on American HE, it is also
necessary to comprehend the role of political ideology and how the
business model of HE has evolved. Thus, a general discussion of
neoliberalism permeates the entirety of this discussion. This chapter
concludes with the tertiary impacts of neoliberalism.
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Leadership Strategies for Promoting Social Responsibility in Higher Education

Innovations in Higher Education Teaching and Learning, Volume 24, 3–13
Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 2055-3641/doi:10.1108/S2055-364120200000024003
CHAPTER 2
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY:
REFLECTIONS ON UNIVERSITIES IN THE
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Ahmed Ankit and Tharwat EL-Sakran

ABSTRACT
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a concept is applicable
in public service institutions, where responsibility means that
the organization is capable of partaking and carving a solution
toward urgent social needs. Universities are institutions in
which social responsibility emerges not only because of their
fundamental mission in the dissemination of knowledge,
training, and creation, but also of the enormous challenges
they face being a part of a greater society. A university is
created to serve its society by graduating people who can
contribute to its social and economic development. In recent
years, there has been a rapid increase in the number of private
universities in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The academic
and professional programs offered by local universities have
been developed to follow the revenue-generating practices that
are widely used in other different regions of the world. The
country has also seen a growing interest in CSR. The chapter
investigates the CSR-related evidence as envisaged in UAE and
 further emphasizes the four levels of responsibilities, namely,
academic responsibility, social responsibility, responsibility
toward disadvantaged groups, and environmental responsibility,
that we can see essential.
Keywords: Corporate social responsibility; universities in the
United Arab Emirates; stakeholders; profit driven; future
generation; accountability; transparency

INTRODUCTION
The ideas and knowledge generated by people trained at
universities substantially impact society. Therefore, it becomes
imperative at this juncture to investigate and examine the social
responsibility of universities, as measured through examining the
social, economic, and cultural aspects of the development of
different societies who are impacted by the institutions of higher
education. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) can be defined as
the responsibilities that “encompasses the economic, legal, ethical,
and discretionary (philanthropic) expectations that society has of
organizations at a given point in time” (Carroll, 1979, 1991) and
become an important component of growth mainly in developing
societies (Jamali & Karam, 2016; Kudłak & Low, 2015; Rasche,
Morsing, & Moon, 2017). In the 1980s, during a period of economic
and social crisis, the World Bank suggested that developing countries
might have no real need for higher education:
Psacharopoulos’ findings were reported in World Bank policy documents and
research papers. The World Development Report 1980 noted that return to
investment (in countries with low incomes) in basic education amount to 27 percent,
while secondary and higher education yield returns of only 17 percent and 12
percent, respectively. Based on ROR analyses, the World Bank (1986) explored policy
options for financing education in developing nations. The outcome – based to a
large degree on the work of Psacharopoulos – was that the World Bank started
pushing for a disinvestment of public funds for higher education, primarily by
attaching conditions to their loans.
University social responsibility in developing countries, societies, and
economies cannot be undermined (Elobeid, Lele, & Kaifi, 2016;
Sherif, 2015). As key centers of knowledge creation, generation, and
dissemination, universities do play a critical role in identifying,
addressing, and resolving the world’s most pertinent and necessary
socioeconomic and environmental issues (Kezar, Chambers, &
Burkhardt, 2015; Khalili, Duecker, Ashton, & Chavez, 2015). Higher
education institutions, including the universities in the Middle East,
have increasingly demonstrated that they are indeed ready to take
on the challenge of incorporating CSR in their curricula, offering
courses dedicated to and focused on CSR, and allowing key
elements of CSR to permeate all their learning disciplines (Sherif,
2015). Some educational institutions also believe that developing a
positive reputation through CSR is one way to differentiate
themselves from other competitive institutions in the higher business
education market by building resilience and showing more
commitment to society and welfare of general public. Therefore, in
terms of the belief of the society, accrediting agencies, local and
federal governments that implementing a CSR strategy is a powerful
method for achieving goals (Sherif, 2015), since universities are in
many ways not that different from business organizations.
Institutions of higher education function as profit-oriented
organizations where return on investment by either students,
parents, sponsors, or the state is crucial for the growth and survival
of the institution.
The economy in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) for many years
has largely hinged on the revenues received from selling crude oil in
international markets. Development plans and national projects are
directly linked to world oil prices, and they have steadily declined
over the past two years (Sherif, 2015). In addition, oil is not a
sustainable resource and is destined to be depleting. These factors
have led the UAE government to begin the tough and challenging
task of switching from an oil-based economy to a knowledge-based
one to be mainly driven by greater investment in higher education.
The UAE Ministry of Education (MoE) launched, in September 2017,
the National Strategy for Higher Education 2030. The strategy clearly
outlines that “it sets out to build and achieve the highest scientific
and professional education standards to serve the UAE’s future
generations.” Making it clear that the future investments have been
ear marked for higher education (The United Arab Emirates’
Government, 2020):
The strategy seeks to provide future generations with the necessary technical and
practical skills to drive the economy in both public and private sectors. It also aims to
prepare a generation of Emirati professionals to sustain growth in vital sectors such
as knowledge, economy, entrepreneurship and the overall development of the UAE’s
labour market.

