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Liberation in Higher Education introduces and expands on the notion of Endarkened 113
Feminist Epistemology (EFE) based on a qualitative case study of Cynthia B. Dillard
Liberation
and her students as well as the white researcher and author, Sarah Militz-Frielink,
Liberation in Higher Education

as she became transformed through her research in higher education. Dillard,
who created EFE as a teaching and research paradigm in 2000, grounded it in
in Higher
several frameworks: Black feminist thought, standpoint theory, the tenets of African
American spirituality, and the work of Parker J. Palmer on non-religious spirituality
in education. The book delves into EFE’s origins and students’ meaning-making
experiences with EFE—including related themes such as healing, identity devel-
opment, cultural histories, spirituality, and the evolution of the phenomenon over Education
time. This book also includes a chapter in which Militz-Frielink applies EFE as a
methodology to herself, which is one of the recommended practices of EFE as
a research tool. Liberation in Higher Education concludes with implications and
recommendations for practitioners, particularly white practitioners in higher educa-
tion who work with African American students in predominantly white institutions.
Sarah Militz-Frielink earned her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois at
A White
Chicago and currently teaches at Northern Illinois University. Her co-authored book
Borders, Bras, and Battles earned an honorable mention for the 2016 Society of
Professors of Education Outstanding Book Award. In addition to several journal
articles, she published a National Learning Series titled African Americans in Times Militz-Frielink
Researcher’s
of War: Triumphs in Tragedy.
Journey Through
www.peterlang.com
the Shadows
Cover images: ©iStock.com/smartboy10
PETER LANG
Sarah Militz-Frielink
Liberation in Higher Education introduces and expands on the notion of Endarkened 113
Feminist Epistemology (EFE) based on a qualitative case study of Cynthia B. Dillard
Liberation
and her students as well as the white researcher and author, Sarah Militz-Frielink,
Liberation in Higher Education

as she became transformed through her research in higher education. Dillard,
who created EFE as a teaching and research paradigm in 2000, grounded it in
in Higher
several frameworks: Black feminist thought, standpoint theory, the tenets of African
American spirituality, and the work of Parker J. Palmer on non-religious spirituality
in education. The book delves into EFE’s origins and students’ meaning-making
experiences with EFE—including related themes such as healing, identity devel-
opment, cultural histories, spirituality, and the evolution of the phenomenon over Education
time. This book also includes a chapter in which Militz-Frielink applies EFE as a
methodology to herself, which is one of the recommended practices of EFE as
a research tool. Liberation in Higher Education concludes with implications and
recommendations for practitioners, particularly white practitioners in higher educa-
tion who work with African American students in predominantly white institutions.
Sarah Militz-Frielink earned her Ph.D. from the University of Illinois at
A White
Chicago and currently teaches at Northern Illinois University. Her co-authored book
Borders, Bras, and Battles earned an honorable mention for the 2016 Society of
Professors of Education Outstanding Book Award. In addition to several journal
articles, she published a National Learning Series titled African Americans in Times Militz-Frielink
Researcher’s
of War: Triumphs in Tragedy.
Journey Through
www.peterlang.com
the Shadows
Cover images: ©iStock.com/smartboy10
PETER LANG
Liberation in
Higher Education
Rochelle Brock and Cynthia Dillard
Executive Editors
Vol. 113
The Black Studies and Critical Thinking series

is part of the Peter Lang Education list.
Every volume is peer reviewed and meets
the highest quality standards for content and production.
PETER LANG
New York  Bern  Berlin
Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw
Liberation in
Higher Education
A White Researcher’s Journey

Through the Shadows
PETER LANG
New York  Bern  Berlin
Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Militz-Frielink, Sarah, author.
Title: Liberation in higher education: a white researcher’s journey
through the shadows / Sarah Militz-Frielink.
Description: New York: Peter Lang, 2019.
Series: Black studies and critical thinking, vol. 113 | ISSN 1947-5985
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019011134 | ISBN 978-1-4331-5860-5 (hardback: alk. paper)
ISBN 978-1-4331-5861-2 (ebook pdf) | ISBN 978-1-4331-5862-9 (epub)
ISBN 978-1-4331-5863-6 (mobi)
Subjects: LCSH: Feminism and higher education.
Education, Higher—Research—Methodology.
African American women—Education (Higher)
Discrimination in higher education—United States.
Blacks—Race identity. | Dillard, Cynthia B., 1957–
Classification: LCC LC197.M54 2019 | DDC 378.0082—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019011134
DOI 10.3726/b14308
Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek.

Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the “Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie”; detailed bibliographic data are available
on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/.
© 2019 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York

29 Broadway, 18th floor, New York, NY 10006
www.peterlang.com
All rights reserved.

Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm,
xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited.
This book is dedicated to Dr. William H. Watkins (October 19,
1946-August 5, 2014), who inspired his students through his life as
an activist/scholar concerned about social change. His publications,
activist work, and lectures gave me hope that I, too, could someday
live more courageously and write more dangerously.
Contents
Acknowledgments xi
Abbreviations xiii
Introduction1
Scholarly Inspiration 5
Motivation and Social Location of the Researcher 6
Cynthia B. Dillard and Endarkened Feminist Epistemology 8
Guiding Questions 9
Preview of Findings 11
1. Endarkening Spirituality in Education: Theoretical

Conceptualizations and African American Discourse 15
Non-Religious Spirituality in Education: Addressing
the Curriulum 16
The Wisdom of Black Feminist Writers on Spirituality
in Education 18
African American Discourse and Curriculum on
Spirituality in Education 19
viii liberation in higher education
A. Wade Boykin 20
bell hooks 21
Brenda Atlas 22
Endarkened Feminist Epistemology 22
Contemporary Example of EFE in the Classroom?
Tucson Unified School District 26
Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: Limitations 27
2. Cynthia B. Dillard, Endarkened Feminist

Epistemology, and Research Design 33
Guiding Questions for This Study 35
A Note on the Methods and Data Analysis 35
Selection of Participants 36
Cynthia B. Dillard 37
Individual Student Analysis 40
Student Data Analysis: Indexing Across the Narratives 40
Student Dialogue Questions 42
Meaning-Making Themes Used to Index Across
the Narratives for the Students 42
Students’ Collective Group Analysis 46
Life Notes 47
Threats to Validity 48
Limitations 48
Ethical Considerations 49
3. Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: From

Theory to Practice 53
Organization of the Chapter 56
Dillard’s Brief Biography and Background 56
Qualitative Interviews with Dillard 57
Origins of EFE 58
Development of EFE 59
Writing Dangerously in the Academy 60
Practice 62
Teaching 64
Dillard as Pedagogue: Participant Observations 66
contents ix
November 20: Learning by Watching and Listening 67

December 7: Getting Ready for Ghana, Learning about
American Privilege 69
Dillard’s Station Teaching: Kente, Beads, Storytelling 71
EFE in the Classroom 73
Dillard: Summation of Case Study 74
4. Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: Voices from Ghana 79

Researcher #1 80
Connecting Research to Past Histories 80
Personal Identities Connected to Community 82
Research as a Pursuit Both Intellectual and
Spiritual/Purposeful 84
Healing 85
Researcher #1 and Endarkened Feminist Epistemology 86
Researcher #2 87
Personal Identities Connected to Community 88
Research as a Pursuit both Intellectual and
Healing93
Researcher #3 96
Personal Identities as Connected to Community 97
Experiential Knowledge 99
Healing 100
Summary of Individual Student Analysis 101
Researcher #1 101
Researcher #2 102
Researcher #3 103
Students’ Collective Group Analysis 103
x liberation in higher education

Personal Identities as Connected to the Community 104
Spiritual/Purposeful105
Healing105
Contradictions, Paradoxes and Possibilities:
Contradictions in the Researcher: EFE 109
Contradictions in Dillard: Researcher #2 Story 111
5. The Power of Cultural Memory Work Across

Others and Ourselves 115
Life Notes of a White Researcher 118
Lessons Learned in Middle School 120
Lessons Learned from Corporate-Run Schools 126
What I Wish We White People Could Learn 130
6. EFE: Implications and Recommendations

for Higher Education 139
Guiding Question #1 140
Implications 140
Recommendations for Higher Education 141
Implications142
Implications145
Conclusion and Recommendations for White Practitioners 145
Acknowledgments
My thanks and gratitude go to my family, especially my parents, my

brother, and my children Gabriel, Grace, and Hannah, for their love and
patience during the hours I spent traveling and writing to finish this
research. I would like to thank my dissertation committee—Dr. Danny
B. Martin, Dr. Alfred W. Tatum, Dr. David Stovall, Dr. Karsonya Wise
Whitehead, and Dr. Conra Gist—for their unconditional support and
scholarly advice. Words cannot express how grateful I am to have the priv-
ilege of learning from such great minds who came together for the sake
of this project. I would especially like to express gratitude to the chair
of this committee, Dr. Danny B. Martin for having the fortitude and
patience to work with me under difficult circumstances (i.e., when
my previous advisor—UIC’s beloved William H. Watkins—passed
away unexpectedly in 2014). We were all grieving and Dr. Martin cou-
rageously took on a tremendous amount of responsibilities at UIC.
Despite the heavy workload, Dr. Martin continuously put his students
first and gave meaningful feedback on our theses and dissertations in a
timely matter, which inspired us to continue our inquiries with a sense
of purpose. For that I am eternally grateful—to have known a professor
xii liberation in higher education
and chair of a department who invested so much time and energy in

his graduate students. It is rare to meet a professor like that in the acad-
emy today as so many are tied up in politics or their own inquiries. It
is more rare to have one as chair of one’s dissertation committee; I am
beyond blessed. Special thanks to my precious mentor Dr. La Vonne I.
Neal, who introduced me to Dillard and helped me to stay on the path
for love and justice.
Abbreviations
AERA American Educational Research Association

