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3RD
AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND
EDITION
Sigelman – De George – Cunial – Rider

Life Span Human Development © 2019 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
3rd Edition
Carol K. Sigelman Copyright Notice
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 21 20 19 18
CONTENTS v
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2
BRIEF
CONTENTS
Understanding life span Theories of human

human development 1 development 48
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5
Genes, environment and Body, brain and Cognitive development 219

the beginnings of life 97 health 156
Sensory-perception, Intelligence and Language, literacy and

attention and memory 267 creativity 326 learning 381
Self, personality, gender Social cognition and moral Emotions, attachment and
and sexuality 429 development 491 social relationships 548
CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13
Developmental The final challenge:

psychopathology 615 Death and dying 676
vi
CONTENTS
Guide to the text xii

Guide to the online resources xvi
Preface xviii
About the authors xxii
Acknowledgments xxiii
1 UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1
1.1 How should we think about 1.3 How is development studied? 21

development? 3 The scientific method 22
Defining development 3 Sample selection 23
Conceptualising the life span 4 Data collection techniques 23
Framing the influence of nature and Case study, experimental
nurture 11 and correlational methods 25
1.2 What is the science of life Developmental research designs 31
span development? 15 1.4 What special challenges do
Goals of study 16 developmental scientists face? 38
Early beginnings 17 Protecting the rights of research
The modern life span perspective 18 participants 38
Conducting culturally sensitive
research 39
2 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 48
2.1 Developmental theories 2.4 Humanistic theories 68

and the issues they raise 49 Maslow: Hierarchy of needs 69
Nature and nurture 51 Humanistic theories: Contributions
Activity and passivity 51 and weaknesses 71
Continuity and discontinuity 52 2.5 Cognitive theories 72
Universality and context specificity 52 Piaget: Cognitive developmental
2.2 Psychoanalytic theories 54 theory 72
Freud: Psychoanalytic theory 55 Vygotsky: Sociocultural theory 74
Erikson: Psychosocial theory 58 Information-processing approach 74
Psychoanalytic theories: Contributions Theories of adult cognitive

and weaknesses 60 development 75
Cognitive theories: Contributions and
2.3 Learning theories 60
weaknesses 76
Pavlov and Watson: Classical
conditioning 61 2.6 Systems theories 78
Skinner: Operant conditioning 62 Gottlieb: Epigenetic psychobiological
systems perspective 78
Bandura: Social cognitive theory 65
Systems theories: Contributions and
Learning theories: Contributions and weaknesses 81
weaknesses 67
2.7 Theories in perspective 83
CONTENTS vii
3 GENES, ENVIRONMENT AND THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE 97
3.1 Individual heredity 98 3.4 The prenatal environment

Conception 98 and foetal health 126
The genetic code 100 Teratogens 126
Mechanisms of inheritance 104 Maternal characteristics and foetal
Genetic abnormalities and disorders 107 health 132
Paternal characteristics and foetal
3.2 The interplay of genes
health 136
and environment 110
3.5 The perinatal environment 136
Studying genetic and environmental
influences 111 Childbirth 137
The heritability of different traits 114 Identifying at-risk newborns 141
How genes and environment 3.6 The neonatal environment 142
work together 115 Breast or bottle? 142
3.3 Prenatal stages 120 Peripartum depression 143
The germinal period 121 Risk and resilience 144
The embryonic period 121
The foetal period 123
4 BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH 156
4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 176

and lifelong health 157 Physical growth and motor capabilites 176
The endocrine system 158 Brain lateralisation 178
The brain and nervous system 160 Health and wellness in childhood 179
Principles of growth 161 4.4 The adolescent 185
A life span developmental model of The adolescent growth spurt
health 162 and puberty 185
4.2 The infant 164 The adolescent brain 191
Rapid physical growth 164 Teen health and wellness 193
The infant brain 165 4.5 The adult 196
Newborn capabilities 166 The changing body 196
Infant motor development 169 The changing brain 197
Health and wellness in infancy 173 The changing reproductive system 199
Health challenges: Ageing or disease,
disuse or misuse? 202
5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 219
5.1 Piaget’s cognitive 5.2 Vygotsky’s sociocultural

developmental theory 220 theory 228
Processes of intellectual and cognitive Culture and thought 228
development 221 Social interaction and thought 228
Piaget: Contributions and challenges 223 Tools of thought 230
A modern take on constructivism 226 Evaluation of Vygotsky 232
viii CONTENTS
5.3 Fischer’s dynamic skill 5.6 The adolescent 249

framework 234 Emergence of abstract and
Comparison to Piaget and Vygotsky 235 systematic thinking 249
5.4 The infant 237 Progress toward mastery of formal
operations 252
Sensorimotor thinking 237
Implications of formal thought 254
The development of object
permanence 238 5.7 The adult 256
The emergence of symbols 240 Limitations in adult cognitive
performance 256
5.5 The child 241
Growth beyond formal thought 257
Preschoolers: Symbolic thinking 241
Ageing and cognitive growth 259
School-age children: Logical thinking 246
6 SENSORY-PERCEPTION, ATTENTION AND MEMORY 267
6.1 The information-processing Advances in attention 287

approach to cognition 269 Explaining memory development 288
Sensation, perception and attention 269 Autobiographical memory 293
Memory 269 Developments in problem solving 296
Problem solving 273 6.4 The adolescent 299
6.2 The infant 274 Attention 299
Uncovering infants’ mental Improvements in memory and
capabilities 274 problem solving 300
Sensory-perceptual abilities 275 6.5 The adult 303
Early memory abilities 285 Sensory-perceptual changes 303
6.3 The child 287 Memory, problem solving and ageing 308
Sensory-perceptual refinements 287
7 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 326
7.1 Defining and measuring 7.4 The child 351

intelligence and creativity 327 The stability of IQ scores during
The psychometric view of childhood 351
intelligence 327 The emergence of creativity 352
Gardner’s theory of multiple 7.5 The adolescent 353
intelligences 332
Intellectual change and continuity 353
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of
IQ and school achievement 354
intelligence 333
Fostering creativity 354
Creativity 336
7.6 The adult 355
7.2 Factors that influence
intelligence and creativity 339 Changes in IQ with age 355
The Flynn effect 339 IQ, wealth and health 359
Genes and intelligence 340 Potential for wisdom 362
Environment and intelligence 341 Creative endeavours 363
Genes, environments and creativity 345 7.7 The extremes of intelligence 365
7.3 The infant 345 Intellectual disability 365
Developmental quotients 346 Giftedness 367
Infant intelligence as a predictor 7.8 Integrating cognitive

of later intelligence 346 perspectives 370
CONTENTS ix
8 LANGUAGE, LITERACY AND LEARNING 381
8.1 The language system 382 8.4 The adolescent 411

Describing language: Basic Academic achievement 411
components 382 Integrating school and work 413
Explaining language: Nature and Pathways to adulthood 415
nurture 384
8.5 The adult 416
8.2 The infant 388
Language: Continuity and change 416
Developing language 388
Adult literacy 417
Mastery motivation 394
Adult education 418
Early learning 395
Theoretical contributions to
8.3 The child 398 learning and education 419
Expanding language skills 399
Learning to read 399
Fostering academic success 402
9 SELF, PERSONALITY, GENDER AND SEXUALITY 429
9.1 Conceptualising the self 9.4 The adolescent 457

and personality 430 Forging a sense of self and identity 457
Basic concepts and theories of Adhering to gender roles 463
self and personality 430 Adolescent sexuality 464
Sex, gender and sexuality 435
9.5 The adult 466
9.2 The infant 440 Ageing and self-esteem 467
The emerging self 440 Continuity and discontinuity in
Temperament 443 personality 468
9.3 The child 446 Eriksonian psychosocial personality
The evolving self and personality 446 growth 471
Acquiring gender roles 450 Changes in gender roles and
sexuality 472
Childhood sexuality 455
Vocational identity and development 475
10 SOCIAL COGNITION AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 491
10.1 Social cognition 492 The functions of morality:

Developing a theory of mind 492 Evolutionary theory 508
Perspective taking 498 10.3 The infant 509
Social cognition in adulthood 499 Empathy and prosocial behaviour 510
10.2 Perspectives on moral Early antisocial behaviour 511
development 501 Early moral training 511
Moral emotion: Psychoanalytic 10.4 The child 513
theory and beyond 502 Moral understandings 513
Moral reasoning: Cognitive Moral socialisation 515
developmental theory 503
10.5 The adolescent 518
Moral behaviour: Social cognitive
Moral identity 518
theory 507
x CONTENTS
Changes in moral reasoning 518 10.6 The adult 530

Antisocial behaviour 519 Changes in moral reasoning 530
Bullying 527 Religiousness and spirituality 534
11 EMOTIONS, ATTACHMENT AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 548
11.1 Emotional development 549 11.5 The adolescent 580

First emotions and emotional regulation 549 Balancing autonomy and attachment
Emotional learning in childhood 552 to parents 580
Adolescent moods 553 Changing peer relationships 581
Emotions and ageing 554 11.6 The adult 584
11.2 Perspectives on relationships 556 Evolving social relationships 584
Changing social systems across Family relationships 585
the life span 556 Adult attachment styles 590
Attachment theory 559 11.7 Family violence and child
11.3 The infant 562 abuse 594
An attachment forms 562 Why does child abuse occur? 595
Quality of attachment 563 What problems do abused children
Implications of early attachment 568 display? 599
First peer relations 572 How do we stop the violence? 599
11.4 The child 573

The caregiver–child relationship 573
A new baby arrives 576
Peer networks 577
12 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 615
12.1 What makes development 12.4 The adolescent 640

abnormal? 616 Storm and stress? 640
Diagnostic guidelines and criteria 616 Eating disorders 641
Developmental psychopathology 618 Substance use disorders 645
12.2 The infant 623 Depression and suicidality 649
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) 623 12.5 The adult 655
Depression in infancy? 629 Depression in adulthood 656
12.3 The child 631 Ageing and dementia 658
Externalising and internalising
problems 631
Attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) 634
Childhood depression 637
CONTENTS xi
13 THE FINAL CHALLENGE: DEATH AND DYING 676
13.1 Matters of life and death 677 13.5 The adolescent 704
What is death? 677 Advanced understandings of death 704
What kills us and when? 682 Experiences with death and dying 704
Theories of ageing: Why do we age 13.6 The adult 706
and die? 686 Death in the family context 706
13.2 The experience of death 690 13.7 Coping with death 713
Perspectives on dying 691 Challenges to the grief work
Perspectives on bereavement 692 perspective 713
13.3 The infant 697 Who copes and who succumbs? 715
13.4 The child 699 Bereavement and positive growth 717
Grasping the concept of death 699 Supporting the dying and bereaved 717
Experiences with death and dying 701 Taking our leave 720
Glossary [Online]
Name index 732
Subject index 751
xii
4
GUIDE TO THE TEXT CHAPTER
As you read this text you will find a number of features in every
chapter to enhance your study of human development and help
you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
4
BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH
CHAPTER
CHAPTER-OPENING FEATURES CHAPTER OUTLINE
4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 4.5 The adult
and lifelong health Physical growth and motor The changing body
Gain insight into how psychology theories explored in the chapter relate to real life individuals The endocrine system
The brain and nervous system
capabilities
Brain lateralisation
The changing brain
The changing reproductive
Principles of growth Health and wellness in childhood system
through the real-life story at the beginning of each chapter. 4.4 The adolescent
A life span developmental model Health challenges: Ageing or
of health disease, disuse or misuse?
The chapter outline signposts the main chapter heading
4.2 The infant
contained in eachThechapter
puberty
for
adolescent growth spurt and
The adolescent brain

easy reference. Rapid physical growth
The infant brain Teen health and wellness
BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH

Newborn capabilities
Infant motor development
Health and wellness in infancy
CHAPTER OUTLINE
The arrow of time evident in the photographs. Greying hair, wrinkling
4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 4.5 The On
adult
17 June every year, the Goldberg family photographs skin and glasses appear in images of Diego and Susy as
and lifelong health Physical growth and motor The changing body
each family member ‘to stop, for a fleeting moment, they progress through adulthood toward old age. And
The endocrine system capabilities The changing
the arrowbrain
of time passing by’ (Goldberg, 2017). Diego the photographs of their sons chronicle the remarkable
The brain and nervous system Brain lateralisation The changing reproductive
Goldberg, a photographer, and his wife Susy began their growth and physical development that occurs from
Principles of growth Health and wellness in childhood system
family ritual in 1976. As each of their three sons, Nicolas, infancy through puberty to early adulthood. Nicolas,
A life span developmental model Health challenges: Ageing or Matias and Sebastian now add yearly portraits of their
4.4 The adolescent Matias and Sebastian, were born, they too became part
of health disease, disuse or misuse? own growing families – this Goldberg family tradition
The adolescent growth spurt and of the photographic essay. Adopting the same pose year
4.2 The infant puberty to year, the physical changes of growth and ageing are today spans three generations.
Rapid physical growth The adolescent brain
The infant brain Teen health and wellness CHAPTER 4: BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH 157
Express
Newborn capabilities
Infant motor development
Throughout this chapter, the CourseMate Express logo indicates an opportunity for online self-study, linking you to
Health and wellness in infancy
activities, videos and other online resources.
The Goldberg family’s photographic case study, spanning over four decades and now several
generations, illustrates the changes in physical growth and appearance that occur throughout the life ON THE
INTERNET
The arrow span of time
(see On the internet: Goldberg family evident
tradition). What
in the are the processes
photographs. underlying
Greying hair, wrinkling such growth
On 17 June everyandyear,
change? And what
the Goldberg familyabout physical and
photographs skin and glasses appear in images of Diego and Susy as
biological changes that are not easily captured in yearly Goldberg family
each family member ‘to stop, for a fleeting moment, they progress through adulthood toward old age. And tradition
photographic snapshots, such as changes the in internal bodily systems, physical capabilities and health
photographs of their sons chronicle the remarkable http://zonezero.
the arrow of time passing by’ (Goldberg, 2017). Diego
status? These are the sorts of questions that com/en/open/158-
Goldberg, a photographer, and his wife Susy began their growth and physical development that occurs brain
we address in this chapter on body, from and health.
the-arrow-of-time
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

family ritual inWe overview
1976. changes
As each of across
their three sons,the life spaninfancy
Nicolas, in body and brain
through and
puberty to156
how adulthood.
early these changes influence our
Nicolas,
Visit this link to
health. were
Matias and Sebastian, We also
born,look
they at
toothe reproductive
became part Matias and
system as itSebastian
maturesnow add yearly
during portraitsand
adolescence of their
then changes view the Goldberg
of the photographic
againessay. Adopting
during the same
adulthood. Andpose considerown
weyear thegrowing
physicalfamilies – this Goldberg family tradition
self in action as movement becomes more family’s yearly
to year, the physical changes of growth and ageing are today spans three generations. photographic
sophisticated throughout the life span. We identify influences on body, brain and health so that you portraits that feature
Identify the key concepts that the chapter will cover with the Learning objectives at the start
can better understand why some children develop – and some older adults age – more rapidly than in the chapter
Express opening vignette.
others.
of each key164heading. LIFE SPANThen HUMAN test your knowledge and apply the theory you have learned with the
DEVELOPMENT The portraits span
three generations
Throughout this chapter, the CourseMate Express logo indicates an opportunity for online self-study, linking you to
and four decades
checking understanding and critical thinking questions at the end of each key topic.
activities, videos and other online resources.
> >4.1 BUILDING BLOCKS OF GROWTH

and chronicle some
> of the physical
when I cameAND LIFELONG HEALTH

changes that occur
to New Zealand from the the hospital environment. Family do all Māori and Pasifikaasfamilies
individuals age.
treat their
United Kingdom was that often when their personal cares, sit with them, elders in that way and that’s why it’s so
an elderly Māori or Pasifika person was sometimes bring their guitars in and important not to make assumptions
■ Associate key processes of the endocrine and nervous systems with important aspects of Learning
admitted to hospital, the entire family, sing to them; and to me that is a huge based on stereotypes. But I take a
and
growth and development.
even the young people – the kids, positive strength of the culture. Of personal and
objectives
person-centred approach
156 ■ Describe and provide an example of each of the three major principles of growth.
and
■ the grandkids
Articulate theinmain
their components
teens – are of the
course, it is important
life span not tomodel
developmental make of health,
to and
eachthe
person and their situation.
involved in of
value supporting
adoptingthat
this person
sort of in sweeping
approach generalisations,
to understanding after all not
health.
Our physical selves – brain, body, and all the behaviours that emerge from these – are fundamental to
IN REVIEW
what we are able to do in life. A 5-year-old child is physically able to experience the world in ways
markedly different from those available to a 5-month-old infant. Five-year-old Mariah, for example,
CHECKING
can throw a ball withUNDERSTANDING
her mum, run with her dog, play hopscotch CRITICAL
with herTHINKING
friends, feed and dress
herself,
1 How anddoes
enjoythe
many of the system
endocrine rides atsupport
the park.Yet Mariah and Illustrate
other 5-year-olds
the aspectsareoflimited
the lifeby their
span developmental model
physical of health
selves. As you will learn in this chapter, their strength and coordination
development? using the example of coeliac
must continue to disease discussed
earlier in this chapter.
improve
2 How before
does they can competently
myelination contribute engage with detailed motor tasks, and their bodies must grow
to developmental LINKAGES
taller and heavier
changes thatbefore
we canthey can move through the world as adults do. It will be years before their
observe?
Chapter 3 Genes,
3 What
brains are fully developed,
is one example allowing
of each ofgreater Get
concentration and more sophisticated thought processes
the cephalocaudal, the answers to the Checkingand
environment
Express understanding questions on
proximodistal
(see Chapters 5 and 6). and orthogenetic principles of the beginnings of
CourseMate Express. life
Asdevelopment?
you have been learning, human growth and development is an incredibly complex process,
Chapter 5
influenced by both genetic and environmental factors (see Chapter 3). At certain times and for Cognitive
certain developments, genetic influences dominate, whereas at other times environmental influences development
4.2 THE INFANT

are more powerful – yet genetic and environmental forces are always working together. Consider Chapter 6 Sensory-
perception,
height. The average female in Australia and New Zealand is 162 centimetres tall and the average attention and
male isLearning
176 centimetres■tall,Discuss
but there is considerable
typical variability
physical and in individual
brain changes duringadult height (Australian
infancy. memory
objectives
Bureau of Statistics, 2012; Summarise
■ Daley, 2013).newborn capabilities
Genes account thatof
for some promote
this: tallhealthy adaptation
people tend to havetotallthe world outside the
womb.
parents, whereas short people often have ‘short genes’ in their family history. Heritability studies
■ Describe fine motor, gross motor, and locomotor skills, and note the typical order in which
confirm a strong genetic influence on height (Dubois et al., 2012).
these skills develop.
Even if you inherit■theDiscuss
geneticthepropensity to be tall (or short), environment can influence the
dynamic systems theory of motor development and summarise the research
expression of those genes.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. If you lack
findingsMay adequate
supporting nutrition,
not bethis theory.
copied, for example, or
scanned, youduplicated,
may not realise inyour
wholefull or in part. WCN 02-200-202
growth potential. And consider
■ Describethe case
the of children with
birth-related coeliac
risks disease,health
to infant an inherited digestive
and the role ofproblem
vaccinations in health.
in which gluten (the protein found in all wheat products) triggers an immune response that damages
We hope the broader message is clear: We must view life span development in its sociocultural and
sociohistorical context. We must bear in mind that each social group settles on its own definitions of
the life span, the age grades within it and the age norms appropriate to each age range, and that each
social group experiences development differently. We must also appreciate that age – whether it is 7,
17 or 70 – has had different meanings in different historical eras and most likely will mean something
Guide to the text
different again in the decades and centuries to come. We must also remain aware of the cultural
and subcultural contexts of development and how these too influence views of age boundaries
xiii
and expectations. One of the most fascinating challenges in the study of human development is to
understand which aspects of development are universal and which differ across social, historical and
cultural contexts – and why (Norenzayan & Heine, 2005; Shweder et al., 2006).
Application
Application SUCCESSFUL AGEING
There is tremendous variability in the more about longitudinal studies, see