The outcome of this investment of course may not be as immediate

and rapid as an investment in oil projects, but over time it will
certain be more sustainable and profitable (Sherif, 2015). As a result,
higher education institutions have become the primary source of
technological innovations. New graduates equipped with the
requisite knowledge and skills demanded by a changing job market
are now at the forefront of educational planning in the country (EL-
Sakran & Prescott, 2017).
Given the role and greater significance of higher education
institutions, it is no longer enough to understand just the value of
university education and the degrees earned by students.
Universities need to be equipped to address the lack of information
on the economic and social impacts that a university is capable of
creating as an whole. Hence, the current study investigates the CSR
practices being applied by universities in the UAE with the view to
developing new reflections on the mission and roles of these higher
education institutions in the Arab nations as these nations need to
assess more precisely the need for changes in the economic and
thus the social structures and progress of the nation.

CSR and the Academic Environment – A

Comprehensive Approach
According to Bowen (1953), CSR practice is based on two principles
– moral commitment (the micro level) and the social contract (the
macro level). Although many studies have examined, analyzed, and
interpreted the concept in detail, the concept is still largely
ambiguous and requires further investigation and analysis. The
multi-faceted ambiguities that envelop the concept are:

Theoretical: It is often as a result of the absence of theoretical

assumptions and definitions.
Semantic: Related to application of the concept in English,
presupposing the meaning of both CSR and corporate social
responsiveness as interpreted in the context of Arab countries.
Ideological: Originates with the notion of responsibility, but difficult
to define precisely due to its broad scope and social limits.

Initially, responsibility denoted civic responsibility. However, the

concept also has a moral dimension, as it is associated with the
moral obligation toward society Therefore, it becomes interesting
and indeed even necessary to establish and analyze the economic,
moral, and legal limits of CSR. A good example of a CSR
representation is the “triple bottom line” suggested by Elkington
(1997). It suggests that a socially responsible organization or
business should be performing in economic, environmental, and
social sectors, which means that a company has to focus on
increasing its economic profits, decreasing its environmental
impacts, while also considering the interests of all stakeholders.
However, combining these objectives means dealing with the
sustainability of human resources, social justice issues, and
organizational integration in the life of the community.
The roots of the CSR concept suggest that it has a long and
evolving history. Yet it can still be described as a product of the
twentieth century, as its major developmental and application
practices began in the early 1920s and have continued into the
present time and will like continue into the future. In The Wealth of
Nations, Adam Smith, the Scottish philosopher and economist,
discussed a core perception and assertion that business entities have
certain social responsibilities. These were initially recognized and
noted during the nineteenth century. Smith called for the support of
market interactions that enabled the free participation of any
individual and any kind of organization, further claiming that these
interactions must serve the needs of society (Brown & Forster, 2013;
Grzeda & Rowden, 2014; Werhane & Bevan, 2015). In addition,
while people have a natural tendency to engage in commercial
transactions for selfish reasons or personal gain, Smith believed that
one way or another, this kind of agency would nonetheless benefit
society as a whole, despite the existence of certain externalities,
both positive and negative. His ideas implied that the efforts of
corporations should improve the welfare of society by safeguarding
its key interests (Grzeda & Rowden, 2014; Werhane & Bevan, 2015).
Recently, these ideas about CSR have been supported and have
been further substantiated by other researchers, such as Brown and
Forster (2013) and Werhane and Bevan (2015).
Meeting the needs of the university community in terms of social
life and culture is now one of the tasks of a socially responsible
university. In the UAE Standard 11 of licensure and accreditation for
universities, it is stated that “The institution seeks to identify and
respond to needs within the community and engage representatives
of local business, schools, professional bodies government entities,
alumni, ethnic communities and citizens” (Standards for Institutional
Licensure and Program, 2019). The construction of this social model,
which interacts with its surrounding environment, is becoming
mandatory. Numerous practices testify to this movement of re-
composition of university activities. However, the academic
community is not always aware of the new role that the university
plays in this field.