ASALH Association for the Study of African American Life and
History
EFE Endarkened Feminist Epistemology
NCC National Curriculum Council
UGA University of Georgia, Athens
Introduction1
The art of teaching embodies a spiritual essence that is frequently sup-

pressed, erased, or replaced by an increasingly mechanistic model of
teaching (Counts, 1932/1969; Dewey, 1929/1999; Gardner, 2000; hooks,
2003; Mayes, 2005). The word spiritual comes from the Latin word spir-
itus, meaning “breath,” and the Greek word penuma, meaning “air” or
“wind.” The etymological roots reflect the “breath of life” concept of
the soul. At the most fundamental level, this concept distinguishes the
animate from the inanimate, and the transcendent from the immanent.
When disentangled from its longstanding religious connotations, the
concept of spirituality can be framed in relation to teaching as a precon-
dition for educating the whole person (Dewey, 1929, p. 9).
The idea of spirituality—especially the non-religious kind—in schools
is not a new concept to the sphere of education (Dewey, 1929/1999; Hill,
1989; hooks, 1994; Lewis, 2000; Mayes, 2005; Palmer, 1983; Tisdell, 2006;
White, 1996). For example, in 1993 the National Curriculum Council
(NCC) published a document on spiritual and moral development which
emphasizes the applicability of the word “spiritual” to all pupils within
the domain of public education in the United Kingdom. The thrust of this
document is to legitimize the non-religious spiritual aims of education:
2 liberation in higher education
The term “spiritual” applies to all pupils. The potential for spiritual develop-
ment is open to everyone and is not confined to the development of religious
beliefs or conversion to a particular faith. To limit spiritual development in
this way would be to exclude from its scope the majority of pupils in our
schools who do not come from overtly religious backgrounds. The terms
needs to be seen as applying to something fundamental in the human con-
dition … it has to do with the universal search for human identity … with
the search for meaning and purpose in life and for values by which to live
by. (White, 1996, p. 34)
Despite the NCC’s support for the implementation of non-religious

spirituality in schools, the word spiritual still faces much opposition in
the United States. Much of this opposition derives from a concern with
not wanting to abridge the establishment clause of the First Amend-
ment. In addition, the typical U.S. classroom in the era of neoliberalism
is increasingly dominated by techno-globalism, standardized test-
ing, corporate agendas, and school reforms designed to eliminate the
humanities from the curriculum (Asher, 2010; Nussbaum, 2010; Wat-
kins, 2011), all of which tend to push aside non-religious spiritual prac-
tices as well as social justice-based curriculum in schools.
Given this restrictive context, there is a need to critically exam-
ine the use of non-religious spiritual practices and the relationship to
social justice pedagogy within the educational realm. The majority of
research studies on this topic have focused on non-religious spiritu-
ality in P-12 settings (Kessler, 1998/1999; Mata, 2011; Militz-Frielink,
2009; Weaver II & Cotrell, 1992). At this time, there is a paucity of lit-
erature available on non-religious spirituality in the higher education
setting. To be specific, there is only one salient study which examined
the relationship between social justice pedagogy and non-religious
spirituality in the higher education classroom (Shahjahan, 2009). This
study was conducted by spiritually-minded activist and scholar Riyad
Ahmed Shahjahan (2009), who conducted a case study on the teaching
of Hoi—a female East Asian scholar—during his quest to find a con-
nection between social justice pedagogy and spirituality. Hoi conveys
her spiritual epistemology as a vehicle which guides her “students
through an intellectual exercise to an embodied learning experience”
(Shahjahan, 2009, p. 128).
introduction 3
According to Hoi, “definitions, discussions, around stereotypes

and critical scholarship in general privilege are only one way of know-
ing with the conceptual mind … Actual experience leaves a stronger
impression as it becomes really experimental with the body” (Shah-
jahan, 2009, p. 128). Hoi uses her spiritual epistemology to remedy
conflicts that arise both inside and outside the classroom as students
relate to others in terms of us/them binaries (Shahjahan, 2009, p. 128).
Moreover, Hoi has contributed insights into the practice of spiritual
pedagogy in the higher education classroom.
A meditative tasting exercise with raisins serves as an embod-
ied experience which helps Hoi’s students digest critical theory and
theorize the self in relation to the other (Shahjahan, 2009. P. 128). Hoi
instructs students to hold a raisin, be fully present, and observe the
sensation in their hands. Then she instructs the students to place the
raisin in their mouth and slowly experience it. She cues her students
to notice the sensations that arise as the raisin slowly dissolves. Then
they repeat the same activity with a second raisin. Hoi asks students to
examine their assumptions about the different raisins as a metaphor for
how they understand the self/other relationship. She tries to convey
the following lesson:
When you are fully present with another person or another being, not only with
your mind, but with your whole being … the spirit, the body, and everything.
Your assumptions about that person will fall away. (Shajahan, 2009, p. 128)
While Hoi’s insights are extremely useful and contribute greatly

to the discussion about non-religious spiritual pedagogy, this book
represents a qualitative case study on Cynthia B. Dillard, an endowed
professor and chair at the University of Georgia, Athens (UGA), who
created Endarkened Feminist Epistemology (EFE)—the teaching/research
framework at the center of my inquiry. I specifically chose Dillard’s
(2006b) work because EFE, the paradigm she authored, is anchored in
a strong spiritual foundation. As Dillard (2006b) wrote, “spirituality
is intimately woven into the ethos of an endarkened feminist episte-
mology” (p. 17). When Dillard (2006b) theoretically constructed this
paradigm, she drew upon the strengths of several feminist and spir-
itual frameworks: Black feminist thought (Collins, 1990); feminist
psychology and standpoint theory (Harding, 1987); the tenets of Afri-

can American spirituality; and Parker J. Palmer’s (1983) work on spiri-
tuality in education. Dillard purports that EFE can not only be used to
conduct research and teach, but to also work toward the formation of
new paradigms without compromising one’s spiritual, cultural, or his-
torical roots. Dillard’s (2006b) endarkened feminist epistemology (EFE)
can also be described as a radical humanist project, which emphasizes
emancipatory learning, research, and teaching taking into account the
“cultural standpoint and intersections of culturally constructed social-
izations of race, gender, and other identities” (p. 3).
In contrast to white feminists who use the term “enlightened” to
express new and important insights, Dillard uses “endarkened” femi-
nist epistemology to:
articulate how reality is known when based in the historical roots of Black fem-
inist thought, embodying a distinguishable difference in cultural standpoint,
located in the intersection/overlap of the culturally constructed socialization
of race, gender, and other identities and the historical and contemporary con-
texts of oppressions and resistance for African American women. (Dillard,
2006b, p. 3)
Dillard’s (2006b) EFE draws upon spiritual principles, emancipa-

tory dialogue, meaning-making in everyday experiences, unique view-
points, and the transformation of social arrangements in educational
research. Dillard’s work has a particular paradigmatic appeal to me
because of the multidimensional theories she incorporates and her
emphasis on spiritual healing in research and the classroom.
Thus, I conducted a phenomenological case study of Dillard’s grad-
uate Study Abroad seminar at University of Georgia with two layers of
analysis. The “phenomenon of interest” I attempted to better under-
stand is how Dillard actualized her endarkened feminist epistemology
as well as how her students experienced and made meaning of her
efforts. Using participant observations of Dillard’s classroom, qualita-
tive interviews with Dillard, and qualitative dialogues with three of
Dillard’s graduate students after they returned from Ghana, I ascer-
tained nuances, perspectives, and details about how Dillard’s students
experienced endarkened feminist epistemology (EFE) in their research,
introduction 5
experiences abroad, and in practice. I explored the origins of EFE with

Dillard in qualitative interviews and learned more about the develop-
ment of the teaching/research paradigm over time. One of the research
aims of this book is to contribute the first qualitative case study on
endarkened feminist epistemology to the fields of Contemplative
Studies, Curriculum Studies, and African American Studies.
Scholarly Inspiration
My inspiration for drawing upon multiple disciplines to frame this
study (Contemplative Studies, Curriculum Studies, African American
Studies) is based on the work of Jafari Allen (2011). Although Allen
(2011) described his experiences in Cuba as both a researcher and sub-
ject, his study explored “the interpellations and ideologies: the historical,
sociopolitical, and ideological terrain of transition (post) socialist Cuba
… the related scenes of Cuba’s globalization and individual and group
responses to it” (Allen, 2011, p. 14). As a Black man in Cuba, he was con-
sistently mistaken as a Cuban and subjected to heavy police surveillance.
I was stopped and commanded: “Dame carnet!” (Give me your m!). Curious
about the treatment of the “profiled” during these encounters, I answered
police hails of head gestures, hand motions, and “psssst” in various ways.
Sometimes I waited to see if I would be pursued. My performances of WWB
(“walking while black”) were motivated by my youthful zeal to participate
while observing, certainly, but also by my desire to play a different racial
game than at home in the United States. (pp. 22–23)
Allen’s (2011) participation in his own study helped him understand

the ways he was being viewed on the streets, which led him to “new
ways of seeing and being seen” (p. 22). Because he participated as a
respondent in his own study, he was able to more keenly understand
the complexities and nuances of different subjectivities and perfor-
mances and how they were perceived in (post) socialist Cuba.
Allen’s writing style is very visceral and rich in imagery. He was
able to interweave his interactions with the respondents of his study in
ways that brought out the complex interplay of gender, race, class, and
sexuality in Cuba. The style of this book has also been inspired by the
anthology Black Feminism in Education: Black Women Speak Back, Up, and
Out (Evans-Winters & Love, 2015), which highlights authors who take
a similar approach as Allen.
It is my hope that this book Liberation in Higher Education: A white
researcher’s journey through the shadows will not only open up new ways
of conceptualizing EFE, but also contribute to new ways of interpreting
spirituality in education with a more nuanced understanding of this
complicated symbolic terrain.
Motivation and Social Location of the Researcher