health, wellness and functioning of the section later in this chapter on
Source: Steve Liss/Getty Images

older adults. Some are limited by health ‘Developmental research designs’.) For
Application boxes examine how knowledge has problems, but others, like Ruth Frith, the
centenarian athlete who features in the
example, the Melbourne Collaborative
Cohort study (which commenced in
been applied to optimise development in a domain chapter opening, enjoy active, healthy
lives. What factors might account for
1990 with over 40 000 participants born
in Australia, New Zealand and Europe)
of developmental psychology. These facilitate student differences in the functioning of older

adults, and what do we know about
and the Three-City (3C) study in France
(which commenced in 1999 with 9000
staying healthy and ageing successfully participants) both found that avoiding Sister Esther, shown here at age 106,
understanding of the practical and professional in older adulthood? smoking, maintaining a healthy weight interacting with Nun Study researcher
Dr David Snowdon
Longitudinal studies that have and engaging in physical activity are
applications of developmental psychology theory. followed the same participants for
a decade or more have produced
strong predictors of successful ageing in
the elderly (Artaud et al., 2013; Hodge,
study, those older people who smoked
and were overweight and sedentary had
some consistent findings. (To learn English, Giles, & Flicker, 2013). In the 3C a 2.5-fold increased hazard of disability.
>>> >>>
Successful aging Ch 1, p. 10
Using developmental theories to prevent risky
sexual behaviour and unplanned teen pregnancy Ch 2, p. 86 Making inclusion work Ch 8, p. 408
Prevention and treatment of genetic conditions Ch 3, p. 109 Treating disorders of sex development Ch 9, p. 437
Halting the obesity ‘brain drain’ Ch 4, p. 195 Stopping the bullies Ch 10, p. 528
Improving children’s cognitive functioning Ch 5, p. 233 Preventing child abuse Ch 11, p. 600
Aiding children with hearing impairments Ch 6, p. 281 Reducing risks to mental health when
Nurturing development in early natural disasters strike Ch 12, p. 632
learning programs Ch 7, p. 347 Supporting the bereaved family Ch 13, p. 720
40 LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Diversity
Diversity CULTURALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCHERS
Both Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological in New Zealand and Australia (see On method (Māori approaches to research),
model and Baltes’ life span perspective the internet: Guidelines for research which involved engaging Māori iwi
Explore the diverse cultural issues, research and emphasise that development is shaped
by its cultural context. This implies
with Indigenous peoples) require
consultation at all stages of research
(tribes) and health providers to assist
with recruitment and conduct of the
that we need to study development with Indigenous people, not only for research and the use of Māori language
practices in relation to developmental science by in a variety of contexts using culturally protecting research participants but in interviews (Dyall et al., 2013; Walker,
sensitive methods to understand both also to ensure Māori and Aboriginal Eketone, & Gibbs, 2006). With this
reading the Diversity boxes. what is universal and what is culturally
specific about human development
and Torres Strait Islander people have a
voice and are meaningfully engaged in
approach the researchers successfully
recruited large, equal numbers of Māori
(Cole & Packer, 2011). research about issues for their people and non-Māori participants (600 in each
Culturally sensitive researchers must and communities (Health Research Council group).
first be prepared to consult, negotiate of New Zealand, 2010; National Health Third, researchers who study
Culturally sensitive researchers Ch 1, p. 40 and research with participants and

representatives (such as elders) of
and Medical Research Council, 2003).
Second, it can be extremely
cultural influences on development,
or racial, ethnic and socioeconomic
Culture and observational learning Ch 2, p. 67 other cultural and subcultural groups

before, during and after research and
challenging to ensure that data
collection procedures are culturally
differences in development, must
work hard to keep their own cultural
when planning, implementing and appropriate, and that they mean values from biasing their perceptions
Childbirth and culture Ch 3, p. 140 disseminating research. Research the same thing for individuals from of other groups. Too often, Western
design, conduct and analysis have different cultural groups if comparisons researchers have let ethnocentrism –
Aboriginal children’s health Ch 4, p. 180 evolved from Western worldviews, are to be made (Rogoff, 2003). For the belief that
ethnocentrism The
and people from other societies and example, when one organisation one’s own group belief that one’s own
Are Piaget’s stages cross-culturally universal? Ch 5, p. 224 cultures may have different ideas translated a survey into 63 languages and its culture cultural or ethnic group
about who should give consent for and then had the questions translated are superior – is superior to others.
Culture and autobiographical memory Ch 6, p. 295 Morality, culture and gender
participation, or how research data can back into English, strange things Ch 10, p. 531 creep into their
be collected, analysed and used. For happened: ‘married or living with a research designs, procedures and
Explaining cultural differences in IQ test scores Ch 7, p. 344 Attachment and culture
example, in Australia and New Zealand, Ch 11, p. 567
partner’ was translated as ‘married but measures. Ethnocentrism can mean
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander have a girlfriend’, and ‘American ideas the results of studies with children
International differences in achievement test scores Ch 8, p. 414 Ethnic differences in rates of psychological distress Ch 12, p. 656
and Māori knowledge, which is an and customs’ became ‘the ideology of and adults from other cultures are
integral part of identity development America and border guards’ (Morin, misinterpreted according to standards
Culture and self-conceptions Ch 9, p. 434 Grief, mourning and culture
and cultural preservation, is verbally 2003). Other times, researchers needCh 13, p. 693 of another culture; label participants
passed down through the generations to select alternative research methods as ‘deficient’ when they would
and is collectively owned. Researchers or adapt data gathering processes. better be described as ‘different’; or
8 must therefore
LIFE SPANrespect group
HUMAN consent
DEVELOPMENT When recruiting older adult research focus on vulnerabilities rather than
processes (in addition to individual participants for ‘Life and Living in strengths (Spencer, 2006). Also, too
consent), that data gathered remains Advanced Age: A Cohort Study in New often researchers have assumed that
Engagement
the property of the community (not Zealand’ (LiLACS NZ), the research all individuals within various cultural
Engagement the researcher), and that use of the

HOW DO YOU
data should be agreedRELATE TOthe
by both
team used two different methods –
OLDER ADULTS?
non-Māori participants were recruited
groups are alike psychologically, when
in fact there is immense diversity
researchers and the community through local health and community within each cultural, racial or ethnic
Below
(Gorman are&20Toombs,
statements that
2009). may or
General 10 When
networks, whileanMā
older person has were
ori participants endorsed
group (Helms,when compared
Jernigan, to the
& Mascher,
may not apply to you. Write a number
and specific research ethics guidelines an ailment, I may say,
recruited using the Kaupapa Māori ‘That’s highest possible total score for all
2005).
Engagement boxes in each chapter provide from 0 to 2 next to each statement that
indicates how often you relate to older
normal at your age’.
11 When an older person can’t
the positive items.
B Add together the ratings for items 2,
people, aged 60 and over, in these remember something, I may 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18,
real-life or hypothetical situations that will help ways. ON THE INTERNET say, ‘That’s what they call a 19 & 20 then divide that total by 28.
0 = Never “Senior Moment”.’ This is the proportion of negative
students to engage personally with the material 1 = Sometimes
2 = Often
Guidelines for research
Health Research
12 Talk
Council of
withlouder
New
Indigenous
Zealand
or slower
(HRC)
peoples
to older
and
people because of their age. Research with
ageist behaviours you endorsed
Māori people
http://www.hrc.govt.nz/news-and-publications/publications/maori
when compared to the highest
and assess their own knowledge, beliefs, traits and Search me! and
Discover
How often Access
do you:the
13 Use simple words when talking
The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies possible
to older
Research in Australian Indigenous Studiespeople.
(AIATSIS) total
negative items.
score for all
and Guidelines for the
Ethical
Psychology database older people

1 Compliment 14 Ignore older people because of
attitudes by completing personality scales, test and investigate the
https://aiatsis.gov.au/research/ethical-research/guidelines-ethical-research-australian-indigenous-studies
how well they look,Visit
on
these website links for their
despite furtherage.
C To help you see roughly where you
information about research ethics and culturally sensitive research
topic of culturally approaches with Aboriginal,
15 Vote Torres
forStrait Islander and Māori peoples. stand, compare your positive and
sensitivetheir age. an older person
items, surveys and short quizzes. research.
2 Send birthday cards to older because of their age.
negative scores to the average age
and gender scores in Table 1.2.
people that joke about 16 Vote against an older person
The values in the table were found
their age. because of their age.
by Cherry and Palmore (2008) in
3 Enjoy conversations with older 17 Avoid older people because of
a sample of 162 participants. As
people because of their age. their age.
indicated by the results in the
How do you relate to older adults? Ch 1, p. 8 4 Tell older people jokes about
old age.
18 Avoid older people because
they are cranky.
table, they found all age groups
readily admitted to positive ageist
5 Hold doors open for older 19 When a slow driver is in front of
Where do you stand on major people because of their age. me, I may think, ‘It must be an
behaviours. Any differences in the
endorsement of positive or negative
developmental issues? Ch 2, p. 50 What’s your motivation style?
6 Tell an older person, ‘You’re too old person’. Ch 8, p. 403 ageist items between age groups
old for that’. 20 Call an older woman, ‘young
was not significant, meaning the
Genetic influence: what is myth, what is reality Ch 3, p. 100 A brief personality scale
7 Offer to help an older person lady’, or call an older man, Ch 9, p. 432 younger and older adults endorsed
across the street because of ‘young man’.
similar numbers of items. Females
Longevity quiz Ch 4, p. 206 Do you have a theory of mind?
their age. Ch 10, p. 496
To score and interpret your responses:
endorsed positive ageist items
8 When I find out an older A Add together the ratings for items significantly more often than
How well do you understand Piaget’s stages? Ch 5, p. 251 Identifying internal working models of attachment Ch 11, p. 592
person’s age, I may say, ‘You 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 10, then divide that males, but there were no gender
don’t look that old’. total by 12. This is the proportion differences for the endorsement of
Improve your memory! Ch 6, p. 301 9 Ask an older person for advice
Is someone you know suicidal? Ch 12, p. 654
of positive ageist behaviours you negative items.
because of their age.
Are you creative? Ch 7, p. 337 Life and death: what are your views? Ch 13, p. 681
TABLE 1.2 Average age and gender scores
Group Positive items Negative items

Younger adults (18–29 years) 0.54 0.24
Middle-aged adults (40–57 years) 0.51 0.15
Older adults (60+ years) 0.54 0.26
Males 0.49 0.23
Females 0.55 0.24
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole 0.53
Total sample
or in part. WCN 02-200-202
0.23
Source: Reprinted from Cherry & Palmore (2008), with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com, © 2008.
xiv Guide to the text
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 35
Exploration
Exploration AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND LONGITUDINAL STUDIES OF DEVELOPMENT
As you have learned, longitudinal life span – for example (and this is
research studies have clear advantages by no means an exhaustive list of LINKAGES
over cross-sectional designs for the featured longitudinal studies
Exploration boxes provide in-depth investigation answering questions about how we or of chapters that refer to the
Chapter 2 Theories of human
development
develop and grow as we age. In findings of longitudinal studies): the Chapter 3 Genes, environment and the
of local and international research on various high 14
Table 1.5 we highlight some of the
largest ongoing Australian and
LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT New
Australian Temperament Project
(ATP; Chapter 9 ); the Auckland
beginnings of life
Chapter 4 Body, brain and health
interest topics. Zealand longitudinal studies – some

studies are in early stages; others have
Birthweight Collaborative (ABC)
Study (Chapters 3, 4 and 7); the
Chapter 7 Intelligence and creativity
Chapter 8 Language, literacy and
been gathering data on participants Christchurch Health and Development learning
for over 40 years! enjoyable and more pressured as a result of work
Study (CHDS; Chapters 7 and 8); the (Hayes, Qu, Weston, & Baxter, 2011). Family-
Chapter 9 Self, personality, gender and
Throughout this bookfriendly
we workplaceGudagapolicies, such as flexible
Longitudinal Birthworking
Cohort hours, if available,
sexuality may help some families
will draw on the resultstoof better
these balance work
Study and family
of Urban life (Gray
Australian & Tudball, 2002).
Indigenous Further, therecognition
Chapter 10 Social is considerable
and moral
and many other Australian, Infants
international evidence (Chapter
that 7); the leave
paid parental Australian development
is associated with improved child development
Australian and New Zealand longitudinal New Zealand and international Mater-University Study of Pregnancy
and maternal health outcomes (Berger, Hill, & Waldfogel, 2005; Khanam, Nghiem, & Connelly,
studies of development Ch 1, p. 35 longitudinal studies as we seek (MUSP; Chapter 10); the Minnesota Values Study (NZAVS; Chapter 9);
2009). This is good news for the New Zealand and Australian parents who have been able to
to understand the influences on Twin Family Study (MTFS; Chapter 3); and the Seattle Longitudinal Study
accessthe
government-funded parentalAttitudes
leave since
and 2002 and(this
2011 respectively (Department
2 and of
Psychoanalytic theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 59 human development across the New Zealand chapter and Chapters
Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2011; Inland Revenue, 2011).
7).
5 In addition to microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems and macrosystems, Bronfenbrenner

Learning theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 67 TABLE 1.5 Ongoing Australian and New Zealand longitudinal studies
chronosystem The introduced the concept of the chronosystem to capture the idea that changes in people and
Humanistic theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 70 system that captures
Study in
the way changes
their environments occur
Purpose in a timeframe
Participants and timing(chrono
Data means time) and
collection unfold
Unique in particular
features Examples patterns
environmental systems, or sequences over a person’s lifetime. Another
of data collection way to think about this is that we cannot study
methods
Cognitive theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 75 such as social trends
Australian development by taking
To gain further still1992,
Since photos;
2000+we mustInterviews,
use video to understand how one See,
In addition eventforleads to
example,
The summer learning effect
and life events, are
Longitudinal Study of understanding
another
South Australian adults surveys, Ch 8, p. 407 to tracking in this chapter,
of how and how societal changes intertwineinformant
with changes inindividual
people’s lives. Fordiscussion
example,of an
Systems theorists: Notes of school refusal Ch 2, p. 81 patternedAgeing
over a (ALSA) social, aged 70+ years have
Self-recognition around the

person’s lifetime.
edu.au/sabs/fcas/
world
http://www.flinders. economic
environmental
crisis
biomedical andmay result
occasions. Around 70
in a husband’s
been assessed
Ch 9, p. 442
on 10+job reports,
loss, causing marital
objective
assessments
conflict, and in turn
development,
500+ married
ALSAleading
findingsto
that provide
divorce and to changesper in cent
theirwere
children’s lives of
and family relationships. Each of us, then, functions
Parental influences on gene expression Ch 3, p. 119 alsa/ factors are born in physical couples have insights into
Marshmallows and the life span significance of
in associated
particular with
microsystems
ageing in older
linked
Australia, through
with a smallthefunctioning
number of Aboriginal
mesosystem and embedded
(e.g.
blood pressure,
in the larger
been followed
over the course of
contexts
successful ageing.
How can brain changes during adolescence self-control Ch 10, p. 512 of people,
the exosystem
and
and and
the Torres
macrosystem,
Strait
all in balance)
the continual
and
flux the
of the chronosystem.
study.
Bronfenbrenner’s
to explore the bioecological model suggests that function
answers to questions about how child
explain risky behaviours? Ch 4, p. 192 MAKING
Islander peoples. Those cognitive
The intergenerational
CONNECTIONS transmission of parenting
abuse,concept of healthy, born overseas are
marriage, retirement or other experiences (e.g.
active ageing. largely from English- Ch 11, p. 597
memory and
affect development will often be complex because
verbal ability).
Can there really be a Santa Claus? Ch 5, p. 244 outcomes depend on so many speakingfactors. According to Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006), researchers
countries.
Explaining the gender
Give an example
Growing
of how each of
up in New difference
need to
To consider inrelationships
provide a the eating disorders
amongNew
Seven thousand Ch
and effects of12, p. 642
key characteristics
Interviews of the person,
Data gathering See,the context,
for example,
Ageing drivers Ch 6, p. 306 Zealand study
Bronfenbrenner’s
complete picture
the time Zealand children
dimension and the with parents
processes through which started when
an active person Chapter 3,
and his or herinenvironment
Communicating
environmental with patients
http://www.
growingup.co.nz/interact
that(for
lead
with parent–infant
of the pathways
example,
to
unresponsive
born in 2009/10 have
interaction
been assessed every
and children
or playhealth
about
the mother of
with peers).
theNature
discussion of
and nurture,
study child studytherefore,
findings
Cognitive enhancement for ageing adult Ch 7, p. 358 wakefulness syndrome
systemsen.html
have
affected you and cannotsuccessful and easily12–18
be separated months,
because are part Ch
theywith and 13, p.system,
of awellbeing,
dynamic 678
was 28 weeks
continually that provideone
influencing
equitable child the study planned whānau (family) pregnant. insights into the
your development another. Complex research
development, and todesigns
continueand statistical techniques
until are needed to assess the many
life, education, interacting
health of mothers
over the past year. improve outcomes they become adults. psychological and babies during
influences on development portrayed in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, but progress is being
for all children. All socioeconomic development, pregnancy and
made (Holt, 2009; Sameroff, 2009). It is appropriate,
levels are represented then,
neighbourhood that we look next at the science
early of life
infancy.
span human development.and the sample is and environment,
ethnically diverse. and culture and
identity.
Professional practice
Professional Practice MEET AN EDUCATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGIST
What does your role as an I decided to become an educational

educational and developmental and developmental psychologist
Meet real professionals in the Professional practice psychologist involve, and why did
you decide to become one?
because as a former teacher I had
a passion for nurturing children’s
>>>
boxes and gain insights into how theory relates to, The Australian Psychological
Society recognises educational and
strengths and supporting their
weaknesses, particularly those children
developmental psychologists as those with special learning or developmental
and informs day-to-day practice for psychologists, practitioners with specialised training needs, in order to help them achieve
and experience in providing assessment, their full potential and succeed in a
Source: Kimberley Cunial