THE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF

UNIVERSITIES IN THE ARAB WORLD
Recent years have witnessed a proliferation of private and other for-
profit higher education institutions that have entered the business of
social and economic development. This proliferation of institutions
has led to certain unintended social, environmental, and
developmental effects, both positive and negative, because of the
social engagement activities of these organizations. The recognition
of these kinds of impacts has encouraged many organizations in the
UAE to propose that corporations have a responsibility to be
accountable and transparent, thus resulting in the emergence of the
CSR phenomenon. Motivated by the idea that practicing CSR can be
a competitive differentiator, Chakraborty et al. (2004) have argues
that the CSR constitutes a tool to achieve business success while
observing ethical values, respecting communities and natural
environment. Many business organizations have undertaken a range
of measures and practices with favorable outcomes, thereby
reinforcing the notion that CSR can be both a beneficial and
profitable venture (Carroll, 2015; Saeidi, Sofian, Saeidi, Saeidi, &
Saaeidi, 2015; Sherif, 2015).
In response to this trend, institutions of higher education
worldwide have expanded CSR and included it in their curricula to
inform or train future generations of leaders who can then
competently assume socially responsible activities. Higher education
institutions in the Middle East are not exempt from this new
development (Doh & Tashman, 2012; Sherif, 2015). In response to
the ever-growing social problems that Middle Eastern nations are
facing especially unemployment and its ramifications, there is
increasing recognition that both societies and governments have to
reinvent themselves so these problems can be addressed fully and
resolved positively. Creating more awareness of these social
problems and evaluating possible ways for youth to solve them can
be one possible solution and catalyst for a better future for the
entire Middle East region, including the UAE. The role of higher
education institutions, including universities, in not only producing
but also motivating CSR among the youth can be an initial major
step forward to a better future for the UAE and the entire Middle
East (Sherif, 2015).
CSR is defined as “expectations that society has of organizations
at a given point in time” demonstrated by Carroll (1979). It is then
the ethical relationship that a company has with both its
shareholders and its stakeholders, as well as the level of
transparency that company exhibits to the public. Additionally, the
concept is demonstrated through the planning and attainment of
corporate goals that are well aligned with the sustainable
development of society, the preservation of the environment, cultural
resources for greater enjoyment of future generations, and ongoing
respect for diversity (Steurer, 2010). Company goals should also be
geared toward reducing the variety of social problems. Although the
main elements of CSR have always been incorporated into the
mission of higher education institutions, which have then
implemented CSR practices largely on their own, higher education
institutions are now using CSR strategies to boost their competitive
advantage by shifting their focus beyond the classroom to how these
institutions and their administrations conduct their ongoing
operations.
Many higher education institutions have discovered the value of
having a corporate image, being an organizational entity, and
establishing a positive institutional reputation (Sherif, 2015) and thus
started to view CSR as part of a larger reputation-building strategy.
While the roles and responsibilities of higher education can be
summarized as transferring knowledge to newer generations through
instruction, training, and research, it is possible to achieve a good
balance between basic and applied research by providing
professional training to instructors while still guaranteeing the quality
of general education and meeting the critical needs of these
institutions’ respective communities and societies. Yet the tasks of
higher education institutions rarely stop there (de Bakker, 2016;
Sherif, 2015). Instead, they are also expected to be active in
developing human capital for their students, cultivating citizens and
political leaders, preserving knowledge for the nation, and fostering
or facilitating other legitimate national endeavors (Atakan & Eker,
2007; de Bakker, 2016; Jorge & Peña, 2014). The behaviors and
actions of higher education institutions thus serve as a reflection of
the society that they represent, both through their actions and
pursuit of their alumni and their own everyday operations and the
ways they act to affect society as a whole (Sherif, 2015).
 It has thus become necessary to answer one question. What is
the social responsibility of a university in the Arab region for many
years, as higher education institutions and universities in the Arab
world were isolated and largely inaccessible to many people?
Consequently, universities have ignored the real needs of the society
as a whole (Sherif, 2015). Currently, many questions are being raised
concerning the universities’ adaptation to their surrounding
environment and their efforts to find effective solutions for the
cultural, socioeconomic, and political problems that exist. In the Arab
world, universities do not have well-developed social responsibility.
As a result, any analysis of university performance is a poorly
developed process and remains still largely almost unimplemented.
However, new social responsibility initiatives have emerged since
these universities have begun seeking international accreditation
(Sherif, 2015).
No studies investigating this issue in the UAE have yet been
conducted. However, some studies can serve as a reference for
community engagement and social responsibility when reviewing
and taking into account the Standards for Licensure and
Accreditation issued by the Commission for Academic Accreditation
(CAA, 2011) and re-issued in 2019 it states that all institutions of
higher education operating the UAE who want to be recognized by
the federal government agencies have to apply and obtain
institutional licensure and program accreditation. CSR is included in
community engagement and is a requirement as stipulated in
standard 11 for licensure and accreditation.