In addition to my scholarly interests, I am personally motivated to
explore non-religious spirituality in the higher education classroom
because I am a practitioner of non-religious spiritual pedagogy. I
employ non-religious spirituality in the college classes I teach on diver-
sity, multiculturalism, and social foundations of education. Although
my spiritual pedagogy is rooted in a radical social justice framework
that challenges Eurocentric hegemony, and presents alternative plural-
istic perspectives situated in critical agency (Glaude, 2007), it lacks an
anchor in a specific non-religious spiritual framework. My motivation
to complete this book is heavily influenced by my sociocultural back-
ground and spiritual search for social justice.
This spiritual search began during my middle school years. As a
poor white person growing up in government housing, I paradoxi-
cally attended privileged public schools in an affluent Chicago suburb
where social status was determined by what types of clothes I wore,
what my dad did for a living, and what kind of car we drove. Thus,
I became acutely aware of the socially constructed stigma associated
with living below the poverty line in America. I was bullied because I
wore the wrong clothes, shamed because my dad was a custodian, and
told the apartment we lived in was junky—very few children wanted
to play with me. In high school, I learned how to hide my class back-
ground as I struggled with the socially constructed shame attached to
my place of residence. I could travel out of town and no one would
know my socio-economic status. Conversely, my friends of color dealt
introduction 7
with discrimination wherever we would go because of their race. I

became indignant at this injustice, and slowly came to grips with my
white privilege. Thus, I was inspired to educate for racial justice—so I
majored in education in college.
During my undergraduate studies at Northern Illinois University,
I took my first foundations class where I fell in love with Freire, bell
hooks, W. E. B. Du Bois, Derrick Bell, Henry David Thoreau, Ralph
Waldo Emerson, and Henry Giroux. They gave me the language I had
been seeking to articulate my class struggle and the struggles of his-
torically marginalized groups. My interest in these scholars eventually
led me to study social foundations of education at the master’s level,
and then curriculum studies at the doctoral level. Of every one of these
authors, however, I connected most with bell hooks. Her work on fem-
inism, spirituality, and education quenched my thirst for an alterna-
tive way of educating students—framed in what I believed to be an
accessible, authentic feminist epistemology. Soon after I found hooks,
I started studying other African American feminist thinkers, such as
Audre Lorde, Cynthia B. Dillard, and Patricia Hill Collins.
When I began studying Cynthia B. Dillard’s work more closely and
conducted a literature review on non-religious spirituality in educa-
tion, I believed that Dillard’s framework—endarkened feminist epis-
temology—may possibly be far more developed than the alternative
conceptions, definitions, and frameworks of non-religious spiritual-
ity in education showcased in the literature. Unlike other conceptions
of non-religious spirituality which could be conceived as vague and
underdeveloped, Dillard draws upon multiple theories and scholars,
which I mentioned earlier in the introduction—standpoint theory,
Black feminist theory, African American spirituality, and the work of
Parker J. Palmer—to ground her epistemology (Dillard, 2006b).
Dillard has also used her framework to teach dissertation seminars
and undergraduate classes in higher education. I believe that my teaching
and the teaching of other non-religious spiritual pedagogues tend to lack
a sound theory like Dillard’s to inform our practice. Therefore, I believe
it would be extremely beneficial to the field of education (particularly for
other practitioners of non-religious spiritual pedagogy) to study a well-de-
veloped framework like Dillard’s, the origins of this framework, and how
her students make meaning of it in their research and experiences with

Dillard both in her classroom and abroad in Ghana.
Cynthia B. Dillard and Endarkened

Feminist Epistemology
Dillard frames spirituality in education as emancipatory and has imple-
mented her spiritual definitions and practices in her higher education
classrooms. Dillard has piloted classes where she challenges the status
quo in higher education and employs her well-developed framework.
Dillard, Abdur-Rashid, & Tyson (2000a) have also written exten-
sively about having spiritual principles in the academy. They elaborate
on the power of these spiritual principles with great clarity:
Spirituality in education is education with purpose; education that is libera-

tory work, education that is emancipation … Spirituality in education is edu-
cation that connects, education that is about building relationships between and
across teachers and students, males and females, Others and Ourselves. (p. 447)
In her piloting of a new dissertation seminar, where she challenges the

status quo in higher education, Dillard (2012) writes:
The course was designed to be a space where an endarkened and transna-

tional feminist epistemology and pedagogy would be created, engaged, and
experienced. It was about enacting a radical humanism as intervention in
higher education, about a central agenda being that of becoming more fully
human in all our variations as African ascendant women. (p. 60)
In her seminar, she has created a safe space for students to express them-
selves and explore their African ascendant roots. She states: “Women of
African ascent share experiences with some form of oppression char-
acterized and related by our class, race, or gender, by our existence as
women. And often, it is some version of our belief in spirit that has
allowed us to stand in the face of hostility and degradation, however
severe” (2012, p. 60).
To illustrate, in Dillard’s graduate class, she incorporates a novel
titled KMT: in the house of life—an epistemic novel by Ayi Kwei Armah,
introduction 9
to help connect the frameworks and highlight the power of certain

spiritual themes. In the novel, one of the protagonists, Biko, tragically
dies during his zealful quest to seek knowledge at an African colonial
school. His childhood best friend, Lindela, cannot shake Biko’s image
from her mind as she wrestles with the idea of taking risks in academia.
She remembers Biko as “an unwary seeker after knowledge, eager to
reveal what he was discovering on his own. He had run into a wall
of prejudice dressed up as expert knowledge, armed with the lethal
power to destroy any seeker straying off the brightly lit highways of
established falsehood” (Armah, 2002, p. 62). Lindela, the main char-
acter, continues to expound on that theme during her undergraduate
study: “Occasionally, I witnessed small skirmishes between a combat-
ive, but poorly prepared student and some professor wed to conven-
tion in the name of academic excellence. Sad affairs, they served as tacit
reminders of the fate awaiting minds wandering beyond the safe limits
of authorized paradigms” (Armah, 2002, p. 89; my emphasis).
Throughout the text, the reader can make inferences about how
endarkened feminist epistemology and social justice pedagogy can be
applied to the inner workings of the book’s complex narrative. Themes
of African American spirituality, Black feminism, de-colonizing the
curriculum, knowledge and power arise throughout the story, which
is one of the ways Dillard engages her students with her teaching and
epistemological paradigm.
Guiding Questions
A major goal I had for my research was to examine how Dillard’s students
made meaning and spiritual connections within an endarkened feminist
epistemological framework in their research, travel abroad, or personal
experiences. As a teacher, we work with living, breathing human beings
who are often in search of spiritual meaning beyond the intellectual,
emotional, and physical aspects of the classroom. For this reason, vari-
ous scholars have advocated for educative practices and methodologies
that incorporate what might be described as non-doctrinaire spiritual
qualities that do not violate the establishment clause (Dillard, 2000a;
2000b; hooks, 1994; Lewis, 2000; Palmer, 1983; Tisdell, 2006; Weaver II &
Cotrell, 1992; White, 1996). Standing of the shoulders of these scholars, I
wanted to investigate the extent to which certain spiritual components
of education can have value when practiced in a non-doctrinaire manner
within an endarkened feminist epistemological framework. In this light,
the guiding questions I selected for my study were the following:
1. What professional and personal experiences, events, or cir-

cumstances inspired Dr. Dillard to create EFE and how does
Dr. Dillard perceive her work evolving over time? How does
Dr. Dillard see EFE impacting research in the social sciences since
its inception in 2000?
2. How have Dr. Dillard’s graduate students made meaning of EFE
in their research and travel-abroad experiences in Dr. Dillard’s
class and in Ghana?
3. How do Dr. Dillard’s students make connections to social jus-
tice and non-religious spirituality through the use of EFE in their
work (e.g., research, teaching, etc.)?
To my knowledge, the guiding questions are significant given that

no case study has yet to be conducted on endarkened feminist episte-
mology or Cynthia B. Dillard and her students. The focus on Dillard’s
work is particularly insightful because endarkened feminist episte-
mology is an alternative research paradigm academics can use to con-
duct studies in the social sciences. Dillard’s work is relevant today and
needs more exploration, especially for academics who are interested in
de-colonizing their research and teaching methodologies or who are
interested in departing from the traditional four research paradigms:
positivism, post-positivism, constructivism, and critical theory.
This study has the potential to open up new ways of thinking about
the relationship between non-religious spirituality and healing in the
classroom; it could also offer new insights into the fields of multicul-
turalism and gender studies. Endarkened feminist epistemology, like
social justice education, recognizes the social power dynamics and
social inequalities that can result from various forms of oppression.
Both frameworks are rooted in a humanist ideology that aims to disrupt
bigotry, stand up against various forms of oppression, and further the
introduction 11
emancipatory aspects of education. To add another layer of context to