social workers and educators. intervention and counselling services to
help children and adults with learning as
way that is meaningful for them. Thus,
in my psychology practice I work
well as developmental issues. I personally with children, adolescents and their
believe this definition accurately captures families. This means I really work with all
the nature of this specialisation. Yet the stages of the life span, including even
Meet an educational and developmental specific roles within this specialisation the prenatal stage if I am providing Kimberley Cunial BA(Hons), PGDipEd,
MEdPsych, MAPS, CEDP, Educational and
psychologist Ch 1, p. 14 can be quite diverse. pregnancy support counselling.
Developmental Psychologist, Queensland,
Australia
>>>
Meet an occupational therapist Ch 1, p. 17
Meet a social worker Ch 1, p. 20
Meet a clinical psychologist Ch 2, p. 53 Administering intelligence tests Ch 7, p. 331
Meet an educator Ch 2, p. 82 Cooperative learning Ch 8, p. 410
Fostering self-righting pathways Ch 3, p. 145 Identity and wellbeing Ch 9, p. 464
A strengths-based approach to health Ch 4, p. 163 Responding to bullying Ch 10, p. 529
Nurturing student success Ch 5, p. 236 Responding to family violence Ch 11, p. 596
Selective optimisation with compensation Kick-ing the rumination habit Ch 12, p. 650
in practice Ch 6, p. 313 Being a person and a professional Ch 13, p. 719
Statistics snapshot
Statistics Snapshot SOCIAL TRENDS
In Australia … • In 1971 the median age of first • In 1971, the median age of first
• In 1976, 21 per cent of 18- to motherhood was 25.4 years; in 2014 marriage was 23 years for males
34-year-olds lived at home with their this had increased to 29 years. and 21 years for females; in 1966 it
Statistics snapshot boxes highlight parents; in 2011 this had increased • In 1974 the median age for first was 28 years for males and 26 years
for females; and in 2015 it was 30
to 29 per cent. fatherhood was around 29 years;
important data relating to this region. • In 1976, the median age of first in 2010 this had increased to 33.1
years.
years for males and 29 years for
females.
marriage was 24 years for males and
21 years for females; in 2015 this had • In 1996, 30 per cent of 18- to
In New Zealand … 24 year olds were studying,
increased to 32 years for males and
30 years for females. • From 1986 to 2006, the number of compared to 40 per cent in 2006.
20- to 24 year olds living at home • in 1976 the median age for first
• In 1976, 14 per cent of 18- to
has remained relatively stable at motherhood was 25 years; this had
34-year olds attended a higher
Social trends Ch 1, p. 6 education institution compared to
around 30 per cent, although there increased to 28 years in 2011.
was a peak in 1991 at 38.7 per cent.
26 per cent in 2011.
Teen birth rates Ch 2, p. 88 Sources: AIHW (2016); Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2015); New Zealand Families Commission (2008);
Statistics New Zealand (2012, 2015, 2017).
Prematurity, low birth weight and foetal mortality Ch 3, p. 135
Overweightness and obesity Ch 4, p. 206 Age and development: Sociocultural perspectives
Table 1.1 represents only one view of the periods of the life span; age, like gender, race and other
Visual impairment and ageing Ch 6, p. 305 Juvenile crime rates Chthings
significant human characteristics, means different 10,inp.different
521societies and cultures (Fry, 2009).
culture A system of Culture is often defined as the shared understandings and way of life of a people (see Mistry &
Participation in early childhood education Ch 7, p. 349 Households and families
meanings shared by a Ch 11, p. 558
Dutta, 2015; Packer & Cole, 2015). It includes beliefs, values and practices concerning the nature
population of people
of humans in different phases of the life span, what children need to be taught to function in
Participation in adult education Ch 8, p. 418 Suicide rates Ch
and transmitted from
one generation to the
12, p. 650
their society, and how people should lead their lives as adults. Different cultures can lead us along
next.
Gender identification Ch 9, p. 436 Life expectancy
different developmental pathways, but we allCh 13, p.
participate in a683
culture. That culture becomes part of
us, influencing how we live and how we experience our lives (Packer & Cole, 2015).
Each culture has its own ways of dividing the life span and of treating the people in different
age grade Socially-age groups. And each socially-defined age group in a culture – called an age grade or age
defined age group or
stratum – is assigned different statuses, roles, privileges and responsibilities. Segregating children into
stratum, with distinct
grades in school based on age is one form of age grading, but whole societies are layered into age
statuses, roles, privileges
and responsibilities in
grades and privilege certain ages. For example, in Australia and New Zealand, it has been determined
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or society. duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
that ‘adults’ (18-year-olds by law) can legally consume alcohol and are extended a voting privilege
not granted to children. But even legal definitions of the boundaries between adolescence and
adulthood vary. The legal age for marriage in Australia and New Zealand is 18 years; however, the
age of consent for sexual activity ranges from 16–17 years (Lamont, 2010). Similarly, although many
Guide to the text xv
ICONS
As you read, keep an eye out for these icons.
NEW Linkages icons in the margin direct Think about how developmental science
students to make connections between theory connects with you by considering
important topics covered elsewhere in the Making connections margin questions
the text. throughout the chapters.
Express
Take your learning further by Explore the online resources by

considering the On the Internet following the NEW CourseMate Express
activities throughout the chapters. margin icons throughout the text. Find
answers, activities and more.
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 41
At the end of each chapter you will find several tools to help you to review, practise and extend
IN REVIEW
your
CHECKING knowledge of the
UNDERSTANDING keyTHINKING
CRITICAL learning objectives.
A researcher wants to interview elderly widows in Japan,
1
• Review your understanding of the key chapter topics with the Summary.
If researchers do not try to keep ethnocentrism out of
their research, what can happen? South Korea, Australia and New Zealand about their
emotional reactions to widowhood shortly after the >>>
2 A researcher deceives research participants into
• Test your knowledge and consolidate your learning through the Self-test, Review questions
thinking they are in a study of learning, when the
real purpose is to determine whether they are willing
deaths of their husbands. What might the researcher do
>>>
to make this research as culturally sensitive as possible?
>>>
4 True or false? Plasticity, or the capacity of an organism
to respond to positive and negative experiences,
c the conclusions are confounded by time-of-
measurement effects.
to inflict harm on people who make learning errors, should be internally consistent, falsifiable and, Case studies haveafter
ceases limited generalisability,
childhood and in
and adolescence. d they have no clear dependent variables.
and Discussion questions. Answers to the self-test can be found at the end of each chapter.
Get the answers to the Checking
if told to do so by an authority figure. What ethical ultimately,
Express supported by
understanding the data.
questions correlational studies, one faces the directionality and
4 True 5 orA false?
good Plasticity, or __________,
theory is (a) the capacity (b)
of an organismand (c)
__________ c 7 the
Researchers
conclusionsmust protect research
are confounded participants
by time-of-
responsibilities does this researcher have? ■ Commonondata collection
CourseMate methods include reporting
Express. third variable problems in attempting to draw cause- from physicaleffects.
and psychological harm by following
to respond to positive and negative experiences,
__________. measurement
(self- and informant), behavioural observations and effect conclusions. Developmentalists use meta-
d they
• Expand your knowledge by conducting further research in the Search me! Psychology database
ceases after childhood and adolescence. standards
have noofclear
(a) __________.
dependent This involves informing
variables.
physiological measures. Use of multiple methods 6 toThe
analysis synthesise the results of of
major disadvantage multiple studiesstudies
correlational participants about all aspects of the research so they
in the same study can capture different aspects of 5 the
of A same
good theory
toisproduce
(a) __________, (b) __________ and (c) 7 Researchers must protect research participants
is issue
that: overall conclusions. can provide
development and compensate for weaknesses in the __________.research designs seek to describe
■ Developmental from physical and (b) __________.harm
psychological Participants must be
by following
a they are costly and time consuming.
with the suggested key terms.
guaranteed
standards that their responses
of (a) __________. provided
This involves during the
informing
different methods. age
6 effects bonthey
The major development.
disadvantage Cross-sectional
do not allow studies
researchers tostudies
of correlational draw cause-and- research will be (c) __________.
■ The goal of explaining development is best compare different age groups but confound age participants about all aspects of the research so they
is that: effect conclusions.
achieved through experiments involving random effects and cohort effects. Longitudinal studies study can provide (b) __________. Participants must be
CHAPTER REVIEW
a they are costly and time consuming. guaranteed that their responses provided during the
assignments to conditions, manipulation of the age change but confound age effects and time-of-
b they do not allow researchers to draw cause-and- research will be (c) __________.
independent variable and experimental control. measurement effects. Sequential studies combine
effect conclusions.
However, not all developmental issues can be the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to
studied with experiments for ethical reasons. REVIEW
overcome QUESTIONS
these weaknesses.
1.4 What special challenges do developmental scientists face? Develop your understanding of the chapter content by preparing short answer or essay responses to the following
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SUMMARY
■ Researchers must adhere to standards of ethical
research practice, with attention to ensuring
contexts; this requires
questions – or ayou
culturally sensitive
might like
to research in which researchers collaborate with
to tryapproach
developing a concept map or thinking map for these questions.
informed consent, debriefing individuals from

whom information has been withheld, protecting ONLINE STUDY TOOLS
participants
Develop
1 in the
your
Explain
dissemination
planning,
understanding
the implementation
difference
of research;howutilise
ofbetween
the chapter
eachtoculturally
and
contentand
maturation
sensitive
by preparing short answerthe
6 Explain
observation
or difference
essay responses
betweento naturalistic
the following
1.1 How should we think about development? questionslearning

– or you and
might like contributes to development
try developing a concept map or thinking map forand structured
these observation and the
questions.
research participants from harm and maintaining methods and measures;
across the life and
span.keep their own reasons you would select one over the other to study
■ Development is systematic changes and continuities ■ Understanding nature and
confidentiality nurture influences
of data. cultural values and ethnocentrism from biasing their
over the life span in the areas of physical, cognitive on development
■ To understandmeanshuman
understanding the researchers
development,
COURSEMATE
1 2 Discuss
Explain
conclusions. the differenceEXPRESS
why emerging
between adulthood is proposed
maturation and as a 6 Explain development.
the difference between naturalistic
and psychosocial functioning, involving gains, losses interaction of study
heredity, biology distinct
learning developmental
and how stage.to development
each contributes 7 Evaluate
observation andthe strengthsobservation
structured and weaknesses
and theof the case
must humans in aand maturation
variety of ecological
and neutral changes in physical, cognitive and with environment, experiences and learning. The across the life the
Express
3 Discuss span. The CourseMate
following one of theExpress website contains a
seven assumptions range of research
study
reasons you resources andone
method.
would select study tools
over for this
the other to study
psychosocial functioning; it is more than just growth complexities of transactions between people and 2 Discuss of why
the modern
emerging chapter,
spanincluding:
lifeadulthoodperspective: Development
is proposed as a is development.
8 Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
in childhood and biological ageing in adulthood. their environment are captured in Bronfenbrenner’s characterised
distinct developmental by lifelong
stage. plasticity. 7 Evaluate
correlational research
the strengths method. of the case
and weaknesses
■ Development takes place in a historical, cultural and bioecological model, in which the individual, with his →3 Revision quizzes
4 Explain
Discuss what theone
the following scientific
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>>> CHAPTER REVIEW 43
Search tip: Search me! Psychology → centenarian REFERENCES
contains information from both 42 CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
→ ageism
local and international sources. To CHAPTER REVIEW 43
Aber, L., Morris, P., & Raver, C. (2012). Children, Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1997).
get the greatest number of search → functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). families and poverty. Definitions, trends, of development from the late teens through the Australian social trends, 1997. Canberra,
results, try using both Australian and emerging science and implications for policy. twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480. ACT: ABS. Retrieved from http://
American spellings in your searches, SRCD Social Policy Report, 26,1–19. Arnett, J. J. (2015). The cultural psychology of www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.
Alwin, D. F. (2009). History, cohorts, and patterns emerging adulthood. In L. A. Jensen (Ed.), The nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/
e.g. ‘globalisation’ and ‘globalization’; a8d1bea8a2ff1b33ca2570e
of cognitive aging. In H. B. Bosworth, & C. Oxford handbook of human development and
‘organisation’ and ‘organization’. Hertzog (Eds.), Aging and cognition: Research culture: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. c001b0dc3!penDocument
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied,
methodologies scanned, or duplicated, in wholeAustralian
and empirical advances. or in part.
Bureau WCN
of Statistics. 02-200-202
(2009). Australian 487–501). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Arnett, J. J., & Tanner, J. L. (Eds.) (2006). Emerging social trends, 2009: Home and away: The
Association. adults in America: Coming of age in the living arrangements of young people.
Andrews, G., Clark, M., & Luszcz, M. (2002). 21st century. Washington, DC: American Canberra, ACT: ABS. Retrieved from http://
ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST Successful aging in the Australian Longitudinal Psychological Association. www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/
Study of Aging: Applying the MacArthur model Lookup/4102.0Main+Features50June+2009
Artaud, F., Dugravot, A., Sabia, S., Singh-Manoux,
xvi
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that will help you prepare your
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Australia or cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.
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ARTWORK FROM POWERPOINTTM

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xviii
PREFACE
This book is about the development of human beings – from their days as fertilised eggs to their
dying days. It highlights regularities as well as differences in development, and it asks fundamental
questions about why we humans develop as we do.
This third Australian and New Zealand edition of Life Span Human Development incorporates
many exciting changes to ensure the book is relevant to students studying in the Australian
and New Zealand context, yet it retains four core features of the original text that have been
valued by students and instructors over the years: (1) the unique integrated topical–chronological
approach, (2) a presentation that is both research-based and applied, (3) an emphasis on the different
theoretical perspectives that guide thinking about human development and research; and (4) an in-
depth exploration throughout of nature and nurture contributions to development as well as the
universality and diversity surrounding human development.
TOPICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH

The most distinctive feature of this book is its unique integrated topical–chronological approach.
Most other life span development textbooks adopt a chronological or ‘age–stage’ approach, carving
the life span into age ranges and describing the prominent characteristics of individuals within
each age range. In contrast, we adopt a topical approach for the overall organisation of the book
and after three introductory chapters we blend a topical approach with a chronological approach
within chapters. Each blended chapter focuses on a domain of development, such as physical growth,
cognition or psychosocial development, and then incorporates major sections on infancy, childhood,
adolescence and adulthood to trace the developmental trends and influences throughout the life span.
Why topical?
Like many other instructors, we have typically favoured topically organised textbooks when teaching
child-, adolescent- or adult-development courses. As a result, it seemed natural to use that same
topical approach in introducing students to the whole life span. Besides, chronologically organised
texts often have to repeat themselves as they remind readers of where development left off in an
earlier age period that was covered in a previous chapter.
More important, a topic-by-topic organisation conveys the flow of development in each area –
the systematic, and often dramatic, transformations that take place as well as the developmental
continuities. The topical approach also helps us emphasise the processes behind development.
Finally, a predominantly topical approach is more compatible with a life span perspective, which
views each period of life in relation to what comes before and what is yet to come. In chronologically
organised textbooks, many topics are described only in connection with the age group to which
they seem most relevant – for example, attachment in relation to infancy, or sexuality in relation to
adolescence and adulthood. A topical organisation stimulates us to ask intriguing questions we might
otherwise not ask, such as these about attachment relationships as explored in Chapter 11 Emotions,
attachment and social relationships:
• What do infants’ attachments to their parents have in common with, and how do they differ
from, attachments between childhood friends or between adult romantic partners?
• Do securely attached infants later have a greater capacity to form and sustain friendships or
romantic partnerships than infants whose early social experiences are less favourable?
• What are the consequences at different points in the life span of lacking a close relationship?
Attachments are important throughout the life span, and a topical organisation helps make that
clear.
Preface xix
Why chronological?
We also appreciate the strengths of the chronological approach, particularly its ability to portray the
whole person in each period of the life span. For this reason, we integrated the age–stage approach
with the topical organisation, aiming to have the best of both worlds.
Each topical chapter contains major sections on infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood.
The existence of these sections is proof that the chapters consider development in each of the
domains covered across the whole life span. These age–stage sections call attention to the distinctive
qualities of each phase of life and make it easier for students to find material on an age period of
particular interest to them. In short, we believe that our integrated topical–chronological approach
allows us to convey the flow of life span development in particular areas and the factors influencing
it while highlighting the major physical, cognitive and psychosocial developments within each
particular developmental period.
Adaptability of the integrated topical–

chronological approach
Even though links among chapters have been clearly identified throughout the book, instructors
who are teaching short courses or who are otherwise pressed for time can omit a chapter without
fear of rendering other chapters incomprehensible. For example:
• A cognitively oriented course might omit one or more of the socially-oriented chapters (i.e.
omit any of Chapters 9 to 13).
• A socially oriented course might omit one or more of the cognitively-oriented chapters (i.e.
omit any of Chapters 5 to 8).
Moreover, the topical–chronological approach of the text gives instructors the flexibility to cover
infancy, childhood and adolescence in a course, if they prefer, and to save the material in each chapter
on adulthood for another course.
RESEARCH-ORIENTED AND RELEVANT

COVERAGE
We have worked hard to create a text that is rigorous yet readable – research-oriented yet ‘real’ to
students. Life Span Human Development tackles complex theoretical concepts and controversies and
presents the best of both classic and contemporary research from multiple disciplines in a way that is
accessible and relevant to students’ life experiences and career development.
We believe that it is critical for students to understand how we know what we know about
development – to appreciate the research process. With that in mind, we describe illustrative studies
and present their data in graphs and tables, and we cite the authors and dates of publication for a
large number of books and articles, all fully referenced in the reference section at the end of each
chapter. Some students may wonder why they are there. It is because we are committed to the value
of systematic research, because we are bound to give credit where credit is due and because we want
students and their instructors to have the resources they need to pursue their interests in human
development during and after the course.
We also appreciate that solid scholarship is of little good to students unless they want to read it,
can understand it and see its relevance. We maintain that even the most complex issues in human
development can be made understandable through clear and organised writing.To make the material
more ‘real’, we clarify developmental concepts through examples and analogies, connect topics in
xx Preface
the text to topics in the news, and highlight the practical implications of research findings. We
also incorporate applied material relevant to students’ current and future roles as parents, teachers,
psychologists, educators, social workers, occupational therapists and other allied health and human
service professionals. And we help students see that major theories of human development do
not just guide researchers but can help anyone analyse issues that we all face – including such
practical matters as raising and educating children, working with troubled adolescents or coping with
Alzheimer’s disease or death in the family.
THEORETICAL GROUNDING
Theories are critical in any science, telling scientists what to study, how to study it and how to
interpret their findings. We want students to leave the study of life span human development with
more than facts alone; we want them to appreciate the major issues of interest to developmental
scientists and how the leading theories in the field have shaped our thinking about development.
Most important, we want students to learn to use these theoretical perspectives to guide their
thinking and action when they encounter a question about human development outside the course.
With this in mind, we have devoted Chapter 2 to laying out in broad strokes the psychoanalytic,
learning, humanistic, cognitive and systems perspectives on human development, showing what they
say, where they stand on key developmental issues and how they would explain developmental
phenomena such as school refusal and teenage pregnancy. We delve deeper into these and other
perspectives and show how they have been applied to the study of specific aspects of development
in later chapters; see, for example, a treatment of the dynamic systems view of motor development in
Chapter 4; a comparison of Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural
perspectives in Chapter 5; an application of the information-processing perspective in Chapter
6; alternative views of intelligence in Chapter 7; nativist, learning and interactionist theories of
language development in Chapter 8; alternative theories of personality and gender role development
in Chapter 9; theories of moral development in Chapter 10; attachment theory in Chapter 11;
models and theories relating to various disorders in Chapter 12; and perspectives on dying and
bereavement in Chapter 13.
NATURE–NURTURE AND UNIVERSALITY–

