Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ebook Investment Adviser Level 1 Nism Online PDF All Chapter
Ebook Investment Adviser Level 1 Nism Online PDF All Chapter
https://ebookmeta.com/product/investment-adviser-level-2-nism/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/2024-cfa-program-curriculum-level-
i-volume-5-derivatives-alternative-investment-1st-edition-cfa-
institute/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/2024-cfa-program-curriculum-level-
ii-volume-5-derivatives-alternative-investment-portfolio-
management-1st-edition-cfa-institute/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/national-geographic-readers-
pyramids-level-1-laura-marsh/
Glitch Next Level 1 1st Edition Briana Michaels
https://ebookmeta.com/product/glitch-next-level-1-1st-edition-
briana-michaels/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/aqa-a-level-a-level-as-spanish-
year-1-oup-oxford-university-press-margaret-bond/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/interchange-5th-edition-
level-1-student-s-book-richards/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/cambridge-little-steps-
level-1-student-s-book-zapiain/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/cambridge-little-steps-
level-1-teacher-s-edition-drury/
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
him honour. After the drinking, the company divided into two parts,
one composed of inferior clergy, the other of dignitaries, and sang a
doggerel song, each endeavouring to sing its rival down. They
shouted, hissed, howled, cackled, jeered and gesticulated; and the
victors mocked and flouted the vanquished. Then the door-keeper
made a proclamation on behalf of the ‘abbot,’ calling on all to follow
him, on pain of having their breeches slit, and the whole crew rushed
violently out of the church. A progress through the town followed,
which was repeated daily until Christmas eve[1114]. On the three
post-Nativity feasts, a distinct dominus festi, the episcopus stultus,
apparently elected the previous year, took the place of the abbas. On
each of these days he presided at Matins, Mass, and Vespers, sat in
full pontificals on the bishop’s throne, attended by his ‘chaplain,’ and
gave the Benedictions. Both on St. Stephen’s and St. John’s days
these were followed by the recitation of a burlesque formula of
indulgence[1115]. The whole festivity seems to have concluded on
Innocents’ day with the election of a new episcopus, who, after the
shouldering and the drinking-bout, took his stand at a window of the
great hall of the bishop’s palace, and blessed the people of the
city[1116]. The episcopus was bound to give a supper to his fellows.
In 1406 one William Raynoard attempted to evade this obligation. An
action was brought against him in the court of the bishop’s official, by
the then abbas and his predecessor. It was referred to the arbitration
of three canons, who decided that Raynoard must give the supper
on St. Bartholomew’s next, August 24, at the accustomed place (a
tavern, one fears) in the little village of Gras, near Viviers[1117].
Finally, there are examples of the Feast of Fools in Provence. At
Arles it was held in the church of St. Trophime, and is said to have
been presented, out of its due season, it may be supposed, for the
amusement of the Emperor Charles IV at his coronation in 1365, to
have scandalized him and so to have met its end[1118]. Nevertheless
in the fifteenth century an ‘archbishop of Innocents,’ alias stultus, still
sang the ‘O’ on St. Thomas’s day, officiated on the days of St. John
and the Innocents, and on St. Trophime’s day (Dec. 29) paid a visit
to the abadesse fole of the convent of Saint-Césaire. The real
abbess of this convent was bound to provide chicken, bread and
wine for his regaling[1119]. At Fréjus in 1558 an attempt to put down
the feast led to a riot. The bishop, Léon des Ursins, was threatened
with murder, and had to hide while his palace was stormed[1120]. At
Aix the chapter of St. Saviour’s chose on St. Thomas’s day, an
episcopus fatuus vel Innocentium from the choir-boys. He officiated
on Innocents’ day, and boys and canons exchanged stalls. The
custom lasted until at least 1585[1121]. Antibes, as late as 1645,
affords a rare example of the feast held by a religious house. It was
on Innocents’ day in the church of the Franciscans. The choir and
office were left to the lay-brothers, the quêteurs, cooks and
gardeners. These put on the vestments inside out, held the books
upside down, and wore spectacles with rounds of orange peel
instead of glasses. They blew the ashes from the censers upon each
other’s faces and heads, and instead of the proper liturgy chanted
confused and inarticulate gibberish. All this is recorded by the
contemporary free-thinker Mathurin de Neuré in a letter to his leader
and inspirer, Gassendi[1122].
It will be noticed that the range of the Feast of Fools in France, so
far as I have come across it, seems markedly to exclude the west
and south-west of the country. I have not been able to verify an
alleged exception at Bordeaux[1123]. Possibly there is some
ethnographical reason for this. But on the whole, I am inclined to
think that it is an accident, and that a more complete investigation
would disclose a sufficiency of examples in this area. Outside
France, the Feast of Fools is of much less importance. The Spanish
disciplinary councils appear to make no specific mention of it,
although they know the cognate feast of the Boy Bishop, and more
than once prohibit ludi, choreae, and so forth, in general terms[1124].