the emancipatory aspects of education and to connect its meaning back
to the section on spirituality in education, both frameworks would ben-
efit from a discussion on freedom and a more nuanced understanding
of oppression as outlined by the theologian James H. Cone (1970). When
Cone (1970) discusses the concepts of freedom, oppression, community,
and humanity, he makes membership to a community a prerequisite for
social justice:
Man is free when he belongs to a free community seeking to emancipate itself

from oppression. Freedom is then more than just making decisions in light of
one’s individual taste during moments of existence. It always involved mak-
ing decisions within the context of a community of people who share similar
goals and are seeking the same liberation. (p. 171)
This book is the first qualitative case study on the contemporary

phenomenon of endarkened feminist epistemology in practice. Thus,
this study aims to contribute to the literature on non-religious spiritu-
ality in higher education because it examines these important pedagog-
ical tools under a new lens—endarkened feminist epistemology.
Preview of Findings
In my study, I discovered that Dillard’s paradigm (EFE) was deeply con-
nected to three outcomes: a sense of community and belonging (i.e., the
African concept of Ubuntu); healing (whether that involved [re]mem-
bering trauma from the past or dealing with identity issues in the pres-
ent); and new ways of seeing oneself and others (i.e., the transformation
of the researcher). I believe through my observations and dialogues
that a heightened awareness of social and racial justice flow through all
three of these outcomes. Dillard’s qualitative interviews revealed that
(re)membering/learning about cultural memories can have a powerful
effect on both people of color and white people, and the origins of EFE
stem from that spiritual yearning/calling to put pieces back together
again. Dillard knew in the beginning of her career that she could pub-
lish and do amazing teaching and research, but without addressing the
underlying epistemologies and cosmologies, people will return to the
same unhealthy place they began with; for her the origins of her work
were about healing: “It was about seeking wholeness and getting well”
(C. B. Dillard, personal communication, December 7, 2015).
In addition, those who have taken Dillard’s study-abroad class
have said they are better able to define their cultural, educational, his-
torical, or spiritual experiences in relation to social justice concepts and
their impact on schools. My study revealed that students made mean-
ing of EFE in various ways. For example, it changed the direction of a
master’s degree student’s research project as well as the way she posi-
tions herself as a Black feminist researcher. EFE provided new ways of
“seeing and being” so researchers could identify themselves as cultural
and spiritual beings in the academy. EFE as a teaching tool helped two
doctoral students connect with their identity in the diaspora while they
were in Ghana, which was a healing experience for them. EFE revealed
the power of an individual’s energy and how it impacts students spir-
itually, emotionally, and mentally in a classroom, which has implica-
tions for practitioners who work with students of color in PWIs.
Applying EFE as a research tool to myself, I wrote several life notes
(presented in Chapter V) about my experiences with classism and rac-
ism in schools and society and how this research transformed me. My
findings include questions that I ask myself along with other white
readers about the energy we bring to our spaces—whether they are
classroom spaces or our own internal ones: Does our best energy have:
(a) the courage to engage cultural memories in the classroom as a heal-
ing tool to spiritually dissolve oppositional boundaries? (b) the humil-
ity to engage in daily self-reflection about the ways in which our racial
biases impact our teaching, so we can change our behavior? (c) the love
and patience to “see others” and, by truly seeing them, allow ourselves
to be transformed by their stories?
Note
1. Some of the material in this section is from Sarah Militz-Frielink, Toward a Lib-
eratory Pedagogy: A Genealogy of Black Feminist Spirituality, Washington D.C.,
Black History Bulletin, 77(2), 2014. Reprinted by permission of the Association for
the Study of African American Life and History. All rights reserved.
introduction 13
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Chapter One
Endarkening Spirituality
in Education
Theoretical Conceptualizations and African
American Discourse1
As I stated earlier, Dillard (2006b) has written extensively on the rela-

tionship between EFE and spirituality, stating that “spirituality is inti-
mately woven into the ethos of an endarkened feminist epistemology”
(p. 17). This is demonstrated in the theoretical underpinnings of EFE,
which include Black feminist thought (Collins, 1990); standpoint theory
(Harding, 1987); the tenets of African American spirituality; and the
work on spirituality in education by Parker J. Palmer (1983). I reviewed
the literature on transnational endarkened feminist epistemology (EFE),
scholarly critiques, and its relationship to social justice. In one of this
study’s guiding questions, I inquire about the potential relationship
between social justice and spirituality through the facilitation of EFE.
Throughout this chapter, the terms spiritual, non-religious spirituality,
and spirituality may be used interchangeably depending on the litera-
ture being quoted or discussed. Regardless of the section or context
in which these terms are being used, my intention as the researcher
(along with several of the scholars being referenced in this chapter) is
to omit any religious connotation(s) associated with the terms, as I am
appealing to and working with a secular audience in public education.
My intent is to uphold the establishment clause (i.e., the separation of

church and state) and to honor everyone’s belief or non-belief through
this research. As my writing consistently demonstrates, one can believe
in a material or non-material world and still engage in spiritual practices
in the classroom.
Non-Religious Spirituality in Education:

Addressing the Curriculum
While most scholars agree that the spiritual dimension exists, debates
over how to integrate spirituality into the curriculum have given rise
to a whole host of ambiguities and uncertainties. When considering the
spiritual aspects of intelligence and the importance of teaching to the
wide variety of intelligences present in human beings, one must wres-
tle with the place of spirituality in public institutions. If spiritual intelli-
gence does exist, which I tried to demonstrate in the last section, then it
should interest administrators and practitioners to consider how they
might approach the spiritual dimension in higher education today. In
order to avoid blurring the boundaries of the United States Constitu-
tion’s establishment clause, those in positions of power ought to con-
sider separating the spiritual from the religious and also acknowledge
the legitimacy of non-religious spirituality. How this detachment will
be conceptualized in a public school curriculum is obviously a point of
contention. The question remains: how can we implement a curricu-
lum that could be conceived of as “spiritual” in nature without it being
attached to the “religious”?
Colin Wringe (2002) explores the problems and possibilities of
implementing spirituality into the public school classroom in his
journal article entitled “Is There Spirituality? Can It be Part of Educa-
tion?” Wringe (2002) concludes that the implementation of the spiritual
dimension into education may not be a worthy educational endeavor
because it lacks definitive utilitarian aims—especially with regard to
future workers. He believes that the results of a spiritual curriculum—
religious or non-religious in nature—would have harsh consequences
for the future marketplace.
endarkening spirituality in education 17
It is not obvious that spiritual individuals make the most robust or productive
workers or that unworldliness or reflection on one’s inspirations or the point
and purpose of life is like to make people flexible and easy to motivate in the
interests of a thrusting organization’s changing objectives and policies in an
evolving market place of the twenty-first century. (p. 169)
Furthermore, Wringe (2002) asserts that human beings who have a

developed sense of spirituality may be highly disruptive. “Workmates,
family members or acquaintances whose spirituality in either its reli-
gious or non-religious connotations is strongly developed are uncom-
fortable people to have around and may be described as eccentric if the
condition is a mild one, otherwise troublesome or turbulent” (p. 169). He
also argues that “secular individuals who too readily think deeply about
the point and purpose of life are often unpopular” (Wringe, 2002, p. 169).
Weaver II and Cotrell (1992) base their experiential curriculum on
the belief that “spirituality refers to matters of ultimate concern that call
for releasing the passions of the soul to search for goals with personal
meaning” (p. 426). Using a spiritual teaching framework from the book
Passion for Life, Richard Weaver II and Howard W. Cotrell (1992) outline
seven urges of the human spirit that they believe should be nurtured in
the classroom: “the urge to live, to be free, to understand, to create, to
enjoy, to connect, and to transcend” (p. 427). They expound on specific
teaching techniques which “buttress, support, underscore, and enrich
the content, curriculum and objectives already in place.” For example, to
encourage emotional freedom, Weaver II and Cotrell ask students to
take out a half-sheet of notebook paper for the purpose of recording
personal reactions, examples, concerns, critiques, and questions that
the teachers can then use to provide meaningful feedback and address
concerns.
John White (1996), who writes about spirituality from the human-
ist perspective, argues that literature and poetry can make way for
non-religious spiritual development in the classroom (p. 106). Litera-
ture lessons provide students with opportunities to see the world from
a different perspective. While great works of literature and poetry may
help students wrestle with moral, spiritual, and existential questions
in life, the teacher must play a role in the facilitation of the process. In
order to create optimal opportunities for spiritual growth during les-

sons, John White (1996) suggests implementing a time of silence after a
powerful passage is read.
What do we do in that moment immediately after a poem has been read? Stu-
dent activity has been planned—group discussion, perhaps—but the teacher
does not want to rush into this before there has been time for the emotions
expressed in the poem, or the insights it offers, to make their full impact. The
students’ response will be deepened if the reading is prefaced with the same
kind of invitation: “Let’s all have a quiet minute when we finish it to see what
the poem says to each of us.” (p. 38)
Another advocate for spiritual curricula, Rachael Kessler, the late