UAE UNIVERSITIES AND THEIR SOCIAL

RESPONSIBILITY
The large scope of social responsibility that is needed today leads us
to deal with all types of questions regarding university social
responsibility in the UAE. Therefore, it would be indeed worthwhile
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Shirts, 317
Shitūr Gūlū, 226
Shoemakers, 190
Shoes, 321
Shooting antelope, 88
from the saddle, 84
Shopkeepers, 189
Shrine at Kūm, 387
of a saint, 362
Shulwar, 321
Shūr ab, 387
Shūrgistan, 261
Shushan, the palace, 109
Sick-leave, 207
Sick-room, a Persian, 244
Signs of wealth of Imād-u-Dowlet, 112
Silence of young married women, strange, 132
Silver doors, 196
Singers, Persian, 114
Sinsin, 386
Sir A. Kemball, 208
H. Rawlinson, 109
F. Goldsmid, 56, 157
Oliver St. John, 350
Sitting, mode of, 318
Skilled house-decorators, 164
Slavery in Persia, 326
Sleepers in mosques, 197
Smoking, 31
Snakes, 307
superstition as to, 306
Snipe, 116
double, 107
Snow-chair, 272
in Turkey, 213
Socks, 321
Soh, 384
Souhāli, 326
Soup Gework, 143
Spears, 179
Spurious cavalry officer, 73
Staff, health of the, 296
Stages, list of, 411
Stanley, the traveller, 224
Steamer, Caspian, 211
Steelyards, 221
Stone doors, 142
mortars, huge, 360
Storing wine, 58
Story, Persian, 285
Story-teller, 44
Straw, cut, its uses, 175
Stripped, I am, 263
Students, cells of, 197
Studs of horses, 89
Substitute for bells, 139
Successful Armenians, 143
Suez, 342
Suffid Rūd, 400
Suicide of a scorpion, 249
Suleiman Mirza, 90
Summer palace, 372
Sunset gun, 284
Sunstroke, dangers of, 375
Supposed lioness, 35
Surmeh, 260
Susmani girls, 114
Susmanis, 108
Swamp, shooting in a, 117
Swollen eyes, 213
Syudabad Pass, 101
Syud at Kasvin, 208
Houssein, 71
Syuds, dress of, 320
Hassan and Houssein, 153
the three, their fate, 156

T⸺, Mr., 27
Tabriz maund, 220
Tager, 188
Takhtrowan, 368
Taking quinine, 398
Talár, 57
Talisman, 290
Talking lark, 94
Tame pigs, 302
Tame gazelle, 167
lion, 306
partridges, 308
Tanks, 198
Tannūr or oven, 335
Tarantass, 12
Tarantulas, 248
Tattooing, 323
Tax-man at Dehbeed, 133
Tax of turkeys, 144
Taylor, Consul, 212
Taziana, the, 380
Tazzia, 279
Tazzias, dervishes at, 281
T-cloths, marks on, 194
Teachers of religion and law, 338
Teetotaler, a, 380
Teheran, 28, 372
races, 214
Teleet, 136
Telega, 11
Telegraph office, 198
flight of Baabi women to, 154
Telegraph poles, wooden, 80
Temple at Kangawar, 107
Tenets of Baabis, 339
Tent for Tazzia, 280
pitching, 399
Tents, 107
“The Sticks,” 377
Thief-catching, 85
Thieves, gang of, 269
Thorns in feet, 267
Tiflis, 14, 17
“Tiger’s boy,” 341
Tiled dome, 196
halls, 197
mosque, 197
Tile inscription, 177
work gates, 372
Titles, 38, 289
Tobeh, 388
Toffee, expensive, 80
Token, custom of the, 250
Tomb of Cyrus, 355
Esther and Mordecai, 75
Hafiz, 279
Saadi, 278
Tombs of the Kings, 119
Tombstone bridges, 163
Toolahs, 306
Trade credits, 188
in Teheran, 373
Traders, economy of, 172
Trades, 197
Traffic in drink in Julfa, 141
Transit of Venus, 331
Trap-horses, 352
Travellers’ law, 132
Travelling in Persia, 413
when ill, 208
Treasure finding, 76
of Darius, 78
 trove in Julfa, 361
Trebizonde, 212
to Teheran, 213
Trees, sacred, 364
Tsaritzin, 406
Tumbakū, 30
Tūmbūn, 324
Turkeys, 375
in Julfa, 144
Turkish barber, 6
chibouques, 6
coffee-houses, 6
saddle, 7
use of, 24
Turkomanchai, 27
Turkoman horses, 104