CONTEXT SPECIFICITY THEMES
Finally, we want students to gain a deeper understanding of the influence of nature and nurture and
of the many interacting forces affecting the developing person that contribute to both similarities
(universalities) and differences (context specificity) in human development. We want students to
appreciate that human development is an incredibly complex process that grows out of transactions
between a changing person and a changing world and out of dynamic relationships among biological,
psychological and social influences. No contributor to development – a gene, a temperament, a
parent, a culture – acts alone and is unaffected by other influences on development.
We introduce nature and nurture and (by implication) the universality and context specificity
of development in Chapter 1, and we give these concepts extended treatment in Chapter 2, where
we explore the developmental issues that underpin theories; and also in Chapter 3, where we focus
on genes and environment. Each subsequent chapter includes many examples of the intertwined
contributions of nature and nurture to development and the ways in which human development is
both similar from person to person and culture to culture, but also diverse from person to person
Preface xxi
and culture to culture. Along the way, we describe some exciting studies that compare individuals
with and without particular genes and with and without particular life experiences to bring home
what it means to say that genes and environment interact to influence development – as when genes
predisposing an individual to depression combine with stressful life events to produce depression.
We also illustrate the many ways in which genes and environment are intertwined and affect one
another – for instance, ways in which genetic makeup influences the experiences an individual has,
and ways in which experience influences which of an individual’s genes are activated or expressed.
In this book we provide coverage not only of genes, hormones, brain functions and other biological
forces in development but also of ways in which ethnicity, social class, community and the larger
cultural context modify development. Most important, we illuminate the complex interrelationships
between biological and environmental influences that are at the heart of the developmental process.
xxii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Carol K Sigelman is Professor of Psychology and, until recently, Associate Vice President for
Research and Graduate Studies and then Graduate Studies and Academic Affairs at The George
Washington University. She earned her bachelor’s degree from Carleton College and a double-
major doctorate in English and Psychology from George Peabody College for Teachers. She has
also been on the faculty at Texas Tech University, Eastern Kentucky University (where she won
her college’s Outstanding Teacher Award) and the University of Arizona. She has taught courses in
child, adolescent, adult and life span development and has published research on such topics as the
communication skills of individuals with developmental disabilities, the development of stigmatising
reactions to children and adolescents who are different, and children’s emerging understandings of
diseases and psychological disorders. Through a grant from the National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development, she and her colleagues studied children’s intuitive theories of AIDS and
developed and evaluated a curriculum to correct their misconceptions and convey the facts of HIV
infection. With a similar grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, she explored children’s
and adolescents’ understandings of the effects of alcohol and drugs on body, brain and behaviour. For
fun, she enjoys hiking, biking, discovering good movies and communing with her cats.
Linda De George has, in recent years, focused her career on leading social innovation, having recently
held senior government and university positions in this area as well as in stakeholder, community
and consumer engagement. She earned an undergraduate degree in psychology and a Master of
Educational Psychology from the University of Queensland, and a PhD from Griffith University. She
has worked as a psychology practitioner and has considerable experience as a university academic,
teaching courses in life span development, educational psychology, developmental disabilities, special
education and psychological assessment. Linda’s research interests are broadly themed around capacity
building of individuals, groups and communities. Outside of work, Linda loves to cook, camp and
hike, spend time with amazing family and friends, and be owned by two cats.
Kimberley Cunial is a practising Educational and Developmental Psychologist with experience
working in school, university, community, hospital and private practice settings. She is also an
approved Supervisor with the Australian Board of Psychology. She earned a Bachelor and a Master
of Educational Psychology from the University of Queensland, and a Postgraduate Diploma of
Education from the Queensland University of Technology. At the time of writing, Kimberley was in
the final stages of completing her PhD in Clinical Psychology at Griffith University. Kimberley has
particular research interests, and is published, in the area of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). For leisure, Kimberley enjoys spending time with her three children, family, friends, and
beloved cats, as well as getting outdoors cycling, hiking and visiting the beach.
Elizabeth A Rider is Professor of Psychology and Associate Academic Dean at Elizabethtown College
in Pennsylvania. She has also been on the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Asheville.
She earned her undergraduate degree from Gettysburg College and her doctorate from Vanderbilt
University. She has taught courses on child and life span development, women’s and gender issues,
applied developmental psychology and genetic and environmental influences on development. She
has published research on children’s and adults’ spatial perception, orientation and ability to find their
way. Through a grant from the Pennsylvania State System for Higher Education, she studied factors
associated with academic success. The second edition of her text on the psychology of women, Our
Voices, was published by John Wiley & Sons in 2005. When she is not working, her life revolves
around her son and a fun-loving springer spaniel.
xxiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The adapting authors would like to thank Carol K Sigelman and Elizabeth A Rider for allowing
adaptation of their original work for the Australian and New Zealand first, second and third editions.
Thank you also to the editorial team at Cengage Australia for their support in the development of
this textbook.
Reviewers
The authors and Cengage would like to thank the following reviewers for their time, expertise and
constructive criticism:
Annette Gainsford, Charles Sturt University
Annette Henderson, The University of Auckland
Claire Henderson,Wilson, Deakin University
Ying Yang, Australian Catholic University (NSW)
Sharna Spittle, Victoria University
Natasha Loi, University of New England
Joel Howell, Curtin University
Tick Zweck, Tabor College of Higher Education
Justine Dandy, Edith Cowan University
Laynie Hall-Pullin, Western Sydney University
Prudence Millear, University of the Sunshine Coast
Sandra Goetz, Griffith University.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, if any infringement
has occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite the copyright holders to contact them.
CHAPTER
UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 How should we think about 1.3 How is development 1.4 What special challenges
development? studied? do developmental scientists
Defining development The scientific method face?
Conceptualising the life span Sample selection Protecting the rights of research
Framing the influence of nature Data collection techniques participants
and nurture Case study, experimental and Conducting culturally sensitive
correlational methods research
1.2 What is the science of life
Developmental research designs
span development?
Goals of study
Early beginnings
The modern life span perspective
Source: Getty Images/Heather Faulkner/AFP

The centenarian athlete or smoke and generally enjoyed
Ruth Frith, born in 1909, was one of the world’s oldest good health – even though she
competing field athletes, taking up the sport in her 70s and didn’t eat vegetables as an adult,
competing until she died in 2014 aged 104. The Australian as she didn’t like them! Ruth
great-grandmother held Masters Games medals and world trained to be a solicitor but gave
records in shotput, javelin and hammer-throw. Ruth had this away when she married in
a regular physical training regime, including bench- 1933: despite living through the
pressing, and was coached by her daughter, Helen Searle – women’s liberation and feminism
herself a dual Olympic and Commonwealth Games movements, Ruth thought a
athlete in the 1960s who also continues to compete as woman’s place is in the home: Ruth Frith, centenarian
athlete
a veteran athlete. Ruth had pacemaker surgery at age ‘I think that’s half the problem
103 for heart problems, which temporarily interrupted with children; there is no one to come home to when they
her athletics training. In her later years, she was not come home from school’ (Jerga, 2009; McKimmie, 2010;
able to cook as much as she would have liked because of SBS Insight, 2013; Stephens, 2014). Although her parents
eyesight problems related to macular degeneration. But died when she was at high school, Ruth’s sisters lived long
overall, Ruth maintained a healthy lifestyle, did not drink lives too, reaching 80 and 97 years of age.
Express
Throughout this chapter, the CourseMate Express logo indicates an opportunity for online self-study, linking you to online
resources.
1
centenarian An This book is about the development of humans like Ruth Frith – and you – from conception to
individual who lives to death. Like any life, the life of Ruth Frith, a centenarian (an individual who lives to 100 years or
be 100 years of age or
older.
older; see On the Internet:The 100+ club), raises many questions:Was her extraordinary physical fitness
in her 100s, and that of her daughter, now in her 70s, mainly a matter of good genes, or the result
of physical training? What changes in functioning and fitness does ageing entail, and are conditions
ON THE
INTERNET like heart and eye disease inevitable as we age? How important are lifestyle factors such as smoking
and diet for health and longevity? Going in a different direction, how were Ruth and others of
The 100+ club
http://www.
her generation affected by growing up in a society in which women often had to make the choice
flickchicks.com. between marriage, family and a career? And what allows some people to cope better than others with
au/100+clubdoco/
negative life events such as the death of a partner, parent or siblings?
media
Enter this website We address questions like these and more in this book. Among other things, we’ll ask how infants
to find out more perceive the world; how preschool children think; how life events such as the loss of a parent affect
about membership
of one of the most
a child’s adjustment and later romantic relationships; why some young people engage in riskier
exclusive clubs in pursuits than others; whether most adults eventually experience declines in their capacities; and how
the world, the 100+
people typically change physically, mentally and emotionally as they age. We will also take on even
club – where you
don’t have to be more fundamental questions: How does a single fertilised egg cell turn into a unique human being
rich and famous, like Ruth Frith? And how can we use knowledge of the genetic and environmental forces that shape
just extremely old!
At this website you
development to optimise it?
can view a clip Do any of these questions intrigue you? Probably so, because we are all developing people
from the 100+ club
interested in ourselves and other developing people around us. Many of us want to understand how
documentary, which
features Ruth Frith we and those we know have been affected by our experiences, how we have changed over the years
from our chapter and where we may be headed. Throughout this book there will be opportunities for you to reflect
opening, and you
will also find links to
on your own developmental experiences and views about development. For example, in the chapter
more information Engagement boxes there are questionnaires and quizzes to complete, and in the For discussion activities
about the club and
at the end of chapter you can explore your beliefs and attitudes about topical issues and debates in
centenarians.
human development. In the Making connections activities, you are invited to engage personally with
specific theories and concepts you are learning about.
Many who read this book have practical motivations for learning about human development –
for example, a desire to be a good parent or to pursue a career as a psychologist, educator, nurse,
occupational therapist, counsellor, speech and language pathologist, social worker or other human
services or allied health professional. So, in this edition of the book we are delighted to introduce
you to five Australian and New Zealand professionals who are practitioners, researchers and
educators in some of these fields. In Professional practice boxes throughout the book, they will share
their professional experiences with you, including how they use developmental theories, concepts
and research to inform their work of optimising human development. Look out, too, for a range
of other boxed features and activities throughout the text: Exploration boxes, Application boxes and
Search me! activities are all designed to enhance your study of human development by helping you
engage with the research and theory behind developmental sciences and the real-world applications
(refer to the Resources guide at the front of this book for a description of these and more features).
This introductory chapter will now lay the groundwork for the remainder of the book by
addressing some basic questions: How should we think about development and the influences on it?
What is the science of life span development? How is development studied? And what are some of
the special challenges in studying human development?
1.1 HOW SHOULD WE THINK ABOUT

DEVELOPMENT?
■■ Define development and ageing, and their relationship to each other. learning
■■ Explain and illustrate the role played by age grades, age norms and the social clock in making objectives
human development different in various historical, cultural and subcultural contexts.
■■ Summarise the positions one can take on the ‘nature–nurture’ issue and the position most
developmental scientists today take.
We begin by asking what it means to say that humans ‘develop’ or ‘age’ over the life span, how we
can conceptualise the life span and its cultural and historical diversity, and how nature and nurture
influence developing humans in their ever-changing environments.
Defining development
Development can be defined as systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur development Orderly
patterns of change,
between conception and death, or from ‘womb to tomb’. Development entails many changes; by
as well as continuities,
describing these changes as systematic, we imply that they are orderly, patterned and relatively that occur in an
enduring – not fleeting and unpredictable like mood swings. Development also involves continuities, individual throughout
their life span.
ways in which we remain the same or continue to reflect our past selves.
The systematic changes and continuities of interest to those who study human development fall
into three broad domains or areas of development:
1 Physical development is concerned with physical and biological processes, such as genetic physical development
A component
inheritance; the growth of the body and its organs; the functioning of physiological systems,
of development
including the brain; health and wellness; the physical signs of ageing and changes in motor concerned with
abilities; and so on. physical and
biological processes.
2 Cognitive development is concerned with thought and other mental and intellectual processes,
cognitive
such as perception, attention, language, learning, memory, intelligence, creativity and problem development
solving. A component
3 Psychosocial development is concerned with aspects of the self, and social and interpersonal of development
concerned with
interactions, such as motives, emotions, personality traits, morality, social skills and relationships, thought and
and roles played in the family and in the larger society. other mental and
intellectual processes.
Developmentalists appreciate that humans are whole beings and that these developmental areas
are interwoven and overlap, with changes in one area often affecting the others throughout the psychosocial
development
life span (Figure 1.1). The baby who develops the ability to crawl (physical), for example, has new A component
opportunities to develop her mind (cognitive) by exploring kitchen cabinets, and can hone her social of development
concerned with aspects
skills (psychosocial) by following her parents from room to room and observing and interacting with of the self, and social
them. And for Ruth Frith, introduced at the start of the chapter, daily training and exercise (physical) and interpersonal
may have helped her retain her intellectual abilities (cognitive) and enriched her social interactions interactions.
(psychosocial).
How would you portray, in a graph, typical changes from birth to old age in these three domains?
Many people picture tremendous positive gains in capacity from infancy to young adulthood,
little change during early adulthood and middle age, and loss of capacities in the later years. This
stereotypical view of the life span is largely false, but it also has some truth in it, especially with growth The physical
changes that occur
respect to physical development.Traditionally, biologists have defined growth as the physical changes from conception
that occur from conception to maturity. We indeed become biologically mature and physically to maturity.
competent during the early part of the life span. And biological
FIGURE 1.1 The interwoven and overlapping
nature of the three main domains that influence ageing is the deterioration of all organisms, including humans,
human development that leads inevitably to their death. Biologically, then, development
does involve growth in early life, stability in early and middle
adulthood, and declines associated with the cumulative effects of
ageing in later life.
Physical Many aspects of development do not follow this ‘gain–
development
stability–loss’ model as we age, however. Developmental scientists
have come to appreciate that developmental change at any age
involves both gains and losses. For example, we should not assume
Cognitive Psychosocial that child development is all about gain; children gain many
development development cognitive abilities as they get older, but they also become less
flexible in their thinking and less open to considering unusual
solutions (Gopnik, Griffiths, & Lucas, 2015). They may also lose
self-esteem and become more prone to depression (Wasserman,
2011; Manning, Bear, & Minke, 2006).
Nor should we associate ageing only with loss. Some cognitive
Source: Adapted from Santrock (2014).
abilities do decline over the adult years. However, adults aged 50
and older typically score higher on vocabulary tests and on tests of
mental ability that draw on a person’s accumulated knowledge than young adults do (Hartshorne &
biological ageing
The biological and Germine, 2015; Salthouse, 2012). They also sometimes show more wisdom when given social
physical deterioration problems to ponder (Grossmann et al., 2010). Gerontologist Margaret Cruikshank (2009, p. 207)
of organisms that
conveyed the gains associated with ageing this way: ‘Decline is thought to be the main theme of
leads inevitably to
their death. ageing, and yet for many, old age is a time of ripening, of becoming most ourselves.’
In addition, people do not always improve or worsen but instead just become different than
they were (as when a child who once feared loud noises comes to fear hairy monsters under the
MAKING
CONNECTIONS bed instead, or an adult who was worried about career success becomes more concerned about her
children’s futures). Development clearly means more than positive growth during infancy, childhood
Identify examples
of how you have
and adolescence, and decline during adulthood and old age. In short, development involves gains,
changed and losses, neutral changes, and continuities in each phase of the life span, and ageing is part of it.
stayed the same
Conceptualising the life span

physically, mentally
or emotionally
from childhood
into adulthood.
If you were to divide the human life span into periods, how would you do it? Table 1.1 lists the
periods that are typically referred to by professionals and researchers. Notice that the book’s inside
back cover provides a table summarising key developments in these different periods of the life
span; this is a preview of the aspects of physical, cognitive and psychosocial development we will be
exploring throughout the chapters of this book. Note, however, that the given ages are approximate
and age is only a rough indicator of developmental status. Improvements in the standard of living
and health, for example, have meant that today’s 65-year-olds are not as ‘old’ physically, cognitively
or psychosocially as 65-year-olds decades ago were. There are also huge differences in functioning
and personality among individuals of the same age; while some adults are bedridden at age 90,
others, like Ruth Frith, are involved in athletic competition and display the physical abilities of
much younger people.
TABLE 1.1 An overview of periods of the life span
Period of Life Age Range

Prenatal period Conception to birth
Infancy First 2 years of life (the first month is referred to as the neonatal or
newborn period)
Early childhood 2 to 5 or 6 years (some refer to children aged 1 to 3 who have begun to
walk as toddlers)
Middle childhood 6 to about 12 years (or the onset of puberty)
Adolescence Approximately 12 to 18 or 20 years (or when the individual becomes
relatively independent of parents and begins to assume adult roles)
Emerging adulthood 18 to 25 or even 29 years (transitional period between adolescence and
adulthood)
Early adulthood 20 to 40 years
Middle adulthood 40 to 65 years
Late adulthood 65 years and older (some refer to subcategories within this period, such
as the young old, old old, and very old, based on age ranges or differences in
functioning)
The most recent addition to this list of periods of the life span – the one you may not have heard
of – is emerging adulthood, a transitional period between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood emerging adulthood A
that extends from about age 18–25 and maybe as late as 29. According to psychologist Jeffrey Arnett period of the life span
from about
and others, this is a distinct phase of life in which post-school youth spend years getting educated 18–25 years, when
and saving money in order to launch their adult lives (Arnett, 2000, 2015). Emerging adulthood is a young people are
neither adolescents
distinct developmental period primarily in developed countries, but the phenomenon is spreading to nor adults and are
developing ones, especially in urban areas (Arnett, 2015). According to Arnett and colleagues (Arnett exploring their
& Tanner, 2006), emerging adults (maybe you?): identities, careers
and relationships.
• explore their identities
• lead unstable lives filled with job changes, new relationships, and moves
• are self-focused, relatively free of obligations to others, and therefore free to focus on their own
psychological needs
• feel in between – adult-like in some ways but not others; and
• believe they have limitless possibilities ahead.
Not everyone agrees that emerging adulthood is a distinct period of development (Epstein,
2013). Do you believe individuals in their late teens or early 20s are truly an adult rather than an
‘emerging’ adult? Why or why not? There are many ways to define adulthood, but sociologist Frank
Furstenberg and his colleagues (2004) looked at five traditional, objective markers of adulthood and
found that adolescents and young adults in our society are taking longer to achieve some of these,
such as completing an education, being financially independent, leaving home, marrying and having
children – patterns evident in the Statistics snapshot box. Granted, many people today no longer
consider marriage and parenthood to be markers of adulthood (Nelson et al., 2007), and the statistics
may be misleading due to other changes in family structures. For example, in Australia, while the
marriage rate has been decreasing, there has been a two-fold increase in cohabitation (two single
adults living together as an unmarried couple), with 22 per cent of people aged 20–29 living in a de
facto relationship in 2009–2010 compared to 10 per cent in 1992 (Australian Bureau of Statistics,
2012). Still, progress toward adulthood is changing, lending some support to the concept of a period
of emerging adulthood between adolescence and adulthood. Note too, that there are different social,
cultural and historical views about the periods of the life span as shown in Table 1.1.
Statistics snapshot
SOCIAL TRENDS
In Australia … • In 1971 the median age of first • In 1971, the median age of first
• In 1976, 21 per cent of 18- to motherhood was 25.4 years; in 2014 marriage was 23 years for males
34-year-olds lived at home with their this had increased to 29 years. and 21 years for females; in 1966 it
parents; in 2011 this had increased • In 1974 the median age for first was 28 years for males and 26 years
to 29 per cent. fatherhood was around 29 years; for females; and in 2015 it was 30
in 2010 this had increased to 33.1 years for males and 29 years for
• In 1976, the median age of first
years. females.
marriage was 24 years for males and
21 years for females; in 2015 this had • In 1996, 30 per cent of 18- to
In New Zealand … 24 year olds were studying,
increased to 32 years for males and
30 years for females. • From 1986 to 2006, the number of compared to 40 per cent in 2006.
20- to 24 year olds living at home • in 1976 the median age for first
• In 1976, 14 per cent of 18- to
has remained relatively stable at motherhood was 25 years; this had
34-year olds attended a higher
around 30 per cent, although there increased to 28 years in 2011.
education institution compared to
was a peak in 1991 at 38.7 per cent.
26 per cent in 2011.
Sources: AIHW (2016); Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2015); New Zealand Families Commission (2008);
Statistics New Zealand (2012, 2015, 2017).
Age and development: Sociocultural perspectives