Director of the Institute for Social and Emotional Learning in Boulder,
Colorado, developed a passages program, which “integrates heart,
spirit, and community with strong academics” (Sisk & Torrance, 2001,
p. 176). According to Sisk and Torrance (2001), the program “addresses
six interrelated yearnings, needs or hungers identified by Kessler: the
search for meaning and purpose, the longing for silence and solitude,
the urge for transcendence, the hunger for joy and delight, the creative
drive and the need for initiation” (p. 176). Kessler’s institute recog-
nizes the connection between spirituality and democracy. The institute
believes that if teachers educate for wholeness, citizenship, and leader-
ship in democracy, then spiritual development belongs in schools.
The Wisdom of Black Feminist Writers

on Spirituality in Education
The literature I have read thus far in the field of contemplative studies
(and at contemplative academic conferences), which advocate for spir-
ituality in schools, has been heavily dominated by white male scholars
and a few white female scholars. I am not discounting what these schol-
ars have to say, as their scholarship has contributed to this study. How-
ever, I want to revisit the idea of imperial scholarship (Delgado, 1992),
and I want to ask the white male scholars why they did not draw from
the African American discourse on spirituality in education. For me,
the wisdom and talents Black women writers like Dillard have cannot
be reproduced by white writers because Black women understand and
have experienced oppression in multidimensional ways. I believe Katie
Geneva Cannon summed it up best when she captured the wisdom
and special talents Black women writers have, which can uplift all mar-
ginalized groups. Cannon (1989) posits: “Black women writers know
how to lift the imagination they inform, how to touch the emotions as
they record, how to delineate specifics so that they are applicable to
oppressed humanity everywhere” (p. 291). Thus, in the spirit of Katie
Geneva Cannon, I attempt to recover the value of African American
writers who study spirituality in education in similar ways to Dillard.
I specifically chose writers whose spiritual insights and understand-
ings about education were similar to Dillard’s or whose perspectives
added a new dimension to the discussion on spirituality in education
and EFE.
This is not a literature review of African American perspectives on
spirituality in education. Nevertheless, I would like to mention African
American feminist authors who address spirituality in their writings
and who have greatly inspired me when teaching literature in the class-
room—most notably Alice Walker (1983/2004), Audre Lorde (2007),
and Margaret Walker (1942/2004)—for the reasons Cannon (1989) out-
lined above. I believe African American feminist writers reach students
at the deepest most existential level and help them become more fully
realized human beings.
African American Discourse and Curriculum

on Spirituality in Education
My journey to African American discourse on spirituality in education
began in 2008, when I conducted a philosophical/qualitative study on
meditation, yoga, and spiritual definitions in the K–8 classroom for my
master’s thesis. In my thesis, I argued that one can engage in a spiritual
activity such as yoga, drawing, or star gazing as a separate act inde-
pendent of one’s belief or non-belief in a religion. I also argued that one
can even be “spiritual” without belief in the immaterial world—which
means that even atheists and agnostics can engage in spiritual prac-
tice without violating their non-belief. Drawing from several schol-
ars (Counts, 1932/1969; Dewey, 1929/1999; hooks, 1994; Lewis, 2000;
Tolle, 1999; Sisk & Torrance, 2001), I defined spirituality in education
as follows:
spirituality can be a non-doctrinaire component of education, which can

address the emotional aspects of the child. Spirituality encompasses being in
the present moment, losing oneself in tasks and projects without attachment
to outcome. Students can experience spiritual aspects of education through
nature walks outdoors, periods of silence indoors, and through ungraded cre-
ative projects in the classroom. My assumption is that human beings possess a
spiritual dimension that can exist in harmony with the emotional, intellectual,
and mental capacities. I am referring to the word spiritual to mean “the holis-
tic development of mind, body, emotions, and sense of self” (David Lynch
Foundation, 2007). I also refer to the term “whole person” to demonstrate the
importance of addressing the multi-dimensional nature of human beings—
the intellectual, the emotional, the spiritual, the social, and the physical—in
the classroom. (Militz-Frielink, 2009, p. 6)
A. Wade Boykin
After the completion of my master’s thesis, I discovered the work of A.

Wade Boykin (1983), who has a more complete definition of spiritual-
ity in education anchored in the Western African tradition. Although
he is not a feminist writer, his work has laid the foundation for others
feminist thinkers to write about spiritual pedagogy. Boykin, who wrote
extensively on African American identity and achievement, was the
first Black scholar to argue for the inclusion of spirituality in education.
In his seminal chapter in the book Achievement and Achievement Motives
he defines nine dimensions of African American culture that he argues
should be included in educational settings: spirituality, harmony,
movement, verve, affect, communalism, expressive individualism,
orality, and social time perspective (Boykin, 1983, p. 340).
Boykin (1983) traces the lineage of these dimensions to the West
African belief system. He states: “The African (particularly West
African) belief system holds that the universe is essentially a vitalistic
life force; human beings are harmoniously conjoined with the cosmos;
there is an interconnection among all people that produces oneness, yet
everyone is unique” (Abraham, 1962; Akbar, 1978; Dixon, 1976; Mbiti,
1970; Nobles, 1976, 1980; Nyang, 1980, as cited in Boykin, 1983, p. 341).
Boykin (1983) argues that nine interrelated, yet distinct dimensions
which grew out of the belief system and orientation of traditional African
society manifest themselves in contemporary African American culture.
His arguments in the early 1980s paved the way for African American fem-
inist thinkers like bell hooks (1994) and Cynthia B. Dillard (2000a; 2000b;
2006a; 2006b; 2012) to write about spirituality in research and education.
bell hooks
Unlike Boykin (1983), however, bell hooks (2003) situates her spiritual
pedagogy in Eastern thought, drawing upon the teachings of the Dalai
Lama, Thich Nhat Hanh, and Trungpa Rinpoche (Vietnamese Zen mas-
ters). In response to her African American peers who ask, “Why would
you be interested in [spiritual teachings] in Tibet?” hooks links the free-
dom of Tibet with her freedom (p. 159).
She states: “… for me to understand as an African American woman,
that my being is connected to the being of all those toiling and suffering
Tibetan people, to know though I may never see or know them, we are
connected in our suffering” (p. 159). hooks shares that one way she
embodies spiritual teachings is to “bring [her] body out there with the
students: to see them, to be with them” (p. 157).
Her willingness to be completely present with her students is a
spiritual characteristic that all educators should embrace. The work
that educators and students do in a classroom is so fixated on the future
with upcoming standardized exams, assignments, and graduations
that it has become increasingly difficult to be in the present moment.
hooks’s work is very salient because she recognizes that spiritual prac-
tices nurture progressive teaching, promote progressive politics, and
enhance the struggle for liberation. She identifies the interconnect-
edness between all beings and goes beyond binary ways of thinking
about others. As an African American woman, she connects with the
suffering of the Tibetan people.
Brenda Atlas
Brenda Hooper-Atlas (2002), an African American retired public school

administrator, shares the same passion for merging spirituality with
pedagogy as hooks. She conducted a qualitative study interviewing six
principals in Milwaukee to ascertain their definitions and practices of
Afrocentric feminist spirituality. In her inquiry, Hooper-Atlas reveals
her personal definition of spirituality as “the essence of an individual’s
soul” (p. 10). She further elaborates that this essence is “who the per-
son truly is and therefore cannot totally be ignored or discarded based
on one’s environment” (p. 10). I agree with Hooper-Atlas’s postulation
about the spiritual nature of human beings. Indeed, it is the essence of
our souls and cannot be extricated from the domestic or institutional set-
tings in which we live and work. The results of Hooper-Atlas’s inquiry
revealed that the administrators she studied share a mutual conviction
that social justice and spirituality cannot be separated—although many
of the administrators she interviewed had a more religious conception
of spirituality—one that was private and used outside of the classroom.
Endarkened Feminist Epistemology

Endarkened feminist epistemology, the “phenomenon of interest” in
my case study, embodies a number of tenets and strengths (Dillard,
2000a, 2000b, 2006b, 2012). Cynthia B. Dillard employs “endarkened”
feminist epistemology as a contrast to the common use of “enlightened”
within the white feminist canon as a way of expressing new and crucial
feminist insights (Dillard, 2006b, p. 3). Using “endarkened” over the
term “enlightened” may be preferable, as the concept of enlightenment
has traditionally dominated the social sciences and can be problematic
to feminist epistemology (Hedge, 1998, p. 277). Dillard and other trans-
national scholars have scrutinized enlightenment’s legacy as counter-
productive to feminist epistemology because it makes the following
assumptions:
(a) the grand rationalistic view of science where truth about reality can be
“positively” established by uncovering causal explanations, (b) reality has an
objective structure that can be uncovered and understood, (c) the valorization
of objectivity in the research process and the separation of the researcher and
the researched, and (d) the view of the subject as a bounded, autonomous
individual. (Hedge, 1998, pp. 277 & 288)
Although these assumptions are deeply etched in traditional