Uncleanliness of Armenians, 316

Ungrateful baker, an, 183
Uniform, I appear in, 48
in Russia, 15
Unleavened bread, 335
Unripe fruit, eating of, 168
Ussher on the Meana bug, 217
tomb of Cyrus, 355
Ussher’s description of Persepolis, 217
Usury, 192
Utū-Kesh, 191, 333
Vaccination, 363
Vails, 68
Valliāt, 366
Valley of Yezdikhast, 261
Value of land, 175
Van cats, 305
Variable climate, 339
Varieties of kabob, 297
Vassilliardes, M., 401
Vegetables, 170, 300
Vegetation near Caspian, 400
Veil, the, 325
Venus, transit of, 331
Vienna, stay in, 4
Virgin, Pass of the, 350
Virtuoso, story of a, 37
Visit to Baabis, 201
Imād-u-Dowlet, 112
Visits, Persian, 28
Viticulture, 310
Volga, the, 405

W⸺, Mr., 133

Wages of servants, 67
Walker’s road, 350
Walling up alive, wholesale, 203
Walton, Mr. H. V., 137, 167
Want of roads, 248
Washerman, the, 333
Watch-dogs, 306
Watch-towers, 177
Water-fowl, 301
Water-melons, 169
Water of Shiraz, 241
Water-pipes, 29
Wedding of Kasim, 282
We find treasure, 80
Weighing, 221
corn, 192
Weights, 220
Well of death, the, 275
Wheat, 174
White eunuch, 39
Wholesale and retail, 188
walling up alive, 203
Wild asparagus, 168
ass, the, 308
ducks, 176
flowers, 173
geese, 116
pig, 177
sow, 178
Wine, Cholar, 229
cost of, 234
jars, 230
 Kerman, 235
Kishmish, 159
making, 232
mode of packing, 236
purity of, 235
sellers, Armenian, 142
Shiraz, 229
varieties of, 235
Winter room, my, 206
Wisdom of a judge, 184
Women, bastinadoed, 122
costume of, 323
educated, 339
execution of two, 122
hair of, 323
head-dress of, 131
of Shiraz, intrigues of, 276
out-door dress of, 325
Women, sentimentality of, 339
Woodcut, Persian facsimile, 287
Wrestling, 98

X⸺, Mr., 330

Yabū, 107, 348

Yakhjal, 240
Yapunjah, 319
Yari Khan, 78
Yarns, 329
Yezd, 162
marble, 114, 276
 nammads, 152
Yezdikhast, 261, 357
Yezeed, 283
Yezeedis, 126
Young pigs, 178

Zalābi, 284
Zambūreks, 52
Zangi, Spring of, 241
Zenda Rūd, 135, 193
Zerejumah, 317
Zergūn, 260, 354
Zil-es-Sultan, 146, 154, 203, 205, 365
accident to, 255
and his dogs, 366
and the bear, 227
boat of, 248
character of, 366
conversation with, 155
dress of, 257
his kalāat, 258
illnesses of, 149
petition to, 155
politeness of, 366
procession of, 256
prospects of, 199
rudeness of, 367
Zinjan, 154, 272
Zoban-i-Gūngishk, 359
Zoological Gardens, 35
 THE END.
WARD, LOCK AND CO., LONDON AND NEW YORK.
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