Table 1.1 represents only one view of the periods of the life span; age, like gender, race and other
significant human characteristics, means different things in different societies and cultures (Fry, 2009).
culture A system of Culture is often defined as the shared understandings and way of life of a people (see Mistry &
meanings shared by a Dutta, 2015; Packer & Cole, 2015). It includes beliefs, values and practices concerning the nature
population of people
and transmitted from of humans in different phases of the life span, what children need to be taught to function in
one generation to the their society, and how people should lead their lives as adults. Different cultures can lead us along
next.
different developmental pathways, but we all participate in a culture. That culture becomes part of
us, influencing how we live and how we experience our lives (Packer & Cole, 2015).
Each culture has its own ways of dividing the life span and of treating the people in different
age grade Socially- age groups. And each socially-defined age group in a culture – called an age grade or age
defined age group or
stratum – is assigned different statuses, roles, privileges and responsibilities. Segregating children into
stratum, with distinct
statuses, roles, privileges grades in school based on age is one form of age grading, but whole societies are layered into age
and responsibilities in grades and privilege certain ages. For example, in Australia and New Zealand, it has been determined
society.
that ‘adults’ (18-year-olds by law) can legally consume alcohol and are extended a voting privilege
not granted to children. But even legal definitions of the boundaries between adolescence and
adulthood vary. The legal age for marriage in Australia and New Zealand is 18 years; however, the
age of consent for sexual activity ranges from 16–17 years (Lamont, 2010). Similarly, although many
of us define age 65 as the boundary between middle age and old age, the ages at which people
become eligible for the age pension and ‘senior discounts’ differ.
And age boundaries change over time as well: for example, the age of eligibility for age pension
benefits for people born after 1 July 1952 in Australia will rise gradually from 65 years currently to
67 years by 2023 (Australian Government Department of Human Services, 2014). Note, however,
that not all cultures and societies define age grades by years since birth. The !Kung San of Botswana
often don’t know people’s chronological ages and instead define age grades in terms of functioning
(Rosenberg, 2009). In relation to old age, they distinguish between the ‘old’ (na, meaning ‘big and
great’, is an honorary title granted to all older people starting at around age 50); the ‘old/dead’ (older
but still able to function); and the ‘old to the point of helplessness’, who are ailing and need care.
Once a culture has established age grades, this tends to define what people should and should
not do at different points in the life span – referred to as age norms (Elder & Shanahan, 2006). In age norms
Western culture, for example, most people agree that 6-year-olds are too young to date or drink beer Expectations about
what people should
but are old enough to attend school. We also tend to agree that adults should think about marrying be doing or how they
in their late 20s or early 30s (although in some segments of society earlier or later is considered should behave at
different points in
better) and should retire around age 65 (Parker & Vassallo, 2009; Settersten & Trauten, 2009). In the life span.
developing countries, age norms often call for having children in one’s teens and stopping work
social clock A personal
earlier than 65 in response to illness and disability (Shanahan, 2000). sense of when things
Why is understanding a society’s or culture’s age norms important? First, they influence the should be done in
life and when the
decisions people within that society or culture make about how to lead their lives and how easily individual is ahead of
they adjust to life transitions.They are the basis for what pioneering gerontologist Bernice Neugarten or behind the schedule
(1968) called the social clock – a concept that still seems to apply today and refers to a person’s sense dictated by age norms.
of when things should be done and when he or she is ahead of or behind the schedule dictated by
age norms. Prompted by the social clock, for example, an unmarried 30-year-old may feel that he MAKING
should propose to his girlfriend before she gives up on him, or a childless 35-year-old might fear that CONNECTIONS
she will miss her chance at parenthood unless she has a baby soon. Further, normal life events tend Have you ever felt
ahead of or behind
to affect us more negatively when they occur ‘off time’ than when they occur ‘on time’ at socially
schedule according
accepted ages (McLanahan & Sorensen, 1985). It can be challenging to experience puberty at either to the social clock?
age 8 or age 18, or to become a new parent at 13 or 48. However, age norms in Western societies What impacts has
being ‘on time’ or
have been weakening for some time; it is less clear now what one should be doing at what age and ‘off time’ had for
so people do things like marry, have children and retire across a wider range of ages (Settersten & you?
Trauten, 2009).
Social age norms may also be associated with age-related stereotypes and ageism. For example, stereotypes
misunderstandings about older adults abound – that they are sickly, frail, forgetful, cranky, unattractive, Generalisations
about the attributes
dependent or otherwise incompetent. Such stereotypes about older adults can lead to prejudicial of a group which are
and discriminatory attitudes and practices toward the elderly in employment and education, and assumed to be true of
all members regardless
prevent them from accessing opportunities and services. Yet stereotypes and ageist behaviours are of individual variation
not always negative. Ageism toward older adults can also be positive in nature, for example, seeking among the group
out advice from someone who is older because of a stereotypical view that all older people are wise members.
(see Chapter 7 for more on the topic of wisdom) (Cherry & Palmore, 2008). Either way, positive ageism Prejudice or
discrimination against
or negative ageism portrays older people in an unrealistic way – despite the stereotypes that suggest individuals or groups
that all old people are alike, elderly adults are in fact the most diverse of all age groups in terms on the basis of age.
of physiological and psychological functioning (Andrews, Clark, & Luszcz, 2002). You might like
to explore your own ways of relating to older people by completing the activity in the chapter LINKAGES
Engagement box.
Chapter 7
Ageist attitudes and practices are unfortunately not limited to the elderly. Stereotypical views Intelligence and
of children and adolescents as being ‘too young’ and unable to speak for themselves may lead to creativity
their opinions not being sought or being ignored in family and medical decision-making contexts
(Scherer et al., 2013). Steps toward combating stereotypical and ageist attitudes and behaviours
involve developing an accurate understanding of ageing and capabilities at various stages of the
life span, while also appreciating the considerable developmental diversity within various life span
periods.
Engagement
HOW DO YOU RELATE TO OLDER ADULTS?
Below are 20 statements that may or 10 When an older person has endorsed when compared to the
may not apply to you. Write a number an ailment, I may say, ‘That’s highest possible total score for all
from 0 to 2 next to each statement that normal at your age’. the positive items.
indicates how often you relate to older 11 When an older person can’t B Add together the ratings for items 2,
people, aged 60 and over, in these remember something, I may 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18,
ways. say, ‘That’s what they call a 19 & 20 then divide that total by 28.
0 = Never “Senior Moment”.’ This is the proportion of negative
1 = Sometimes 12 Talk louder or slower to older ageist behaviours you endorsed
2 = Often people because of their age. when compared to the highest
13 Use simple words when talking possible total score for all the
How often do you: to older people. negative items.
1 Compliment older people on 14 Ignore older people because of
C To help you see roughly where you
how well they look, despite their age.
stand, compare your positive and
their age. 15 Vote for an older person
negative scores to the average age
2 Send birthday cards to older because of their age.
and gender scores in Table 1.2.
people that joke about 16 Vote against an older person
The values in the table were found
their age. because of their age.
by Cherry and Palmore (2008) in
3 Enjoy conversations with older 17 Avoid older people because of
a sample of 162 participants. As
people because of their age. their age.
indicated by the results in the
4 Tell older people jokes about 18 Avoid older people because
table, they found all age groups
old age. they are cranky.
readily admitted to positive ageist
5 Hold doors open for older 19 When a slow driver is in front of
behaviours. Any differences in the
people because of their age. me, I may think, ‘It must be an
endorsement of positive or negative
6 Tell an older person, ‘You’re too old person’.
ageist items between age groups
old for that’. 20 Call an older woman, ‘young
was not significant, meaning the
7 Offer to help an older person lady’, or call an older man,
younger and older adults endorsed
across the street because of ‘young man’.
similar numbers of items. Females
their age. To score and interpret your responses:
endorsed positive ageist items
8 When I find out an older A Add together the ratings for items significantly more often than
person’s age, I may say, ‘You 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 10, then divide that males, but there were no gender
don’t look that old’. total by 12. This is the proportion differences for the endorsement of
9 Ask an older person for advice of positive ageist behaviours you negative items.
because of their age.
TABLE 1.2 Average age and gender scores
Group Positive items Negative items

Younger adults (18–29 years) 0.54 0.24
Middle-aged adults (40–57 years) 0.51 0.15
Older adults (60+ years) 0.54 0.26
Males 0.49 0.23
Females 0.55 0.24
Total sample 0.53 0.23
Source: Reprinted from Cherry & Palmore (2008), with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com, © 2008.
ethnicity A person’s
SUBCULTURAL DIFFERENCES
classification in or Age grades, age norms and social clocks differ not only from culture to culture but also from
affiliation with a group
based on common
subculture to subculture. Our own society is diverse with respect to race and ethnicity, or
heritage or traditions. affiliation with a group based on common heritage or traditions. It is also diverse with respect
to socioeconomic status (SES), or standing in society based on such indicators as occupational socioeconomic status
(SES) The position
prestige, education and income. As you will learn throughout this book, Australia and New
people hold in society
Zealand’s Indigenous people, and individuals of high versus low SES, sometimes have very different based on such factors
developmental experiences. Within these broad groups, of course, there are immense variations as income, education,
occupational status and
associated with a host of other factors. We must be careful not to overgeneralise. the prestige of their
Perhaps the most important message about socioeconomic status is that, regardless of race and neighbourhood.
ethnicity, poverty can be very damaging to human development. In 2016, almost 1 in 5 Australian
children (17 per cent, over 700 000 children) lived in poverty, defined as living in a household with
income below the poverty line (50 per cent of median income), which equates to $895.22 per week
for a couple with two children (Australian Council of Social Service, 2016). In New Zealand almost
1 in 3 children (28 per cent, almost 300 000 children) were living in poverty in 2016 (Simpson,
Duncanson, Oben, Wicken, & Gallagher, 2016). Parents and children living in poverty experience
more stress than higher-SES parents and children owing to noise, crowding, family disruption,
hunger, exposure to violence, and other factors (Evans & Kim, 2012). Under these conditions,
parents may have difficulty providing a safe, stable, stimulating and supportive home environment
for their children (Duncan, Magnuson, & Votruba-Drzal, 2015; and see Chapter 11). As a result, LINKAGES
the developmental experiences and trajectories of children who grow up in poverty and children
Chapter 11
who grow up in affluence are significantly different. The damaging effects of poverty can be seen in
Emotions,
measurable differences in brain development between high- and low-SES children that grow wider attachment and
over the critical periods of infancy and early childhood (Hanson et al., 2013) and that are linked social relationships
to lower school achievement in adolescence (Mackey et al., 2015). Indeed, the negative impacts of
poverty show themselves in a host of ways: not only in lower average academic achievement but in
poorer mental health and wellbeing and even poorer physical health in adulthood (Aber, Morris, &
Raver, 2012; Conger & Dogan, 2007; Evans & Kim, 2012).
Age and development: Sociohistorical perspectives

The meanings of childhood, adolescence and adulthood also change from historical period to
historical period. In the Western context, they have changed along the following lines:
• Childhood. Although it is not quite this simple (Stearns, 2015), it has been claimed that in Western
cultures it was not until the seventeenth century that children came to be viewed as distinctly
different from adults, as innocents to be protected and nurtured. In medieval Europe (AD 500–
1500), for example, 6-year-olds were dressed in miniature versions of adult clothing, treated
much like adults under the law, and expected to contribute to the family’s survival as soon as
possible (Hanawalt, 2003). Today the goal in Western families is for children to be happy and
self-fulfilled rather than economically useful (Stearns, 2015).
• Adolescence. Not until the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century was adolescence
recognised as a distinct phase of the life span (Hine, 1999). As industrialisation advanced, an
educated labour force was needed, so laws were passed restricting child labour and making
schooling compulsory. By the middle of the twentieth century, adolescence had become a distinct
life stage in which youths spent their days in school, separated from the adult world and living in
their own peer culture (Furstenberg, 2000).
Search me! and
• Emerging adulthood. As you saw earlier, the transition period from adolescence to adulthood has
Discover an example of
become so long in modern societies that a new period of the life span, emerging adulthood, has a study focused on the
been defined in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. emerging adulthood
stage:
• Middle age. This distinct life phase emerged in the twentieth century as parents began to bear Lane, J. A. (2015). Counseling
fewer children and live long enough to see their children grow up and leave home (Moen & emerging adults in transition:
Practical applications of
Wethington, 1999). Sometimes characterised as a time of ‘crisis’, sometimes as a time of hardly attachment and social support
research. The Professional
any psychological change, middle age is now understood to be a time of good health, peak Counselor, 5, 30–42.
cognitive functioning, stable relationships, many responsibilities and high satisfaction for most
people (Whitbourne & Willis, 2006).
• Old age. Not until the twentieth century did our society come to define old age as a period of
retirement. In earlier eras, adults who survived to old age literally worked until they dropped.
Starting in the last half of the twentieth century, thanks to pensions and medical and other
support programs, working adults began to retire in their 60s with many years ahead of them
(Schulz & Binstock, 2006).
What lies ahead? It is estimated that by 2030, adults aged 65 or older will represent not the 14 per
cent of the Australian and New Zealand population they represented in 2012, but more like 20–22
per cent (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2013; Statistics New Zealand, 2013).Yet as more and more
people reach older ages, more chronic diseases and disabilities will be evident in the population,
and an increasingly large group of elderly people will depend on an increasingly small group of
younger, working adults to support them through social security, health services and other programs.
This ‘greying’ of our society, and indeed of the world’s population, along with societal changes we
cannot yet anticipate, will likely make the ageing experience by the end of the twenty-first century
different than it is today. While we cannot know exactly what lies ahead, the chapter Application box
summarises some of what researchers have learned about how we can improve the odds of successful
ageing as we move toward this future. Successful ageing is a key theme that we will address often
throughout this book.
We hope the broader message is clear: We must view life span development in its sociocultural and
sociohistorical context. We must bear in mind that each social group settles on its own definitions of
the life span, the age grades within it and the age norms appropriate to each age range, and that each
social group experiences development differently. We must also appreciate that age – whether it is 7,
17 or 70 – has had different meanings in different historical eras and most likely will mean something
different again in the decades and centuries to come. We must also remain aware of the cultural
and subcultural contexts of development and how these too influence views of age boundaries
and expectations. One of the most fascinating challenges in the study of human development is to
understand which aspects of development are universal and which differ across social, historical and
cultural contexts – and why (Norenzayan & Heine, 2005; Shweder et al., 2006).
Application
SUCCESSFUL AGEING
There is tremendous variability in the more about longitudinal studies, see

health, wellness and functioning of the section later in this chapter on
Source: Steve Liss/Getty Images
older adults. Some are limited by health ‘Developmental research designs’.) For
problems, but others, like Ruth Frith, the example, the Melbourne Collaborative
centenarian athlete who features in the Cohort study (which commenced in
chapter opening, enjoy active, healthy 1990 with over 40 000 participants born
lives. What factors might account for in Australia, New Zealand and Europe)
differences in the functioning of older and the Three-City (3C) study in France
adults, and what do we know about (which commenced in 1999 with 9000
staying healthy and ageing successfully participants) both found that avoiding Sister Esther, shown here at age 106,
in older adulthood? smoking, maintaining a healthy weight interacting with Nun Study researcher
Dr David Snowdon
Longitudinal studies that have and engaging in physical activity are
followed the same participants for strong predictors of successful ageing in study, those older people who smoked
a decade or more have produced the elderly (Artaud et al., 2013; Hodge, and were overweight and sedentary had
some consistent findings. (To learn English, Giles, & Flicker, 2013). In the 3C a 2.5-fold increased hazard of disability.
>>> >>>
>>>
Exercise in particular can reap many participants underwent annual mental positive perception of ageing (Sargent-
benefits for older adults – it can improve and physical testing, provided access Cox, Anstey, & Luszcz, 2012). Findings
and enhance physical capacities to their lifetime health records, and also point to the benefits of social
(cardiovascular and respiratory agreed to donate their brains for networks for successful ageing, showing
functioning, bone density and muscle examination following their deaths. A that strong connections with friends and
strength), cognitive capacities (memory major finding from this investigation family are associated with longer survival
and processing speed) and psychosocial was that the nuns who were active, both and are protective against disability
capacities (psychological wellbeing and physically and mentally, lived longer and and moving to residential aged care
social relationships) (Langlois et al., healthier lives than nuns who were not (Giles, Glonek, Luszcz, & Andrews, 2005,
2013; Muster, Hyunggun, Kane, & as active. Snowdon also analysed the 2007; Giles, Metcalf, Glonek, Luszcz, &
McPherson, 2010). What exercise cannot autobiography each nun had written Andrews, 2004).
do, however, is halt the inevitable prior to taking her vows (at an average The message to take away is that a
ageing process. For example, long- age of 22 years) and found that the healthy lifestyle and physical and mental
term follow up of competitive athletes use of more complex vocabulary and activity, along with a positive attitude
found that exercise capacity decreased the expression of positive emotions and good social networks, can help
for those in their 70s and 80s as a result was associated with later health and slow the effects of ageing on both the
of normal ageing processes, such as longevity (Snowdon, 2002). body and brain and improve quality
stiffening of cardiac valves (Muster Findings from the Australian of life as we age. The good news, as
et al., 2010). Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ALSA; you will see throughout the book, is
There is more to successful ageing learn more about this study in the that these factors are modifiable – so
than a healthy lifestyle and physical chapter Exploration box) have shown while we can’t avoid the biological
activity. In 1986, David Snowdon (2002) that older adults who maintain self- reality of ageing, we can make choices
began the Nun Study with 678 nuns esteem and a sense of personal control throughout our life span that will
ranging in age from 75–106 years. are buffered against the effects of increase the odds of ageing
In this remarkable longitudinal study, declining physical health and maintain a successfully.
Framing the influence of nature and nurture

Understanding human development means grappling with the influences of nature and nurture heredity The passing
of traits to offspring
on development, in other words, how biological forces and environmental forces act, and interact,
from their parents
to make us what we are. We raised a nature–nurture question at the start of the chapter by asking or ancestors.
whether centenarian Ruth Frith’s athletic prowess was mainly attributable to good genes or good maturation
training, and we will highlight this always-fascinating issue throughout this book. Developmental
changes that
Nature are biologically
programmed by genes
Nature refers to the influence on development of heredity – the passing of traits to offspring from rather than caused
primarily by learning,
their parents or ancestors. Nature emphasises that development is largely a process of maturation,
injury, illness or some
the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in the genes (the hereditary other life experience.
material passed from ancestors and parents to offspring at conception). Just as seeds turn into mature
plants through a predictable process, humans ‘unfold’ within the womb (assuming that they receive LINKAGES
the necessary nourishment from their environment).Their genetic blueprint then makes it likely that
Chapter 3 Genes,
they will walk and utter their first words at about 1 year of age, achieve sexual maturity between 12 environment and
and 14, and grey in their 40s and 50s. Heredity at the species level helps us to understand why most the beginnings
humans achieve similar developmental milestones at similar times. Meanwhile, individual heredity of life
offers an explanation as to why each person’s development is unique (see Chapter 3).
environment Events
or conditions
Nurture outside the person
Nurture emphasises developmental change in response to environment – all the external physical and that are presumed
to influence and
social conditions, stimuli and events that can affect us, from crowded living quarters and polluted air, be influenced by
to social interactions with family members, peers and teachers, to the neighbourhood and broader the person.
cultural context in which we develop. We know that the physical environment matters; for example,
MAKING
CONNECTIONS that exposure to lead in the paint in older buildings can stunt children’s intellectual development, or
that living near a noisy airport can interfere with their progress in learning to read (Evans, 2006). And
Identify examples
we will see countless examples in this book of how the social environment, the behaviour of other
of how nature
and nurture have people, shapes development. Rather than seeing maturation as the process driving development,
influenced your nurture emphasises learning – the process through which experience (environmental stimuli) brings
development so far.
about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings or behaviour. A certain degree of physical
learning A relatively maturation is clearly necessary before a child can kick a soccer ball into position and score a goal,
permanent change in but careful instruction and long, hard hours of practice are just as clearly required if the child is to
behaviour, or behavioural
excel at soccer. Nurture helps us to understand the variety of pathways an individual’s life can take.
potential, that results
from a person’s Table 1.3 summarises the key concepts surrounding nature and nurture.
experiences or practice.
The interplay of nature and nurture
TABLE 1.3 The language of nature and nurture Developmental changes, then, are the products of a complex
interplay between nature/heredity (genes, maturation and
Nature Nurture
biological predisposition) and nurture/environment (experiences,
Heredity Environment
learning and sociocultural influences). To make matters more
Genes Experience complex, nature affects nurture and nurture affects nature! For
Maturation Learning example, heredity and genes (nature) provide us with a brain that
Innate or biologically- Sociocultural
allows us to learn from experiences in our environment (nurture),
based predispositions influences experiences that in turn change our brains by altering neural
connections and can even change our genes by activating and
deactivating them (see Chapter 3). Much of the joy of studying
LINKAGES human development comes from trying to understand more precisely how these two forces combine
to make us what we are and become.
Chapter 3 Genes,
environment and To conceptualise a changing person in a changing environment, we will consider an influential
the beginnings of conceptual model of development formulated by Russian-born American psychologist Urie
life
Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005). Bronfenbrenner became disturbed that many early developmental
scientists were studying human development out of context, expecting it to be universal and failing to
appreciate how much it could vary from culture to culture, from neighbourhood to neighbourhood
and from home to home. Bronfenbrenner formulated an ecological model to describe how the
bioecological model environment is organised and how it affects development. He later renamed it a bioecological
Bronfenbrenner’s model
model of development to stress how biology and environment interact to produce development
of development, which
emphasises the roles of (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1989; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).
both nature and nurture In Bronfenbrenner’s view, the developing person, with his or her genetic makeup and biological
as the developing
person interacts with a
and psychological characteristics, is embedded in a series of environmental systems. These systems
series of environmental interact with one another and with the individual over time to influence development. As shown in
systems.
Figure 1.2, Bronfenbrenner described five environmental systems that influence and are influenced
by the developing person.
microsystem The 1 A microsystem is an immediate physical and social environment in which the person interacts
immediate settings
face-to-face with other people and influences and is affected by them. The primary microsystem
in which the person
functions. for a firstborn infant, for example, is likely to be the family – perhaps infant, mother and father,
all reciprocally influencing one another. The developing child may also experience other
microsystems, such as a childcare centre or grandmother’s house. We have much evidence that
the family environment is an important influence on development and have come to appreciate
the importance of peers, educational settings and neighbourhood environments.
FIGURE 1.2 The bioecological model of development

In Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model he describes environment as a series of nested structures.
All these systems influence and are influenced by the developing person.
Macrosystem
Exosystem
Mesosystem
Home
Microsystems
Person with
Chronosystem
overnment
Patterning of events Day biological and Peer
over time care psychological group
characteristics
al g
Loc
Pa School
rent
s’
wo
rkp ks
So laces wor
cia and social net e
l co tur
nditi er cul
ons Broad
Source: Adapted from Kopp & Krakow (1982).

mesosystem The
interrelationships
2 The mesosystem consists of the interrelationships or linkages between two or more microsystems. between microsystems
For example, teenagers who experience stressful events such as arguments in the family (one or immediate
environments.
microsystem) report poorer attendance and greater difficulty learning at school (a second
exosystem Settings not
microsystem) for a couple of days afterwards; similarly, problems at school spill over to the family, experienced directly
possibly because adolescents take their bad moods home with them (Flook & Fuligni, 2008). In by individuals but
any developing person, what happens in one microsystem can have implications, good or bad, for which still influence
their development.
what happens in another microsystem.
macrosystem The
3 The exosystem consists of linkages involving social settings that individuals do not experience larger cultural or
directly but that can still influence their development. For example, children can be affected by subcultural context
of development.
how their parents’ day at work went, or by a decision by the government to modify the school
curriculum and assessment practices.
4 The macrosystem is the larger cultural context in which the microsystem, mesosystem and Snapshot
exosystem are embedded. For Bronfenbrenner, modern Western culture was not a very family-
friendly environment:
Source: Cornell University Faculty Biographical Files, #47-10-3394. Division

In today’s world, parents find themselves at the mercy of a society which
imposes pressures and priorities that allow neither time nor place for
of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.
meaningful activities and relations between children and adults, which
downgrade the role of parents and the functions of parenthood, and which
prevent the parent from doing things he or she wants to do.
Bronfenbrenner, 1974, cited in Gestwicki, 2010, p. 60.
Although Bronfenbrenner wrote these words over 40 years ago, his observations are still
very relevant for families today, especially for those parents juggling work and family. Data
Urie Bronfenbrenner,
from ‘Growing Up in Australia: The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children’ (LSAC; you in his bioecological
can learn more about this study in the chapter Exploration box) indicates that work may model of human
development,
negatively impact on the parenting role for many parents: 40 per cent of employed mothers emphasised the
and 66 per cent of employed fathers in the LSAC reported that they missed out on home influence of both
nature and nurture.
or family activities as a result of work, and one-quarter indicated their family life was less
enjoyable and more pressured as a result of work (Hayes, Qu,Weston, & Baxter, 2011). Family-
friendly workplace policies, such as flexible working hours, if available, may help some families
to better balance work and family life (Gray & Tudball, 2002). Further, there is considerable
international evidence that paid parental leave is associated with improved child development
and maternal health outcomes (Berger, Hill, & Waldfogel, 2005; Khanam, Nghiem, & Connelly,
2009). This is good news for the New Zealand and Australian parents who have been able to
access government-funded parental leave since 2002 and 2011 respectively (Department of
Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2011; Inland Revenue, 2011).
5 In addition to microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems and macrosystems, Bronfenbrenner
chronosystem The introduced the concept of the chronosystem to capture the idea that changes in people and
system that captures
their environments occur in a timeframe (chrono means time) and unfold in particular patterns
the way changes in
environmental systems, or sequences over a person’s lifetime. Another way to think about this is that we cannot study
such as social trends development by taking still photos; we must use video to understand how one event leads to
and life events, are
patterned over a
another and how societal changes intertwine with changes in people’s lives. For example, an
person’s lifetime. economic crisis may result in a husband’s job loss, causing marital conflict, and in turn leading to
divorce and to changes in their children’s lives and family relationships. Each of us, then, functions
in particular microsystems linked through the mesosystem and embedded in the larger contexts
of the exosystem and the macrosystem, all in the continual flux of the chronosystem.
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model suggests that answers to questions about how child
MAKING
CONNECTIONS abuse, marriage, retirement or other experiences affect development will often be complex because
outcomes depend on so many factors. According to Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006), researchers
Give an example
of how each of
need to consider the relationships among and effects of key characteristics of the person, the context,
Bronfenbrenner’s the time dimension and the processes through which an active person and his or her environment
environmental interact (for example, parent–infant interaction or play with peers). Nature and nurture, therefore,
systems have
affected you and cannot be separated easily because they are part of a dynamic system, continually influencing one
your development another. Complex research designs and statistical techniques are needed to assess the many interacting
over the past year.
influences on development portrayed in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, but progress is being
made (Holt, 2009; Sameroff, 2009). It is appropriate, then, that we look next at the science of life
span human development.
MEET AN EDUCATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGIST
What does your role as an I decided to become an educational

educational and developmental and developmental psychologist
psychologist involve, and why did because as a former teacher I had
you decide to become one? a passion for nurturing children’s
The Australian Psychological strengths and supporting their
Society recognises educational and weaknesses, particularly those children
developmental psychologists as those with special learning or developmental
practitioners with specialised training needs, in order to help them achieve
and experience in providing assessment, their full potential and succeed in a
Source: Kimberley Cunial
intervention and counselling services to way that is meaningful for them. Thus,
help children and adults with learning as in my psychology practice I work
well as developmental issues. I personally with children, adolescents and their
believe this definition accurately captures families. This means I really work with all
the nature of this specialisation. Yet the stages of the life span, including even
specific roles within this specialisation the prenatal stage if I am providing Kimberley Cunial BA(Hons), PGDipEd,
can be quite diverse. MEdPsych, MAPS, CEDP, Educational and
pregnancy support counselling.
Developmental Psychologist, Queensland,
Australia
>>>
>>>
However, I would say most of my work child with autism may present with means not only considering the child-
focuses on children 6–12 years of age proprioception (body awareness) family dynamics but also relevant
who fall into the middle childhood problems, social challenges, as well factors regarding the child’s school,
stage of their life span. In my work as as learning difficulties. Each individual peer group, community associations
a university academic and teacher, I is unique and may be functioning or clubs, cultural and religious groups,
work with a range of students spanning at different and indeed multiple medical supports and so forth. The
adolescence through early, middle and developmental stages across child and family may need to be
even occasionally late adulthood. domains. This means a comprehensive referred to a range of support systems
assessment is needed to get a in order to fully accommodate all
How do the physical, cognitive
and psychosocial domains of complete picture of strengths and these considerations. Ultimately, the
development and the contexts weaknesses across all domains, and intervention plan would often be
of development influence your to inform a holistic intervention. multidisciplinary, with me working in
psychology practice? Any process of assessment and collaboration with the family, other
Children often present with problems intervention needs to be systemic, medical and allied health professionals,
affecting their development across with consideration given to multiple as well as school teachers and
multiple domains. For instance, a domains, but also contexts. This support staff.
Before we continue, we invite you to visit the three Professional practice boxes that you will find
throughout the remainder of this chapter. In these boxes you will meet three of the five professionals
who will feature throughout this book – Kimberley Cunial, an educational and developmental
psychologist and one of the authors of this book; Nancy Wright, an occupational therapist; and
Bill McGarry, a social worker. (In Chapter 2, you will be introduced to an educator and a clinical
LINKAGES
psychologist.) Each describes their professional discipline and role and how they work to understand
and optimise the development of their clients and others. You might like to take particular note of Chapter 2
Theories of human
how all refer, in different ways, to the interweaving nature of the physical, cognitive and psychosocial development
domains and multiple contexts of development.
IN REVIEW
CHECKING UNDERSTANDING CRITICAL THINKING
1 What are the three broad domains or areas of Apply Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model to Ruth
development? Frith, the centenarian athlete featured at the beginning
of the chapter, and give an example of how each of
2 What is culture, and how does it influence
Bronfenbrenner’s environmental systems may have
development across the life span?
affected her development over the course of her life span.
3 In Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, where is
Get the answers to the Checking
‘nature’ and where is ‘nurture’? (Review Figure 1.2.)
Express understanding questions
on CourseMate Express.
1.2 WHAT IS THE SCIENCE OF LIFE SPAN

DEVELOPMENT?
■■ Summarise the four goals of the science of life span development and describe how the study learning
of human development began. objectives
■■ List and illustrate the seven key assumptions of the modern life span perspective.
If development consists of systematic changes and continuities from conception to death, the science
of development consists of the study of those changes and continuities and their causes. In this
section we consider the goals of the science of life span development, its origins, and the modern life
span perspective on development.
Goals of study
The goals driving the study of life span development are:
• describing
• explaining
• predicting
• optimising development (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsett, 1980).
To achieve the goal of description, developmentalists characterise the functioning of humans of
different ages and trace how it changes with age. They describe both normal development and
individual differences, or variations, in development. Although average trends in human development
across the life span can be described, it is clear that no two people (even identical twins) develop
along precisely the same pathways.
Description is the starting point in any science, but scientists ultimately strive to achieve their
second goal, of predicting and explaining development. Developmentalists seek to identify factors that
predict development and establish that these factors actually cause humans to develop as they
typically do or cause some individuals to develop differently than others. To do so, developmentalists
often study the contributions of nature and nurture to development. A first step is often finding
a relationship between a possible influence on development and an aspect of development – for
example, a relationship between whether or not an adolescent’s friends use drugs and whether or
not the adolescent does. If there is a relationship, knowing whether an adolescent’s friends use drugs
allows us to predict whether the adolescent uses drugs. But is this a causal relationship? That’s what
LINKAGES must be established before the goal of explanation is achieved. Maybe it is not that friends cause
Chapter 12 adolescents to use drugs by exposing them to drugs and encouraging them to try them. Maybe it is
Developmental just that adolescents who use drugs pick friends who also use drugs (see Chapter 12 for evidence
psychopathology
that both possibilities may be true).
A fourth goal is optimisation of human development. The questions to be answered in relation
to this goal include: How can humans be helped to develop in positive directions? How can
their capacities be enhanced? How can developmental difficulties be prevented, and how can any
developmental problems that emerge be overcome? Pursuing the goal of optimising development
might, for example, involve evaluating ways to stimulate intellectual growth in preschool programs,
prevent binge drinking among university students or support elderly adults after the death of a spouse.
To those who aspire to a career in human development, developmental research that defines,
explains and offers insights into how to optimise development is especially relevant. Today’s human
evidence-based development professionals are being asked to engage in evidence-based practice, grounding what they
practice Professional
do in theory and research – ensuring their assessments and evaluations take into account the established
action and practice
grounded in theory descriptions and explanations of development, and that the treatments or curricula they provide have
and research, ensuring been demonstrated to be effective. Too often, professionals go with what their personal or anecdotal
that interventions
provided to optimise experience tells them works, rather than using what scientific research says about developmental
development have expectations and the most effective approaches (Baker, McFall, & Shoham, 2009). Ensuring that the
been demonstrated
results of research are implemented faithfully and successfully in real treatment and educational settings
to be effective.
is challenging (McCall, 2009), but we can all probably agree that we would rather see investment in
interventions of proven effectiveness than in ones that could be ineffective or even harmful.
Early beginnings
Just as human development has changed through the ages, attempts to understand it have evolved
over time. Although philosophers have long expressed their views on the nature of humans and
the proper methods of raising children, it was not until the late nineteenth century that the first
scientific investigations of development were undertaken. Several scholars began to carefully observe
the growth and development of their own children and publish their findings in the form of baby
biographies. Perhaps the most influential baby biographer was Charles Darwin (1809–1882), who
made daily records of his son’s development (Darwin, 1877; see also Dewsbury, 2009). Darwin’s
curiosity about child development stemmed from his interest in evolution. He believed that infants
share many characteristics with their non-human ancestors and that understanding the development
of the embryo and child can offer insights into the evolution of the species. Darwin’s evolutionary
perspective and studies of the development of embryos strongly influenced early theories of human
development, which emphasised universal, biologically-based, maturational changes (Cairns &
Cairns, 2006). Baby biographies, however, had major flaws as works of science. Each emphasised
different developmental aspects, so they were difficult to compare; observations by parents of their
own children may have been influenced by assumptions or bias; and finally, because each baby
biography was based on a single child – often the child of a distinguished family – its findings were
not necessarily generalisable to other children.
Although Darwin and other baby biographers deserve credit for creating interest in the study
of human development and influencing early views of it, the man most often cited as the founder
of developmental science is G. Stanley Hall (1846–1924), an American psychologist (see Lepore,
2011, for an interesting view of the man). Well aware of the shortcomings of baby biographies, Hall
attempted to collect more objective data on large samples of individuals. He developed a now all-too-
familiar research tool – the questionnaire – to explore ‘the contents of children’s minds’ (Hall, 1891).
MEET AN OCCUPATIONAL THERAPIST
What does your role as an life. Occupational therapists [nga work with the resident, their whaˉnau
occupational therapist involve, kaiwhakaora ngangahau] achieve this by (family) and carers and staff to develop
and why did you decide to working with people and communities solutions.
become one? to enhance their ability to engage in the I also use my skills to analyse other
Occupational Therapy New Zealand occupations they want to, need to, or occupational challenges. For example,
(Whakaora Ngangahau Aotearoa) are expected to do, or by modifying the in managing staff I use my occupational
has adapted the World Federation of occupation or the environment to better therapy skills to analyse the interface
Occupational Therapists’ definition support their occupational engagement between three elements: the person
of occupational therapy and has (adapted from WFOT definition, 2012)’. and their capacities, the environment in
incorporated the Maˉori language In my current roles I use my which they work and the requirements
names for our profession in Aotearoa occupational therapy core skills to of the occupations or tasks that they
(New Zealand). Occupational therapy, facilitate the people I work with need to do. I can then work with the
or whakaora ngangahau, is: ‘a client- to engage successfully in their person to develop the most effective
centred health profession concerned occupations. So, in the residential approach to their role and tasks by
with promoting health and wellbeing aged-care home I assess and evaluate suggesting adaptations to any of those
through occupation. The primary goal the elderly residents’ ability to engage, three elements. I also use this approach
of occupational therapy [whakaora within their environments, in self-care, with the occupational therapy students
ngangahau] is to enable people to leisure and productive occupations. and their practicum supervisors in
participate in the activities of everyday Where I identify a problem I then my role as Community and Clinical
>>>
>>>
Practicum Leader for Counties of stints as a nanny. None of these

Manukau Health in South Auckland. jobs appealed as a long-term career
Understanding individuals’ capacities choice. My mother was working as an
and characteristics, the environments occupational therapist in mental health
in which they are functioning, and the (she had qualified in the early 1950s) so
Source: Nancy Wright, DipCOT, MA, NZROT.

tasks and activities required of them I always had an idea of what she did. An
is an approach which enables me to opportunity arose to apply for a job as
analyse and problem-solve any situation. an occupational therapy assistant on a
Why did I decide to become an one-year rotation, working for 3 months
occupational therapist? Well, my choice in each of four different services.
was influenced by my concern that at This experience was the catalyst for my
the age of 23 I did not have a career decision to train as an occupational
path. I had left school at 16 and went to therapist. This is a job that enables me
work in hotels and pubs. Then I trained to really connect with people and it has
to be a secretary – but hated it. I worked the potential to focus on all aspects
in Harrods department store in London of a person’s wellbeing: physical, Nancy Wright DipCOT, MA, NZROT,
Occupational Therapist (Kaiwhakaora
as a sales assistant and did a couple psychological and spiritual. Ngangahau), Auckland, Aotearoa New
Zealand
Hall went on to write an influential book, Adolescence (1904). Inspired by Darwin’s evolutionary
LINKAGES
theory, Hall drew parallels between adolescence and the turbulent period in the evolution of
Chapter 12 human society during which barbarism gave way to modern civilisation. Adolescence, according
Developmental
psychopathology to Hall, was a tempestuous period of the life span, a time of emotional ups and downs and rapid
changes – a time he called ‘storm and stress’ (see Chapter 12). Thus, Hall is credited with the
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Reproduction
notion that most teenagers are emotionally unstable – a largely inaccurate notion, as it turns
Snapshot out (Arnett, 1999). Yet as this book will reveal, Hall was right to mark adolescence as a time of
number LC-DIG-ggbain-05209 (digital file from original neg.)
dramatic change; substantial changes in the brain and in cognitive and social functioning do take
place during this period.
Hall capped his remarkable career by turning his attention to the end of the life span in Senescence
(1922), an analysis of how society treats (or, really, mistreats) its older members. Overall, Hall’s
developmental science was limited by modern standards (Shanahan, Erickson, & Bauer, 2005).Yet he
deserves much credit for stimulating scientific research on the entire human life span and for raising
many important questions about it.
G. Stanley Hall is
considered the The modern life span perspective
founder of the field
of developmental Although a few early pioneers of the study of human development, such as G. Stanley Hall, viewed
science.
all phases of the life span as worthy of study, the science of human development began to break
into age-group specialty areas during the twentieth century. Some researchers focused on infant or
gerontology The
study of the social,
child development, others specialised in adolescence, and still others formed the specialisation of
psychological, mental gerontology, the study of the social, psychological, mental and biological aspects of ageing and old
and biological aspects age. In the 1960s and 1970s, however, a true life span perspective on human development began to
of ageing and old age.
emerge. In an influential paper, noted developmentalist Paul Baltes (1939–2006) laid out the seven
life span perspective
The view of development
key assumptions of the life span perspective seen in the following list (Baltes, 1987; also see Baltes,
as a lifelong, multidirectional Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006).These are important themes that you will see echoed throughout
process that involves gain this book. They will also give you a good sense of the challenges facing researchers and practitioners
and loss, is characterised
by considerable plasticity, who study human development from a life span perspective.
is shaped by its historical- 1 Development is a lifelong process. Today’s developmentalists appreciate that human development
cultural context, has many
causes and is best viewed
is not just ‘kid stuff ’, we can change throughout the entire life span. They also believe that
from a multidisciplinary development in any period of life is best seen in the context of the whole life span. For instance,
perspective.
our understanding of adolescent career choices is bound to be richer if we concern ourselves

with formative influences in childhood and the implications of such choices for adult careers and Snapshot
success.
Source: Christine Windbichler