research paradigms and are heavily embedded in academic research
and writing, they are counterproductive according to feminist thought.
Feminist theory asserts that knowledge can only be understood in
terms of the social conditions in which it has emerged, whereas tradi-
tional research theories and paradigms have been known to ignore the
social, cultural, and spiritual contexts from which knowledge is gener-
ated. Thus, Dillard (2006b) proposes an “endarkened” feminist episte-
mology as an alternative research paradigm which can be used to:
articulate how reality is known when based in the historical roots of Black
feminist thought, embodying a distinguishable difference in cultural stand-
point, located in the intersection/ overlap of the culturally constructed
socializations of race, gender, and other identities, and the historical and
contemporary contexts of oppressions and resistance for African American
women. (p. 3)
Using a humanist/modernist framework, Dillard (2006b) has con-

structed endarkened feminist epistemology as an alternative para-
digm to the “Big Four”: positivism, post-positivism, critical theory
et al., and constructivism (p. 2). She rejects the Big Four as absolutes
and the assumption that researchers need to align with one of them as
their “Big Daddy protector” (p. 2). I believe this is one of the primary
strengths of Dillard’s EFE framework because it provides alternative
ways of positioning oneself as a researcher in the academy—especially
for researchers who may not identify with traditional ways of thinking
and being.
Dillard is not alone in her rejection of traditional research paradigms.
Scheurich and Young, along with several other scholars in education,
have asserted that the “epistemologies we typically use in educational
research may be racially biased” (Banks, 1995; Gordon, Miller & Rollock
[1990], as cited in Scheurich & Young, 1997, p. 4). Racial biases cannot
be extricated simply because a researcher is “adamantly anti-racist in
thought and deed” (Scheurich & Young, p. 5). An anti-racist researcher

still could use a research epistemology that could be judged as racially
biased (Scheurich & Young, p. 5). Scheurich and Young (1997) further
elaborate on this claim and explain that epistemological racism means
that:
Our current range of research epistemologies—positivism to postmodern-

ism/poststructuralisms—arise out of the social history and culture of the
dominant race, that these epistemologies logically reflect and reinforce that
social history and that racial group (while excluding the epistemologies of
other races/cultures), and that has had negative results for people of color in
general and scholars of color in particular. (p. 8)
One of the intrinsic elements imbedded within endarkened feminist

epistemology is its connection to social justice. As one of the components
of this research study, I explore how links between non-religious spir-
ituality and social justice may be practiced within an EFE framework.
In order to do this, I must define social justice within the context
of EFE. During the 21st century, social justice pedagogy has evolved
to include respected quantitative studies, teacher resources for praxis,
and literature that contains more developed definitions and applica-
tions. For example, the operational definition of social justice pedagogy
from the book Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice (Adams, Bell, &
Griffin, 2007) is vetted by and includes the work of nearly 30 research-
ers in the fields of multicultural education, curriculum studies, special
education, sociology, and gender studies. In order to elaborate on the
complexities of social justice, the editors of Teaching for Diversity and
Social Justice first define social power:
Social power dynamics and social inequality … result in some social groups
having privilege, status, and access, whereas other groups are disadvantaged,
oppressed, and denied access. Social power can be defined as access to resources
that enhance one’s chances of getting what one needs or influencing others in
order to lead a safe, productive, fulfilling life. (Adams et al., 2007, p. 58)
In addition, Adams et al. (2007) have outlined a primary goal for edu-
cators committed to social justice in the classroom. They state:
The goal of social justice education is to enable people to develop the critical
analytical skills necessary to understand oppression and their own socializa-
tion within oppressive systems, and to develop a sense of agency and capacity
to interrupt and change oppressive patterns and behaviors in themselves and
in the institutions and communities of which they are a part. (Adams et al., p. 2)
This falls perfectly in line with Dillard’s goals of EFE, which empow-
ers people to reclaim their cultural and historical roots (agency) and
understand the intersection of culturally constructed notions of race,
gender, class, and sexuality.
Like other feminist thinkers, Dillard believes that ignoring the spirit
in the academy can lead to illness—both physical and psychological.
She asserts that “any and all feminist thought must fundamentally take
into account the special and particular ways of seeing that Black and
other marginalized female scholars bring to the knowledge production
process.”
Like all forms of epistemology, Dillard’s work is based on particular
assumptions about the individual and the world. Dillard’s endarkened
feminist epistemological framework is situated on five basic assump-
tions. She assumes that:
(a) One’s self-definition or identity relates to how one participates in and is

responsible to and for the community. (b) Research is both an intellectual and
a spiritual pursuit, a pursuit of purpose. (c) The individual’s identity becomes
more apparent in community and continues to develop in that context. (d)
Concrete experience within one’s everyday world becomes the primary crite-
rion of meaning, and ways of knowing and research are related both to past
history and to the emerging world. (Dillard, as cited in Tisdell, 2006, p. 20)
Essentially Dillard is articulating an epistemology that can guide

educational research and “takes into account cultural identity (assump-
tions a and c); spirituality (assumption b); historical and intellectual
views of knowledge past, present, and future (assumption e); and the
connection to concrete experience and the community” (Dillard, as
cited in Tisdell, 2006, p. 20). The coinage “endarkened feminist episte-
mology” functions as Stuart Hall states new concepts should, as “they
enable us to see old questions in new ways, ask new questions, find
new ways to organize knowledge and experiences and enable new
discursive and praxis interventions” (Hall, as cited in Wright, 2003,

p. 199)—one of Dillard’s major strengths as a scholar.
Another one of Dillard’s strengths is how she hones her epistemo
logy through reclaiming aspects of sociocultural identity in a project
of recuillement (the French word for introversion, which also connotes
contemplation and meditation) (Hurtado, 2010). These are also the
main tenets of the theory’s spiritual foundation—introversion, con-
templation, and meditation—which all work together to bring about
a more cohesive sense of self in the researcher. Despite the contradic-
tion between feminist frameworks that, on one hand, acknowledge
the fragmentation of social identity and, on the other, emphasize the
importance of creating coherent personal identity—Dillard provides a
way to reconcile these opposing ideas through the use of a dialectical
sensitivity. Aida Hurtado (2010) summed up this dialectical process
best when she said:
Professor Dillard’s call to arms to a coherent view of self is not to deny, ignore,
or elide the effects of fragmentation; it is a recognition that coherent personal
identity is necessary to embody agency at the same time as fragmentation
because stigmatized social identities can be used to build a multidimensional,
multilayered endarkened epistemology. (p. 221)
Contemporary Example of EFE in the Classroom?

Tucson Unified School District
The contested nature of social justice pedagogy rooted in any frame-
work has led to a myriad of hotly debated issues in the political arena.
I would argue that a contemporary curriculum that closely mir-
rored Dr. Cynthia B. Dillard’s endarkened feminist epistemological
approach was the Raza Studies program, which was a successful eth-
nic studies curriculum in Tucson, Arizona. Unfortunately, a couple of
conservative political campaigns and the replacement of Jan Brewer
as Governor of the state of Arizona led to the passing of some contro-
versial state legislation which dismantled the ethnic studies program
(Palos, 2011).
To be specific, during the past two decades, the Tucson Unified

School District (T.U.S.D) in Arizona has experienced extreme triumphs
and disappointments over the use of social justice pedagogy in dis-
trict-wide classrooms, which had spiritual components and similar the-
oretical orientations to Dr. Dillard’s EFE.
It all started in 1997 when the T.U.S.D. school district set up an explor-
atory committee to address the 53 percent high school dropout rate for
Latin@s. The committee work eventually led to the creation of a Raza/
ethnic studies program in 1998, which was rooted in a social justice
framework (Palos, 2011). Since 1998, the overall program results were
extremely promising: those taking Raza studies classes (which were open
to all T.U.S.D. students of all ethnicities) experienced a 93% graduation
rate and outperformed their peers on standardized tests (Palos, 2011).
Yet, despite the evidence of student success and the high matricu-
lation rate, the program was abolished in 2010 by Arizona state law-
makers who misperceived the Raza studies curriculum as seditious,
revolutionary, and anti-American. Since 2010, challenges to the abolish-
ment of Raza studies in Arizona continue in court, and former students
continue to seek out allies to reinstate the program. The emphasis of the
Raza program specifically on the condition of the souls of its student
enrollees defines its ultimate social justice orientation. This example
is illustrative of the tenuous relationship social justice pedagogy and
endarkened ways of knowing have had with educational policymak-
ers and the mainstream media. It serves as another justification why
this study and more studies that focus on endarkened epistemologies
should be completed in academia.
Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: Limitations