In Germany, again, I do not know of a case in which the term ‘Fools’
is used. But the feast itself occurs sporadically. As early as the
twelfth century, Herrad von Landsberg, abbess of Hohenburg,
complained that miracle-plays, such as that of the Magi, instituted on
Epiphany and its octave by the Fathers of the Church, had given
place to licence, buffoonery and quarrelling. The priests came into
the churches dressed as knights, to drink and play in the company of
courtesans[1125]. A Mosburg Gradual of 1360 contains a series of
cantiones compiled and partly written by the dean John von
Perchausen for use when the scholarium episcopus was chosen at
the Nativity[1126]. Some of these, however, are shown by their
headings or by internal evidence to belong rather to a New Year’s
day feast, than to one on Innocents’ day[1127]. A festum baculi is
mentioned and an episcopus or praesul who is chosen and
enthroned. One carol has the following refrain[1128]:
Another is so interesting, for its classical turn, and for the names
which it gives to the ‘bishop’ and his crew that I quote it in full[1129].
2. ad honorem Tityri,
festum colant baculi
satrapae et asini.
3. applaudamus Tityro
cum melodis organo,
cum chordis et tympano.
4. veneremur Tityrum,
qui nos propter baculum
invitat ad epulum.
‘Orientis partibus,
adventavit asinus.’
In any case, the oriental example can hardly be responsible for more
than the admission of the feast within the doors of the church. One
cannot doubt that it was essentially an adaptation of a folk-custom
long perfectly well known in the West itself. The question of origin
had already presented itself to the learned writers of the thirteenth
century. William of Auxerre, by a misunderstanding which I shall
hope to explain, traced the Feast of Fools to the Roman Parentalia:
Durandus, and the Paris theologians after him, to the January
Kalends. Certainly Durandus was right. The Kalends, unlike the
more specifically Italian feasts, were co-extensive with the Roman
empire, and were naturally widespread in Gaul. The date
corresponds precisely with that by far the most common for the
Feast of Fools. A singular history indeed, that of the ecclesiastical
celebration of the First of January. Up to the eighth century a fast,
with its mass pro prohibendo ab idolis, it gradually took on a festal
character, and became ultimately the one feast in the year in which
paganism made its most startling and persistent recoil upon
Christianity. The attacks upon the Kalends in the disciplinary
documents form a catena which extends very nearly to the point at
which the notices of the Feast of Fools begin. In each alike the
masking, in mimicry of beasts and probably of beast-gods or
‘demons,’ appears to have been a prominent and highly reprobated
feature. It is true that we hear nothing of a dominus festi at the
Kalends; but much stress must not be laid upon the omission of the
disciplinary writers to record any one point in a custom which after all
they were not describing as anthropologists, and it would certainly be
an exceptional Germano-Keltic folk-feast which had not a dominus.
As a matter of fact, there is no mention of a rex in the accounts of
the pre-Christian Kalends in Italy itself. There was a rex at the
Saturnalia, and this, together with an allusion of Belethus in a quite
different connexion to the libertas Decembrica[1158], has led some
writers to find in the Saturnalia, rather than the Kalends, the origin of
the Feast of Fools[1159]. This is, I venture to think, wrong. The
Saturnalia were over well before December 25: there is no evidence
that they had a vogue outside Italy: the Kalends, like the Saturnalia,
were an occasion at which slaves met their masters upon equal
terms, and I believe that the existence of a Kalends rex, both in Italy
and in Gaul, may be taken for granted.
But the parallel between Kalends and the Feast of Fools cannot
be held to be quite perfect, unless we can trace in the latter feast
that most characteristic of all Kalends customs, the Cervulus. Is it
possible that a representative of the Cervulus is to be found in the
Ass, who, whether introduced from Constantinople or not, gave to
the Feast of Fools one of its popular names? The Feast of Asses
has been the sport of controversialists who had not, and were at no
great pains to have, the full facts before them. I do not propose to
awake once more these ancient angers[1160]. The facts themselves
are briefly these. The ‘Prose of the Ass’ was used at Bourges, at
Sens, and at Beauvais. As to the Bourges feast I have no details. At
Sens, the use of the Prose by Pierre de Corbeil is indeed no proof
that he allowed an ass to appear in the ceremony. But the Prose
would not have much point unless it was at least a survival from a
time when an ass did appear; the feast was known as the asinaria
festa; and even now, three centuries after it was abolished, the Sens
choir-boys still play at being âne archbishop on Innocents’ day[1161].
At Beauvais the heading Conductus quando asinus adducitur in the
thirteenth-century Officium seems to show that there at least the ass
appeared, and even entered the church. The document, also of the
thirteenth century, quoted by the editors of Ducange, certainly brings
him, in the ceremony of January 14, into the church and near the
altar. An imitation of his braying is introduced into the service itself.
At Autun the leading of an ass ad processionem, and the cantilena
super dictum asinum were suppressed in 1411. At Châlons-sur-
Marne in 1570 an ass bore the ‘bishop’ to the theatre at the church
door only. At Prague, on the other hand, towards the end of the
fourteenth century, an ass was led, as at Beauvais, right into the
church. These, with doubtful references to fêtes des ânes at St.
Quentin about 1081, at Béthune in 1474, and at Laon in 1527, and
the Mosburg description of the ‘bishop’ as asinorum dominus, are all
the cases I have found in which an ass has anything to do with the
feast. But they are enough to prove that an ass was an early and
widespread, though not an invariable feature. I may quote here a
curious survival in a ronde from the west of France, said to have
been sung at church doors on January 1[1162]. It is called La Mort de
l’Âne, and begins:
‘Quand le bonhomme s’en va,
Quand le bonhomme s’en va,
Trouvit la tête à son âne,
Que le loup mangit au bois.