2 Development is multidirectional. To many pioneers of its study, development was a universal
process leading in one direction – toward more ‘mature’ functioning. Today’s developmentalists
recognise that different capacities show different patterns of change over time; for example, some
intellectual skills decline faster than others in late adulthood, some don’t change much, and some
even continue to improve (see Chapters 6 and 7). Different aspects of human functioning have
different trajectories of change.
3 Development involves both gain and loss. As we have noted already, development is not just gain in Developmentalist
Paul Baltes is credited
childhood and loss in old age. Rather, gain and loss are intertwined during every phase of the with increasing
life span. Baltes believed that gain inevitably brings with it loss of some kind, and loss brings interest in the study
of development from a
gain – that gain and loss occur jointly. Examples? As infants gain command of the sounds of the life span perspective.
language they hear spoken, they lose their early ability to ‘babble’ sounds heard in other languages
of the world (see Chapter 8); gaining a capacity for logical thought as a school-age child means
losing some of the capacity for fanciful, imaginative thinking one had as a preschooler (see LINKAGES
Chapter 5); and choosing to hone certain skills in one’s career can mean losing command of
Chapter 6 Sensory-
other skills (see Chapter 9). perception, attention
4 Development is multiply influenced. Today’s developmental scientists share Urie Bronfenbrenner’s and memory
Chapter 7
belief that human development is the product of many interacting causes – both inside and outside
Intelligence and
the person, both biological and environmental (see Chapter 3). It is the often-unpredictable creativity
outcome of ongoing interactions between a changing person and his or her changing world. Chapter 8 Language,
Some influences are experienced by all humans at similar ages, others are common to people of literacy and learning
Chapter 5 Cognitive
a particular generation, and still others are unique to the individual.
development
5 Development is characterised by lifelong plasticity. Plasticity refers to the capacity to change in response Chapter 9 Self,
to both positive and negative experiences. Developmental scholars have long known that child personality, gender
and sexuality
development can be damaged by a deprived environment and optimised by an enriched one. It
Chapter 3 Genes,
is now understood that this plasticity continues into later life – that the developmental process environment and the
is not fixed but rather can be altered considerably depending on the individual’s experiences. As beginnings of life
discussed in the chapter Application box, elderly adults can maintain, regain or even enhance some
of their intellectual abilities and lessen their risk of dementia with the help of physical exercise plasticity The capacity
of an organism to
and a mentally and socially active lifestyle, or training designed to improve specific cognitive
change in response
skills (Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, & Lindenberger, 2009; Park et al., 2014). Studies tell us such to both positive and
cognitive benefits are rooted in neuroplasticity, the remarkable ability of brain cells and structures negative environments
and experiences across
to change in response to experience throughout the life span, as when the brain recovers from the life span.
injury or benefits from stimulating learning experiences. It is now clear that physical exercise and
neuroplasticity The
mental stimulation can result in changes in neurochemistry, the formation of new connections ability of brain cells
among neurons, and, remarkably, new neurons in the hippocampus of the brain – an area involved and brain structures
to change in response
in learning and memory – even in an ageing brain (see Chapter 4). to experience.
6 Development is shaped by its historical-cultural context. This theme was discussed in some depth in
Section 1.1 and will be illustrated throughout the book. For now, consider the launching of
LINKAGES
the internet as an example of an historical change with implications for human development.
When baby boomers grew up, there were no mobile phones or home computers, much less an Chapter 4 Body,
brain and health
internet. The internet came into being in the early 1980s, around the time that home computers
were becoming common (see, for example, Cotten, McCullough & Adams, 2011). Facebook was
launched in 2004, Twitter in 2006, Snapchat in 2011. Media are now a big part of the daily lives
of children and teens (Calvert, 2015; Lenhart et al., 2015). How are these technologies affecting
adolescent development?
According to one analysis (Valkenburg & Peter, 2009), early studies of the impact of the internet
on adolescents suggested that it was isolating them and keeping them from developmentally
Search me! and important social experiences such as interacting with peers. More recent studies are revealing
Discover teachers’
views about how digital
positive effects of time on the internet and digital media use. Why? In the 1990s, adolescent
technology impacts internet users were fewer in number and usually surfed the net or talked to strangers in chat
on the lives of young rooms. Now, many more adolescents use the internet and digital media to network with their
people:
Betts, L. R., & Spenser, K. A.
friends – mainly through Facebook and other social media sites if they are girls, and often
(2015). ‘A large can of worms’: through video game sites if they are boys (Lenhart et al., 2015). And now that teens are spending
Teachers’ perceptions of
young people’s technology much of their online time interacting with friends, studies are showing more positive correlations
use. International Journal of
Cyber Behavior, Psychology between internet use and social adjustment and wellbeing (Reich, Subrahmanyam, & Espinoza,
and Learning, 5, 15–29.
2012;Valkenburg & Peter, 2009). For emerging adults who have gone away to study, for example,
social networking sites can be a way to hold on to the social support offered by their high school
friends (Manago et al., 2012).
However, the question of the effects of digital media on adolescents is far from resolved. For
LINKAGES
example, Roy Pea and his colleagues (2012) found that heavy media use – especially spending
Chapter 10 Social
cognition and
large amounts of time watching videos, engaging in online communication and using multiple
moral development media at once – was negatively associated with feeling good about one’s close relationships
and social acceptance, whereas spending more time in face-to-face conversations was positively
related to these aspects of social wellbeing. Then there are the negative effects of cyberbullying
MAKING
to consider. Cyberbullying, which has increased in recent years (Jones, Mitchell, & Finkelhor,
CONNECTIONS
2013; and see Chapter 10), is linked to stress, depression and suicidal thoughts among its victims
What historical (Hamm et al., 2015; Kowalski et al., 2014). We still have much to learn about how human
events have you
lived through in development is being affected by the internet and digital media.
your lifetime and 7 Development must be studied by multiple disciplines. Because human development is influenced by
how has this shaped
your development?
everything from biochemical reactions to historical events, it is impossible for one discipline
to have all the answers. A full understanding of human development will come only when
developmental science
many disciplines, each with its own perspectives and tools of study, join forces. Not only
The multidisciplinary psychologists but also biologists, neuroscientists, educators, historians, economists, sociologists,
and interdisciplinary anthropologists and many others have something to contribute to our understanding of human
study of human
development across the development.Where we once talked of developmental psychology as a field of study, we now talk
life span. of developmental science.
MEET A SOCIAL WORKER
What does your role as a social workers take a look at a person at

worker involve, and why did you their developmental stage across a life
decide to become one? span and work out the psychosocial,
A social worker looks after the economic and political circumstances
psychosocial needs of any clients around the client and work out how they
that come through the many and can best move the client towards the
varied services that employ social goals that are mutually agreed between
Source: Bill McGarry
workers. Some social workers work them and the client.

in government, some social workers Why did I decide to become a social
work in NGOs (non-government worker? I worked in geophysics logging
organisations); it depends very much and when my own life circumstances
on the charter of that organisation changed I decided my commitment
Bill McGarry, Social Worker, Tasmania,
as to what their duties are. Social to social justice and equity would be Australia
>>>
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II
Hilu tekee työtä niin pitkälle kuin jaksaa, lepää vain sen, mikä
välttämätöntä on, ja jatkaa sitten taas. Alussa tuntuu jäsenissä
hiukan pakotusta, työn päätyttyä ne joskus tuntuvat lopen
puutuneilta, mutta se johtuu vain tottumattomuudesta. Jonkun ajan
kuluttua käy kaikki kuin itsestään, hän ei huomaa, kuinka aika kuluu
ja kun hän sen viimein huomaa, ei hän malta lopettaa. Se on nyt
sellaista.
Vähitellen, hän ei huomaa itsekään kuinka, valtaa hänet

samanlainen into kuin silloin kerran Mäntyniemen raiviomaalla.
Innostuksen tunteessa on nyt kuitenkin se ero, että se tällä kertaa on
selvempää, tyynempää ja määrätietoisempaa. Tähän intoon liittyy
ohut annos pelkoakin jonkun seikan väliintulemisesta ja siitä, että
jokin nyt voisi lopettaa kaikki kun juuri ollaan päästy käsiksi. Mutta se
tunne väistyy kuitenkin kaikkivoittavan innon edestä, ja yhä
navakammin iskee kirves puun kylkeen.
- On se kruunu sentään… ajattelee Hilu, - antaa köyhälle pirullekin

tilaisuuden tällaiseen…
Niin, onhan se kruunu ja on aina ollut. Yhdenveroisia,
sanottakoonpa mitä tahansa, ovat sen edessä herrat ja jätkät,
työmiehet ja asessoorit, poliisit ja kruununvoudit. Ja puulaakitkin.
Tietenkin ne herrat krateerailevat ihmiset oman mielensä mukaan ja
hyvinkin kohtelevat eri tavalla herroja, talonpoikaa ja työmiehiä,
mutta ne nyt ovat vain herroja. Mutta kun oikein kruunun eteen
joudutaan, niin saman arvoisiapa ollaan, siitä ei päästä yli eikä
ympäri.
Rippikouluajoista Hilu muistaa, että kaikki valta on lähtöisin

Jumalasta.
— Jumalasta, Jumalastapa hyvinkin, päättää hän sydämen

vakaumuksella ja hartaudella. - Ei toisin voisi ollakaan, tietenkään.
Ja Jumala on antanut osan maallista valtaansa keisarille ja keisari
taas on luovuttanut valtaansa, mitä metsiin tulee, metsäherralle ja
metsäherra osaltaan metsänvartijalle. Onhan se metsänvartijakin
olevinaan joku herra, mutta tuskin se tosiasiallisesti on puulaakin
kymppiä kummempi eikä ainakaan ukkoherraa parempi…
Ja hän, Hilu siis on keisarin maalla ja keisarin metsässä

perustamassa uutistaloa. Tietää hän keisarin, on kuvissa monastikin
nähnyt. Sellainen vähän pujopartainen, hiukan pystynokkainen mies.
Iho kuin samettia ja muutenkin mies mukavan näköinen. Mitähän
sanoneekaan kun paperit näkee, jos nuo nyt sinne asti menevät.
Majesteetti…
Hilu pyyhkii hikeä otsaltaan, huoahtaa hetkisen ja siirtyy

seuraavan puun juurelle.
Niin, ja nyt sitä ollaan yhdessä Iinan kanssa. Iinalla on kyllä lapsi
jonkun rakennusmestarin kanssa, mutta se nyt on sen lapsenkin
kohta niinkuin se on. Alkujaankaan ei ole syytä Iinaa moittia ja
sitäpaitsi se asia on jo niin moneen kertaan sovittu. Oli syytä
hänessäkin, Hilussa, ja mikä tietää, vaikka hänestäkin olisi siinnyt
lapsi jonnekin… Mutta mitäpäs näitä, turhaan tulevat mieleen. Ollaan
nyt tässä, mihin ollaan pyrittykin. Siellä, kotona, Keinuvaaran
kupeella, on Iina. Aurinko paistaa tällä hetkellä suoraan ikkunoista
sisään ja pölyhiutaleet leijailevat valojuovissa. Iina odottaa häntä
kotiin myöhään lauantai-iltana, saattaa siksi tehdä juustonkin.
Heittäydytään levolle yhdessä… Ja kun heille lapsiakin tulee, niin ei
Kalle sen huonommalle osalle joudu. Ei tahdo aina muistaakaan,
ettei se ole omia, on päässyt siitä pitämäänkin niin… No, joko se
taas!
Kun ihmiset kyläpaikoissa ovat jo aikoja sitten menneet levolle

kaikuvat Hilun kirveen iskut vielä autiossa erämaassa, saavuttavat
vaaran seinämän, ponnahtavat takaisin ja kantautuvat
moninkertaisena kaikuna huokailevaan, varjottomaan yöhön.
*****
Muutamana päivänä Hilun työ äkkiä keskeytyy.
— No, mies! Mitäs sinä jyystät?
Hilu nostaa katseensa. Hänen edessään seisoo lihavahko mies,

punanokkainen, sänkipartainen, ja miehen takana laukunkantaja ja
muuan toinen mies. Mitä lienevät ohikulkijoita.
— Päivää, vastaa Hilu. — Talon tapaistahan tässä koetetaan

rustata.
— Vai talontapaista!
Mies naurahtaa eikä näytä lainkaan ystävälliseltä. Saattaa olla
joku yhtiön herroista.
— Entä kenen luvalla? Hilu suutahtaa.
— Ei kenenkään maantienkulkijan luvalla, vastaa hän

tiuskaisemalla. —
Eikä ainakaan teidän luvallanne.
Vastaus näyttää hiukan ällistyttävän puhujaa ja hän miettii hetken,

mutta kokoaa sitten koko mahtipontisuutensa.
— Kyllä sen kuulee, että entinen jätkä on puhuttelemassa ihmisiä,

hän sanoo sitten levollisesti. — Mutta sitä ei pidä mennä
peukaloimaan yhtiön lanssimaita.
Hilu tarttuu kirveeseensä.
— Se on vale.
— Se on totta, vastaa vieras. - Ja paras, että lopetat tähän

paikkaan.
Veri nousee Hilun päähän ja viha taistelee ällistyksen ja nousevan

epätoivon kanssa. Tähänkö sen nyt sitten piti loppua!
— Lupa on paremmasta paikasta, sanoo hän näennäisesti

rauhassa. - Eikä työtä jokaisen kulkijan käskystä lopeteta.
— No lähde kysymään metsäherralta.
Nyt Hilu jo saa naurahtaa. Jos vain siitä on kysymys, niin

lähdetään vain. Mutta synti on heittää työtä kesken, sillä nyt on vasta
tiistai. Tulee melkein päivän tappio.
— Kyllä se asia on jo sovittu, naurahtaa hän tyyntyneenä. - Jos
metsäherra tahtoo kieltää, niin kyllä hän lähettää sanan kun
ilmoitatte.
Mutta samalla hän ajattelee, että jos tässä sittenkin on koira

haudattuna ja epäilyksen aavistus täyttää hänen mielensä. Saattaa
tuolla toisella sittenkin olla jotakin pontta puheilleen tai sitten on hän
erehtynyt paikasta.
— Saatan minä teidän kanssanne lähteä metsäherrallekin, jatkaa

Hilu mietittyään, - mutta sillä ehdolla, että maksatte ajan hukan, jos
olette väärässä.
— Olkoon niin sitten.
— Se on sitten sata markkaa.
— Vaikkapa!
— Kuulkaa tarkasti, vieraat miehet, sanoo Hilu herran takana

seisoville miehille. Ei häntä vain niin juoksuteta.
Hilu oli huomannut, että ihmisten luonteenomainen korskeus,

pöyhkeys ja itserakkaus väheni sitä mukaa kuta lähemmäksi he
tulivat metsäherran puustellia ja kun he viimein astelivat verkalleen
portaita ylös, olivat he nöyriä poikia. Mutta kauhukseen hän pani
merkille, että tämän herran luonto ei ottanut laskeakseen edes
sittenkään kun portti oli auennut, vaan käski vielä miehensäkin
sisään. Jospa sittenkin… Ajatus väristytti Hilua.
Metsäherran työhuone on varjon puolella, mutta huonekalujen

kiiltävät pinnat välkähtelevät. Viipyy aikoja ennenkuin metsäherra
tulee näkyviin.
— Keitä te olette?
Metsäherran katse pysähtyy ensin mieheen, jota Hilu luulee yhtiön

herraksi, viivähtää sitten molemmissa seuralaisissa ja pysähtyy oven
suussa seisovaan Hiluun.
— Kankkunen istuu, hän sanoo Hilulle.
Mies alkaa selittää asiaansa. Hän on yhtiön päälliköitä ja on

tavannut tämän Kankkusen kaatamassa puita yhtiön lanssimaalla.
— Mitä asiaa näillä toisilla on? kysäisee metsäherra vastaamatta

yhtiön herralle vielä mitään.
— Me olemme vain tämän Kotkasen, tämän ukkoherran,

saattomiehiä…
— Vai niin. Sittenhän teillä ei ole täällä mitään tekemistä.
Se oli niin metsäherran-paroonin tapaista. Ei olla tekemisissä

ihmisten kanssa muissa kuin asioissa. Mutta ukkoherran kasvot
lensivät tulipunaisiksi. Ei nyt taidettu tulla oikealle asialle.
— Jaha, lanssimaa, sanoi metsäherra sitten kääntyen yhtiön

miehen puoleen. — Mihin te tahdotte tulla?
Yhtiön herra koettaa selvittää asiaansa. Hän on tavannut tämän

Kankkusen kaatamassa puita paikalla, jonka yhtiö on katsonut
lanssimaakseen. Yhtiö kai se sittenkin on suurin metsänostaja näillä
main.
— Ensinnäkään teillä ei ole mitään lanssimaata Liinahatun

tienoilla, vastaa metsäherra vähän ajan kuluttua. - Toiseksi ei
Liinahatun vartiopiiristä ainakaan viiteen vuoteen myydä
runkoakaan, joten on hyvin epävarmaa, tuletteko siellä koskaan
mitään lanssimaata tarvitsemaankaan. Ja kolmanneksi minä tulen
kyllä neuvomaan tai neuvottamaan teille lanssimaan, kun te sitä
tarvitsette.
Yhtiön herra hikoili. Tällaiseksi hän ei ollut metsäherraa kuvitellut.
— Minä olen sieltä kulkenut katselemassa metsää, hän vastasi,

oston varalta. Ja minä ajattelin, että juuri siinä oli kaikkein
parhaimpia lanssimaita…
— Vai niin, sanoi metsäherra ilmeisen ylenkatseellisesti. - Vai te

ajattelitte, jaha. Ja sitten te juoksutatte tätä Kankkusta
peninkulmittain juuri silloin kun aika on tärkeintä. Se on kaunista ja
yhtiönne tapaista.
— Hän lupasi minulle sata markkaa, jos häviää, kiiruhti Hilu

lisäämään.
— Olkaa hyvä ja maksakaa, lopetti metsäherra, - ja menkää sitten

tiehenne. Mutta Kankkunen tekee hyvin ja jää vähäksi ajaksi.
Yhtiön herran oli nuopean näköinen ja Hilun tuli häntä melkein

sääli.
— Kyllä se puolikin sentään riittää, sanoi hän nähdessään

edessään sileän satamarkkasen.
— Antakaa olla vain, huomautti metsäherra kuivasti. — Ottakoon

yhtiöltä takaisin.
Ja Hilu otti satamarkkasen, jonka ansaitsemiseen häneltä
tukkijoella olisi mennyt kolme viikkoa ellei ylikin. Eihän hän
muutakaan voinut, kun kerran metsäherran oli käsky. Kumma mies
tuo metsäherra, tavalliselle ihmiselle ei tehnyt hyvää ellei
pahaakaan, mutta yhtiötä kohtaan oli kuin paholainen.
— Kai Kankkunen on hakannut osoitusteni mukaan? kysyi

metsäherra yhtiön miehen mentyä.
— Kyllähän minä olen koettanut.
— Hyvä on.
Metsäherra istui pöydän ääressä ja Hilu luuli, että hän katseli

häntä, mutta kun hän nosti silmänsä, huomasikin hän, että
metsäherra katseli ilmeettömin silmin ikkunasta ulos.
— Ja työt sujuvat hyvin, luonnollisesti? Kysymys tuli pitkän ajan

kuluttua ja aivan kuin ohimennen. Metsäherra nähtävästi ajatteli
muita asioita, ja Hilu odotti jännityksellä.
— Hyvinhän ne tietenkin menevät, myönsi hän.
— Rakennuksiin olisi pian päästävä, jatkoi metsäherra taas pitkän

tovin kuluttua.
Sitten hän nousi ja käveli muutaman kerran edestakaisin, pistäytyi

välillä toisessa huoneessa ja tuli taas takaisin.
— On paras, että Kankkunen laittaa hakemuspaperinsa kuntoon jo