Some critics would argue that one of the major limitations in Dillard’s
framework is the fact that she theorizes from a humanist-modernist
framework. One may conclude from the critiques of endarkened fem-
inist epistemology that Dillard’s use of a modernist paradigm, which
favors cohesiveness, wholeness, and notions of spirituality, fails to
engage questions of substantive difference. One of her critics argues

that a postmodern paradigm should be considered in the reframing of
endarkened feminist epistemology as it takes into account an emphasis
on diversity, visions of subjectivity, and narratives of local specificity
(Wright, 2003).
Yet, Chicana feminist writer Aida Hurtado (2010) points out that
endarkened feminist epistemology calls on educational theorists to go
a step beyond what is often considered in discussions of epistemol-
ogy and research, and in the process Hurtado counters the postmodern
critics. Hurtado (2010) contends that it is time to move from “revising
what we consider ‘data’ to considering spirituality as an integral part
of the educational process, to conceptualizing identity as multidimen-
sional and multipositioned, to weaving in and out of modernist and
postmodernist frameworks” (p. 222). It is Hurtado’s analysis to Dil-
lard’s work outside traditional cartesian dualism (e.g., modernist or
postmodernist) that illuminates the power of the dialectical process.
There is no reason why scholars who use Dillard’s framework in their
teaching or research cannot engage in this process—drawing from the
strengths of both modernist and postmodernist thinking.
Another perceived limitation in this framework (which could
also be perceived as a strength) is the fact that Dillard uses a variety
of theories (Black feminism, feminist psychology, the work of San-
dra Harding and Parker J. Palmer, etc.) to anchor her epistemology.
To demonstrate the danger of this tendency, Richard Rorty critiques
the accepted research norm of employing epistemology and the use of
“overly defined” frameworks in academia. He states:
The desire for a theory of knowledge is a desire for constraint—a desire to
find “foundations” to which one might cling, frameworks beyond which one
must not stray, objects which impose themselves, representations which can-
not be gainsaid. (Rorty, as cited in Wright, 2003, p. 315)
Although Rorty makes a strong argument, I would counter that he fails

to take into account the potential of a feminist conception of episte-
mology—one which rejects an androcentric version and reformulates
an alternative based on women’s experiences. Consequently, because
feminist methodologies have always placed researchers on the same
plane as their research subjects, they naturally negate traditional epis-