tänään, sanoi hän melkein vilkkaasti ja katseli Hilua koko ajan
kiinteästi silmiin. — Hankitte tarpeelliset todistukset
varallisuudestanne ynnä muusta ja lähetätte sitten nimismiehen
kautta kuvernöörille.
— Nytkö jo tänään?
— Nyt. Kankkus-Hilu teki lähtöä.
— Voi käydä niin, jatkoi metsäherra hiukan empien, että yhtiö

muuten haetuttaa jollakin juipillaan ellei samalle paikalle, niin ainakin
niille seuduin uutistalon ja siitä on sitten kaikenlaista ikävyyttä. Niin
että Kankkunen on hyvä ja toimii nopeasti nyt. Saatte ehkä syksyksi
katselmuksen.
Hilu sai mennä ja hän riensi sydän pamppaillen portaita alas. Vai
ovat asiat niin täpärällä. Hilu ei nimittäin tiennyt, että joskus oli
tapahtunut sellaistakin, että yhtiö oli jollakin jätkällään haetuttanut
uutistalon, auttanut kaikin puolin sen asianmukaiseen kuntoon
saamisessa niin että se mahdollisimman pian tuli perinnöksi ja
sukeltautui sitten metsään. Mutta metsäherra, hän oli kyllä tietoinen
konstista jos toisestakin, vaikka hän enimmäkseen piti suunsa kiinni.
III
Nyt sattuu niin, että Erkkilän Juhani, kunnallislautakunnan esimies,

on päissään, kun Hilu tulee häneltä pyytämään todistusta siitä, että
hän on "varoistaan elävä ja työllään hyvin toimeentuleva". Miehet
ovat hiljakkoin olleet käymässä Knjäsöissä, tuoneet tuomisia
tullessaan, ja Erkkilän Juhani on tehnyt itselleen useita puolikuppisia
Venäjän pirtusta, siitä sinileimaisesta. Pari miestä, toinen Erkkilän
renki, on tuupertunut aidan viereen ja he makaavat naamat
punoittavina ja suu auki auringon helteessä. Näky hiukan ellottaa
Hilua eikä hän saata olla ajattelematta, että hän on tullut vähän
sopimattomaan aikaan.
Erkkilän Juhanilla on kaverina Könkään Sanhriiti ja hän istuu

kamarissaan ja tavailee kirjoitusta pullon kyljestä.
— On se ainetta tuokin, hän puhuu ja vetää pullon lähemmäksi

silmiään, — on se… Katsoppas, ei sitä sopisi näin kunnan miesten,
mutta piruakos… Mitä se oiken tuo kirjoitus tuossa kyljessä?
— Kazjonnij spirt, vastaa Sanhriiti ponnekkaasti ja mojovasti, sillä

hän on ollut joskus hommissa Kuolassa. -Se merkitsee, että valtion
pirtu. Katsos, se ryssä, ymmärräthän, kyllä se tietää, millä rahat
omaan taskuun kierii.
— Ymmärtää. Jaha, että valtion viinaa. No on se…
Erkkilän Juhani katselee viheriälasista pulloa syvällä hartaudella ja

kääntyy sitten Hilun puoleen.
— Niin, että mistäpä minä sinun varallisuutesi ja työkykysi tiedän.
— Enhän minä ole ollut kunnan vastuksina enkä paljon

muidenkaan, huomauttaa Hilu.
— Et, se on totta… Korkkikin niin mukavasti laitettu, ettei muuta

kuin vähän pullon pyrstöön kämmenpohjaan tömähdyttää, niin lentää
kuin limlaatipullosta. Eikö se samppaniia ole samanlaista?
— On, vakuuttaa Sanhriiti, vaan ei siinä väkevyyttä ole, tai kyllä

sitä on, mutta se on sellaista salaista. Särvit kuin limlaatia ja yhtäkkiä
olet petleheemissä.
— Vai petleheemissä… kas pirulaista. Mutta otahan vähän

sinäkin,
Kankkus-Hilu.
— En minä tällä kertaa, tokaisee Hilu kärsimättömästi. - Puhutaan

jo taas siitäkin todistuksesta.
— Puhutaan, myöntää esimies ja koettaa olla asiallisen näköinen.
Sitten hän kääntyy Könkään Sanhriitin puoleen.
— Mitä minä teen? hän kysyy.

— Se on sinun asiasi. Mikäs tietäjä minä olen.
— Etpä tietenkään. Kysynkin sinulta vain vähän niinkuin

esimiehenä.
Hyvää neuvoa, ettäs älyät. Minulla on niin herkkä omatunto.
Hilu istuu kuin tulisilla hiilillä. Tuleekohan tästä koko päivänä

mitään.
— Herkkä omatunto, jatkaa Erkkilän Juhani odottamatta

vastausta. — Se tulee viran mukana. Jolle Herra viran antaa, sille
hän antaa myös viisautta…
— Joo, niin se on, vahvistaa Sanhriiti. - Koetahan nyt harkita,

meinaan omantunnon mukaan ja laajaperäisesti, tätä Hilemooni
Kankkusen edesottamista. Sillä on vähän kiire, näyttää.
— Kiire, muttei niin kiire, ettei virkakunta ehtisi suorittamaan

tehtäviään. Harkitaan.
Hilua alkoi yhä enemmän kyllästyttää ja hermostuttaa, mutta sitä

ei saanut näyttää. Erkkilän Juhani oli sen suunnan miehiä, että otti
pian nokastuakseen ja sitten hänen kanssaan ei tullut toimeen
kukaan.
— Pitäisi vähän kylältäkin tiedustella, sanoi hän, tehden

puolikuppisen, olen niin vähän sinua seurannut.
Tähän ei Hilulla ollut mitään sanottavaa. Mutta aika kului ja kului.
— Kyllähän te minut tiedätte, yritti hän. - Ei ole koskaan

tarvinnut…
— Ei ole tarvinnut, ei. Mutta jos taloon joudut, piru tiennee, vaikka
tarvitsisikin. Joo, se on sillä tavalla, Kankkus-poika. Pitää olla
kaukonäköinen. Tule huomenna.
— Ei passaa. Metsäherra sanoi, että tänään pitää.
— Sanoiko herra hosmestari ja paruuni…
— Kyllä se sanoi.
Erkkilän Juhanin vahvimpia puolia ei ollut erikoinen kunnioitus

virkamiessäätyä kohtaan, mutta tämä metsäherra oli pitänyt itsensä
niin kaukana ja korkealla, että se oli väkevästi vaikuttanut
esimieheenkin. Hän ikäänkuin selveni ja koetti harkita, mitä
metsäherra kiiruhtamisellaan tarkoitti. Lopuksi hän jo kysäisi:
— No mitäs herra hosmestari meinaa?
— Mitäs se, selvässä asiassa.
Könkään Sanhriitikin alkoi jo sekaantua asiaan.
— Mitäs, sanoi hän Erkkilälle, annat plakaatin. Oikealle miehelle

se tulee.
— Pappilaankin pitäisi vielä tänä iltana ennättää, ehätti Hilu vähän

innostuen. — Ja sitten vielä nimismiehelle.
— No, annahan nyt, kun minä mietin. Eihän sitä tällaisessa

tilanteessa kuin räkkäporo… Haes kynää ja paperia, Sanhriiti, ne
ovat tuossa kaapin päällä.
Erkkilän Juhani iski silmää viekkaasti ja kieli pyrki lallattelemaan,

vaikkeivät ajatukset tahtoneet pysyä koossa. Hilun mieliala paranee,
mutta samalla hänen mieleensä muistuvat monet lapsuudenaikaiset
kohtaukset kankaan takaa ja myöhemminkin. Tällaistahan se on, kun
ollaan päissään.
— Hyvä mieshän se Hilemooni on ollut, sanoo esimies, saatuaan

kirjoitus vehkeet. - Kirjoltahan sinä, Sanhriiti, joka olet siihen
parempi. Minä sitten vain pistän nimeni alle kuin kuvernööri.
— Mitä minä siihen kirjoitan?
Hilun olo käy jännittäväksi. Erkkilän Juhani on tärkeän näköinen ja

miettii.
— Ei sitä pitäisi näin piiput hampaissa, sanoo hän vihdoin, - mutta

menköön nyt tämä kerta. Autetaanpas Hilua korvilleen, vähän
niinkuin säätyyn, kun et sitten vaan kunnan niskoille… pirkele…
— Mitäs minä, melkein yksinäinen mies.
— Niin ne kaikki sanovat. Sanoi Kieringin Mattikin. Vähän jyrkkä

askel…
— Kyllähän se sitä on, myöntää Hilu antaumuksella.
— Mitäs se muuta on. No, kirjoltahan, Sanhriiti, niinkuin

pruukataan. Kirjoita että työllään hyvin toimeentuleva ja varoistaan
erinomaisesti elävä…
— Erinomaisesti? kysyy Sanhriiti keskeyttäen puuhansa. — Onko

se nyt laillista?
— Eiköhän se ole liikaa sanottu? kysyy Hilukin.

— Anna olla, että erinomaisesti. Sittenpähän näkevät herrat ja
kuvernööritkin. Ja soman kajahduksen se antaa. Autetaanhan nyt
Hilemoonia…
— Sama minulle, sanoo Könkään Sanhriiti ja kirjoittaa todistuksen

loppuun. - Alappas piirrellä nimeäsi.
Erkkilän Juhani tarttuu tarmokkaasti kynään ja piirtää nimensä

alle. Sitten hän aikoo lyödä kunnallislautakunnan sinetin alle, mutta
värityynystä on väri poissa ja uutta ei ole saatavissa.
— Kaadahan vähän pirtua tyynylle, Sanhriiti.
— Auttaisikohan tuo. Jos rupeaa koko todistus haisemaan pirtulle.
— Anna haista. Kyllä se tekee hyvää herrain nokkaan. Minä

kaadan itse, koskei sinussa ole miestä…
Väripula tulee autetuksi ja kunnallislautakunnan sinetti ilmestyy

koristamaan Erkkilän Juhanin painavaa nimikirjoitusta.
— No siinä on sitten sellainen paperi, että talo lähtee vaikka olisi

keisarin pörssissä, kehuu Erkkilä ojentaessaan paperin Hilulle. - Eikä
maksa mitään. Paitsi ryypyt, jos tahdot asian kunniaksi Sanhriitin ja
minun kanssa…
— Eiköhän se jo meille riitä, väittää Könkään Sanhriiti.
— Mitä kanssa! Nyt se vasta alkaa, kun ei ole noita

virkatoimiakaan.
— Kyllähän minä kernaasti, myöntää Hilu kiitollisena, — mutta kun

ei tahdo olla aikaa.
— Sepä, mutta käy tuolta pihalta hakemassa pullo. Kyllä me
tämän
Sanhriitin kanssa…
Hilu epäröi, mutta menee pian. Onhan hän senverran

kiitollisuuden velassa. Kun hän palaa takaisin on hänellä pirtupullo
kädessä.
— Siinon, äijät.
— Kiitos. Kyllä sinusta rento isäntä tulee. Ja sitten kun pirttirehtosi

on valmis, tulemme me tämän Sanhriitin kanssa ryypylle kuin
vertaisiin. Eikö niin.
— No niin. Tervetuloa!
— Joo, niinkuin vertaisiin tullaan. Joskus talvella. Mutta tästäkään

et puhu kenellekään.
— En. Hyvästi nyt.
— No, hyvästi nyt sitten ja voi hyvin. Joko sinä ajattelet syyniä eli
katselmusta, niinkuin sanotaan, tänä vuonna?
— Kyllä kai.
— Menehän nyt sitten. Kyllä talo irtausi. Kevein mielin astelee Hilu
pappilaa kohden.
Onpahan taas tehty yksi tärkeä askel. Ei siitä puulaakin herran

häiriöstä lopuksikaan ollut muuta kuin hyvää. Mutta sitten hän alkaa
ajatella, että mahtoikohan se viinan osto sittenkään olla otollista. Ei
hän sen asian vuoksi eikä rahamenon vuoksikaan, eihän siihen
mennyt kuin kahdeksan markkaa… Mutta jos syrjäläinen tiesi, niin
lahjukseksi käsitti. Saattoi sanoa, että viinan voimalla se Kankkusen
Hilukin… Vaikkeihän siitä aikaisemmin mitään puhetta ollut.
Päissään olivat muutenkin, varsinkin Erkkilän Juhani, joka harvoin
kuului maistelevan. Mutta eipähän hän omasta aloitteestaan, itse
olivat esittäneet, eikä hän iljennyt vastaankaan panna. Hilusta tuntuu
kuin olisi hän jossakin suhteessa tullut entistä herkemmäksi. Siinä
viinanostojutussa hän teki väärin, se ajatus ei jätä häntä kirkkoherran
virkahuoneessakaan.
Muuten Hilun asiat sujuvat tänä iltana hyvin. Kirkkoherra pyytää

saada nähdä kunnallislautakunnan esimiehen todistuksen ja sanoo,
että hyvänpä se kirjoittikin. Toivottaa vielä onnea ja kättelee, kun Hilu
lähtee. Eipä seurakunnalla ole Kankkusesta ollut haittaa, siivo ja
työteliäs on ollut.
Nimismies ottaa itse kirjoittaakseen hakemuksen. Kuuluu, sanoo

hän, virkaankin. Huomisaamuna lähtee posti ja toimittaa sen siinä
menemään. Vai sellainen kiire se nyt tuli. Mikäpäs siinä, metsäherra
ne asiat parhaiten ymmärtää. Kyllä talo lähtee, ei siitä puhettakaan,
mutta saattaa se joskus lujalle panna…
Se on mukava mies, tämä nykyinen vallesmanni, eikä sellainen

kuin se poikanen, joka tässä takavuosina edusti kruunun komentoa,
mukava mies ja laatutuumainen mies ja köyhää kansaa kohtaan
ymmärtäväinen ja höyli.
Hilu on siis tehnyt tehtävänsä ja päivä alkaa kallistua illaksi.

Saattaisi mennä kotonakin käymään, mutta ennättääpä sitten
lauantaina. Voisi Iina aluksi säikähtää, että mitä se nyt, keskellä
viikkoa… Hetken seisoo Hilu epätietoisena tien käänteessä, mutta
kulkee sitten päättäväisesti takaisin metsään. Eikä se johdu mistään
ahneuden hengestä, vaan siitä, että päivät on käytettävä tarkkaan.
Aamusta pitää taas aloittaa.
IV
Syksy tulee näille main aikaisin. Elokuun alkupuolella saattaa jo

veden mukana heittäytyä lumensekaista, jonakin aamuhetkenä voi
tunturinlaki olla valkeana kuin käärinliina. Maa on kosteana sateesta,
kuusikot uhoovat kosteutta, jängät vettyvät ja murheellisina töröttävät
harvat ohrakuhilaat laihoilla, pienillä pelloilla. Syksyinen
alakuloisuuden leima kantautuu huoneisiinkin. Lattiat kantautuvat
täyteen kosteata likaa, ihmiset pysyvät nurkissaan umpimielisinä ja
tympeinä.
Ikävänä, sateisena syyspäivänä saapuu insinööri Trampenfelt

Keinuvaaran kupeelle parin uskotun miehen kera, astuu tupaan ja
tekee hyvän päivän. Sitten hän viskaa lakin penkille, pyyhkii
erinomaisen huolellisesti silmälasinsa ja ilmoittaa, että
katselmuskokous aloitetaan nyt pian. Kai ovat kuulleet kirkossa
luetun kuulutuksen.
Onhan se kuultu.
Iina kantaa insinöörille ja uskotuille miehille kahvia ja insinööri

juttelee hauskasti ja mukavasti kaiken maailman asiat. Taitaa tuntua
hauskalta päästä joskus itse emännöimään.
— Mahtaako tuo niin varmaa olla, että pääsee, vastaa Iina.
— En minä ainakaan huomaa mitään estettä, sanoo insinööri.
Insinööriä käsketään kamariin, mutta hän sanoo, että kyllähän sitä

tässäkin. Kumma, ettei muita ihmisiä saavu, vai jokohan on sallittu
katselmuksen mennä vastaanpanijoitta.
— Iso poikakinhan teillä on, huomauttaa insinööri katellen Kallea.

—
Pian pystyy töihin sekin.
Insinöörin sanat herättävät sekunnin piinallisen ällistyksen. Iina

kääntyy takkaan päin salatakseen ilmettään.
— Isohan se on, vastaa viimein Hilu. - Sen nimi on muuten Kalle.

Ja pian kai siitä on apuakin.
— Eikä uutta väkeä ole tiedossa. Hilu käy sylkäisemässä takkaan.
— Eipähän ole tällä tiedolla.
Puolen tunnin kuluttua saapuu metsänhoitaja, kättelee insinööriä

ja talonväkeä ja istuutuu sitten sanaa puhumatta ikkunan ääreen.
Synkät, totiset silmät viipyvät kauan aikaa yhdessä paikassa ja kun
hän on juonut kahvinsa, nyökähdyttää hän vain lyhyesti päätään.
Viimein insinööri katsoo kelloaan, sanoo jotakin ruotsinkielellä
metsäherralle ja metsäherra vastaa puoliääneen samalla kielellä.
— Me kai voimmekin sitten aloittaa toimituksen, sanoo insinööri

viimein.

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Life Span Human Development

Life Span Human Development 4th Edition Carol K.

Essentials of Human Development A Life Span View 2nd

Life-Span Development, 19th Edition John W. Santrock

The Life Span: Human Development for Helping

Life: The Essentials of Human Development Gabriela

Life The Essentials of Human Development 2nd Edition

Life The Essentials of Human Development 1st Edition

Health Promotion Throughout the Life Span 10th Edition

Sigelman – De George – Cunial – Rider

Printed in China by China Translation & Printing Services.

Understanding life span Theories of human

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5

Genes, environment and Body, brain and Cognitive development 219

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8

Sensory-perception, Intelligence and Language, literacy and

CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11

Developmental The final challenge:

Guide to the text xii

1 UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1

1.1 How should we think about 1.3 How is development studied? 21

2 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 48

2.1 Developmental theories 2.4 Humanistic theories 68

Freud: Psychoanalytic theory 55 Vygotsky: Sociocultural theory 74

Erikson: Psychosocial theory 58 Information-processing approach 74

Psychoanalytic theories: Contributions Theories of adult cognitive

3 GENES, ENVIRONMENT AND THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE 97

3.1 Individual heredity 98 3.4 The prenatal environment

4 BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH 156

4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 176

5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 219

5.1 Piaget’s cognitive 5.2 Vygotsky’s sociocultural

5.3 Fischer’s dynamic skill 5.6 The adolescent 249

6 SENSORY-PERCEPTION, ATTENTION AND MEMORY 267

6.1 The information-processing Advances in attention 287

7 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 326

7.1 Defining and measuring 7.4 The child 351

The Flynn effect 339 IQ, wealth and health 359

Genes and intelligence 340 Potential for wisdom 362

Environment and intelligence 341 Creative endeavours 363

Developmental quotients 346 Giftedness 367

Infant intelligence as a predictor 7.8 Integrating cognitive

8 LANGUAGE, LITERACY AND LEARNING 381

8.1 The language system 382 8.4 The adolescent 411

9 SELF, PERSONALITY, GENDER AND SEXUALITY 429

9.1 Conceptualising the self 9.4 The adolescent 457

10 SOCIAL COGNITION AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 491

10.1 Social cognition 492 The functions of morality:

Changes in moral reasoning 518 10.6 The adult 530

11 EMOTIONS, ATTACHMENT AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 548

11.1 Emotional development 549 11.5 The adolescent 580

First peer relations 572 How do we stop the violence? 599

11.4 The child 573

12 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 615

12.1 What makes development 12.4 The adolescent 640

13 THE FINAL CHALLENGE: DEATH AND DYING 676

The adolescent brain

BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

> >4.1 BUILDING BLOCKS OF GROWTH

when I cameAND LIFELONG HEALTH

4.2 THE INFANT

Application SUCCESSFUL AGEING