temological assumptions. Nevertheless, the perceived and aforemen-
tioned limitations of endarkened feminist epistemology can indeed be
reframed and repositioned to emulate some of its strengths.
This is not to say that Dillard’s framework in itself is infallible—
weaknesses and limitations are embedded in any research theory. Yet,
I would argue that through the paradoxical nature of the dialectical
process—thesis, antithesis, and synthesis—we will eventually stumble
upon new and enhanced meaning and understanding. It is in this dia-
lectical spirit that frameworks like endarkened feminist epistemology
force us to think critically, negotiate new understandings, and question
existing assumptions. Hopefully, this discussion will illuminate how
limitations can work in tandem with strengths to “endarken” our sense
of knowing in the outside world.
Note
1. Some of the material in this chapter is from Sarah Militz-Frielink, Toward a Lib-
eratory Pedagogy: A Genealogy of Black Feminist Spirituality, Washington D. C.,
Black History Bulletin, 77(2), 2014. Reprinted by permission of the Association for
the Study of African American Life and History. All rights reserved.
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for transformative learning. Educational Researcher, 24(2), 15–25.
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Faustus, Dr (Marlowe), v. 202, 203, 206, 207, 247; vii. 36; x. 274.
Faux, Guy, iv. 249, 365; vii. 69, 129; x. 245; xi. 317; xii. 26, 37.
—— Moll, vi. 510, 511.
Fauxbourg St Germain, The, xi. 384.
Favourite Kitten (Miss Geddes’), xi. 245.
—— Lamb (Collins’s), xi. 191.
Fawcett, John, vi. 453; viii. 244, 251, 252, 262, 266, 291, 319, 386,
443; xi. 277, 304, 305, 370, 397, 402; xii. 140 n., 152 n.
—— Rev. Joseph, ii. 171 n.; iii. 337; iv. 210, 283 n.; vi. 224, 225, 304;
vii. 133.
—— Mrs, viii. 413, 426.
Fawn, The, or Parisitaster (Marston’s), v. 225, 226.
Fazio (by Milman), v. 147; viii. 416; xi. 419.
Fear of Death, On the, vi. 321.
—— Odes to (Collins), v. 116, 374.
Fears in Solitude (Coleridge’s), iii. 242.
Fearn, John, vi. 64, 65; xi. 181 n.; xii. 345.
Fearne, Charles, vii. 26.
Fearon, Miss, ix. 278.
Feast of the Poets (Leigh Hunt’s), i. 377; iv. 302, 361; v. 378.
Feeble (in Shakespeare’s Henry IV.), viii. 33.
Felice (in Marston’s Antonio and Mellida), v. 225.
Felix Mudberry (in Ups and Downs), xi. 387, 388.
Felton, John, ix. 354.
Female head (Leonardo da Vinci’s), ix. 35.
Female Seducers, Fable of the (Moore’s), vi. 368.
—— Vagrant, The (Wordsworth’s), viii. 233 n.
Fenella (in Scott’s Peveril of the Peak), xi. 537.
Fénélon (François de Salignac de la Motte), vii. 321; ix. 119; x. 323,
324.
Fennings, The, iii. 420.
Fenwick, Mr, ii. 173, 192, 205.
Ferdinand of Sicily, iii. 179; xii. 242, 446.
—— VII. of Spain, iii. 106, 119, 157, 158, 160, 290, 309; vi. 156; vii.
149; viii. 267; x. 316; xi. 339, 551, 558; xii. 104, 204.
—— the Beloved, viii. 539.
—— (a play). See Faulkener.
—— (in Scott’s Yellow Dwarf), xii. 246 n.
—— (in Shakespeare’s Tempest), vii. 213; xi. 417.
—— Count Fathom. See Count Fathom.
Fergusson, Robert, v. 139.
Feriole (town), ix. 278.
Ferrara (town), ix. 264, 265, 266, 277, 302.
—— Duke Hercules of, x. 69.
Ferraw (a knight) (from Ariosto), v. 224.
Ferrers, Lord, x. 168.
Ferret, Mr (in Cherry’s Soldier’s Daughter), xi. 298.
Ferrex and Porrex (Thomas Sackville’s), v. 193, 195.
Ferry-bridge, The Inn at, xii. 203.
Fesch, Cardinal, ix. 363 n.
Fesole (town), ix. 211, 217.
Fête Champêtre (Watteau’s), ix. 22.
—— —— See Carronside.
Feudal Times (George Colman, jnr.), ii. 228.
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, iv. 218; x. 141, 145.
Fidelia (in Wycherley’s Plain Dealer), viii. 78.
Field, Master John, ii. 226.
Fielding, Anthony Vandyke Copley, ix. 127; xi. 245, 246, 248.
—— Henry, i. 28; ii. 171 n., 280, 391; iii. 234; iv. 365, 367; v. 284; vi.
225, 236, 413, 426, 448, 452, 457, 458; vii. 36, 214, 322, 363; viii.
79, 107, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 133, 144, 158, 163, 287,
454, 506; ix. 78, 118, 243 n., 391; x. 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37, 167, 168, 206, 328; xi. 223, 225, 273 n., 374, 403, 435, 501,
543; xii. 22, 32, 46, 63, 98, 155 n., 226, 274, 310, 364, 374.
—— William, Mr Justice, vii. 84.
—— and Walker (booksellers), ii. 95.
Fife, ii. 314.
Figalon (painter), ix. 128.
Figaro, The Marriage of, or The Follies of a Day (Holcroft’s), ii. 113;
viii. 355; xi. p. viii.
Fight, The, xii. 1.
Filch (in Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera), vi. 286; viii. 255, 315, 387; xi.
373; xii. 24.
Filmer, Sir Robert, iii. 240, 284.
Finch, Daniel (second Earl of Nottingham), iii. 402.
—— Sir Heneage, and his son, iii. 394, 399.
Finche dal Vino (a song), viii. 365.
Fine Arts, The, ix. 377;
also in ix. 408; xi. 195.
—— —— whether they are promoted by Academies, ix. 470.
—— —— British Institution, xi. 187.
—— —— The Louvre, xi. 195.
—— —— (E. B. Article), ix. 464; xi. 567, 568.
Fingal, The Son of (Ossian), xi. 300.
Finger-Post, The (a play), xi. 367.
Finland, iii. 158, 216.
Finnerty, Peter, iii. 236, 237; xii. 307.
Fire of London, vii. 69.
—— Famine, and Slaughter (Coleridge), iii. 157, 205; v. 166, 377.
Firense la bella, ix. 207.
Firmian, Joseph, Count de, ix. 419.
First Elements (Nicholson’s), ii. 173.
Firth of Forth, ii. 252, 314; iv. 244.
Fish-street-hill, xi. 385.
Fisher (Catherine Maria), ix. 473.
—— of Duke Street, vii. 486.
—— Mr, viii. 465, 513.
Fittler, James, ii. 201.
Fitzgerald, Thomas Judkin, iii. 237, 240, 241.
Fitzharding, Mr (in Smiles and Tears), viii. 266.
—— Miss (in Smiles and Tears), viii. 266.
Fitz-Osborn’s Letters (by William Melmoth the younger), i. 93.
Fitzpatrick, Mrs (Fielding’s Tom Jones), vi. 457; viii. 114, 115; x. 33.
Fitzwilliam (2nd Earl of) (Wentworth, Wm.), ii. 169, 225.
Five Patron-Saints of Bologna, Guido’s, ix. 206.
Fives Court, The, xii. 8, 325.
—— —— St Martin’s St., The, vi. 88.
Flageolet, The (in Liber Amoris), ii. 291.
Flamborough Family (in Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield), v. 119; viii.
554.
Flamineo (in Webster’s White Devil), v. 243, 245.
Flaminius, ix. 262.
Flash, Theodore (? Theodore Hook), xii. 276.
Flaxman, John, vii. 90, 95; ix. 168, 490.
Flaxman’s Lectures on Sculpture, x. 330.
Flech Horr, The, ix. 279, 280.
Flecknoe (Marvell’s), viii. 54.
Fleet-Ditch, vii. 69.
—— Prison, ii. 216; v. 84 n.; vi. 89; viii. 463.
—— Street, iv. 342; vi. 59, 415; viii. 104; xii. 35 n.
Fleetwood (Godwin’s), iv. 209.
Flemish School, i. 26; ix. 314, 386.
Fletcher, Andrew (of Saltoun), iv. 98 n.
—— George, vii. 263, 504.
—— John, v. 248;
also referred to in iv. 367; v. 175, 176, 181, 189, 193, 224, 296, 297,
346; vi. 203, 218 n.; vii. 134, 229, 320, 321; viii. 48, 69, 89, 264,
353; x. 118, 205, 261; xii. 34.
—— P., v. 295, 311.
Fleur de Lys, Order of, viii. 20.
Fleuri, Joli de, iii. 290.
Flight into Egypt (Poussin’s), ix. 24.
—— —— (Rubens’s), ix. 72.
—— of Paris and Helen, The (Guido’s), vii. 283.
Flippanta (in Vanbrugh’s The Provoked Wife), viii. 80, 156.
Flitch of Bacon, The (Henry Bates’s), ii. 85; vi. 432.
Flora (the goddess), iv. 310; ix. 216.
—— (in Rowe’s Jane Shore), viii. 537.
—— (in Mrs Centlivre’s The Wonder), xi. 402; xii. 24.
—— MacIvor (in Scott’s Waverley), iii. 32; iv. 247; viii. 129.
Florence, i. 332; v. 189; vi. 353, 368, 404; vii. 369; ix. 111 n., 187, 197,
198, 207, 211, 212, 217, 218, 219, 221, 224, 227, 229, 233, 240, 241,
249, 256, 260, 262, 263, 277, 363 n., 409, 417, 429; x. 63, 68, 300,
301, 302, 354; xii. 20, 134, 172 n.
—— History of (Guicciardini’s), vii. 229.
Florentine Observer, The, x. 270.
—— School, ix. 222.
Florestan (early romance), x. 57.
Florid (Holcroft’s), ii. 191, 222.
Florimel (Spenser), ii. 347; v. 38; vii. 193; x. 81; xi. 235.
Floris (in Kinnaird’s Merchant of Bruges), viii. 265, 266.
Florismarte of Hircania (early romance), x. 57.
Florizel (in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale), viii. 354.
Floscel, Mr, ii. 114.
Flower, Benjamin, i. 423; ii. 177, 190.
—— and the Leaf (Chaucer’s), i. 162; v. 27, 82, 370; x. 75; xi. 269; xii.
327.
Flute (in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream), viii. 275.
Fly drowned in Treacle, Lines to a (Peter Pindar’s), xii. 350.
Flying Mercury, John of Bologna’s, ix. 222.
Fodor, Madame Mainville, viii. 297, 327, 364, 370, 371; xi. 307, 308,
427, 500, 501.
Foe, Daniel (see Defoe).
—— James, x. 356, 357.
Foible (Congreve’s The Way of the World), viii. 75.
Foligno, ix. 260, 261, 365.
—— Picture, The (Raphael’s), ix. 240.
Folle par Amour, La (opera), ix. 174.
Follies of a Day (see Figaro), ii. 113; viii. 355; xi. p. viii.
Fontainebleau, ix. 175, 176.
Fontaine, Jean de la, i. 46; iv. 190; vi. 109; viii. 29; x. 109.
Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, ii. 393; iii. 319 n.
Fonthill Abbey, ix. 348;
also referred to in vii. 135, 292; ix. 55, 56, 58, 60, 61; xii. 83.
Fool, The (in Shakespeare’s Lear), viii. 24.
—— of Quality, The (Henry Brooke’s), viii. 123 n.
Foote, Maria, viii. 196, 231, 266, 268, 275, 426, 428, 457, 540; xi.
207, 208, 364, 402.
Foote, Samuel, ii. 59, 60, 77 n., 87, 170; viii. 166, 167, 241, 242, 319.
——, Garrick, Letters of, xi. p. viii.
Footmen, xii. 131.
Force of Conscience. See Ravens.
—— of Ridicule, The (Holcroft’s), ii. 159.
Ford, John, v. 248;
also referred to in v. 193, 265 et seq., 268, 318; vi. 218 n.; vii. 134;
x. 205.
—— Mr, ii. 173.
—— (in Cooke’s Green’s Tu Quoque), v. 290.
—— Miss, xii. 122.
Foresight (in Congreve’s Love for Love), vi. 287; viii. 279.
—— (Munden’s), viii. 71, 72.
Forest of Merry Sherwood, The, viii. 425.
—— Scene (Stark’s), xi. 249.
Forester (the horse), ii. 31, 41.
Forli (town), vi. 238.
Fornarina (Raphael’s), i. 92; ix. 73, 223, 224; xii. 36, 332.
Forrest (in Shakespeare’s Richard III.), v. 188.
Forsyth, Joseph, ix. 221, 253.
Forth, The river, v. 300.
Fortunate Mistress. See Roxana.
Fortunatus’s Wishing Cap, vii. 221.
Fortune (Salvator Rosa’s), x. 301.
Fortune-Teller (Northcote’s), vi. 404.
Fortunes of Nigel (Scott’s), iv. 248; xi. 538.
Foster, James, iv. 204 n.; vi. 367.
—— Thomas, vi. 360, 509.
Fouché, Joseph, iii. 192.
Foulkes, Mr, ii. 145, 176, 183, 225.
—— Mrs, ii. 193, 194.
Foundling, History of a. See Tom Jones.
Four Ages (Titian’s), ix. 31, 38, 270.
Four Orations for the Oracles of God (Edward Irving’s), iv. 228.
—— P’s, The, v. 274.
—— Seasons of Life, The (Giorgioni’s), v. 321.
Fourth Estate, iv. 334.
Fox, Charles James, i. 103, 127, 384, 429; ii. 200, 217, 227, 374; iii. 15
n., 17, 108, 324, 328 n., 336, 337, 347 n., 349, 391, 416, 421, 424,
461, 466; iv. 190, 231–2, 237; vi. 109, 455; vii. 7, 8 n., 184, 200,
267, 269, 273, 274–5, 364; x. 151–2, 213, 232; xi. 436, 522–3; xii.
274, 292–3, 346, 369.
—— Character of Mr, iii. 337.
—— George, iii. 112; x. 145.
—— Henry (Lord Holland), iii. 416.
—— John, vi. 364, 365, 366.
—— Joseph, iii. 111.
—— William Johnson, iv. 227.
—— at the Point of Death, The (Gay’s), v. 107.
—— Dogs (Gainsborough’s), xi. 204.
—— hunted with Greyhounds (Gainsborough’s), xi. 203.
Foxe, John, vii. 129, 320; xi. 443.
Frail, Mrs (in Congreve’s Love for Love), viii. 72, 279.
Francanzani, Francesco, x. 283, 287.
France, iii. 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 22, 31, 36, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59, 63, 65, 68, 71,
77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103,
104, 106, 108, 109, 111, 119, 129, 158, 164, 179, 180, 181, 216, 227,
240, 285, 290, 335, 347 n., 399, 415; iv. 93, 323; v. 354; xi. 184,
390.
—— and Italy, Notes on a Journey Through, ix. 83; xi. 568.
—— Travels in (Holcroft’s), ii. 232–4.
Francesca of Rimini (Dante), x. 405.
Francesca of Rimini (Leigh Hunt), x. 409.
Francesco (in Godwin’s Cloudesley), x. 391.
—— (in Massinger’s The Duke of Milan), v. 267; viii. 289, 290.
Francis I., i. 133.
—— Sir Philip, ii. 172, 182, 199.
Franciscan Friars, The, xii. 224.
Francken, Frans, ix. 354.
Frank Osbaldistone (in Scott’s Rob Roy), xii. 66.
—— and Clara (Holcroft’s), ii. 176, 182.
—— Henley (in Holcroft’s Anna St Ives), ii. 129, 131.
—— Jerningham (in Merry Devil), v. 293, 294.
Franks. See Francken, Frans.
Franks’s Hotel at Rome, ix. 231.
Frankelein, The (Chaucer), v. 24.
Frankenstein (Mrs Shelley), x. 311.
Frankford, Mrs (in Heywood’s A Woman Killed with Kindness), v.
212, 213.
Frankfort, ii. 187.
Franklin, Dr Benjamin, ii. 203, 205; iv. 9 n., 190; x. 251, 314; xi. 472
n.
Frascati (town), ix. 254.
Frates Poloni, The, i. 82; ii. 165; iii. 266.
Frati Church, in Venice, ix. 270.
Frazer, Mr, ii. 218.
Frederic (in The Poor Gentleman), xi. 376.
Frederick the Great, ii. 115, 116, 116 n., 179; iii. 106, 160; vi. 445.
—— William I., vi. 445.
Frederigo Alberigi. See Alberigi.
Free Admission, The, xii. 119.
—— Thoughts on Public Affairs in a letter addressed to a Member of
the Old Opposition, iii. 1;
also referred to in i. 383 n.
Freeman, Mr, of Bath, ii. 259–61, 266.
Freeman, Mr (in Double Gallant), viii. 361.
Freemasons, The, iii. 106.
Freethinkers, i. 48.
Frejus (town), i. p. xxxi.
French, The, viii. 309; ix. 80, 89, 138 et seq.; xi. 195, 196, 256, 258,
339, 353.
—— Academy, Discourses of the (Coypel’s), xi. 208 n.
—— Art, ix. 29, 389, 404, 407; xi. 188, 209, 220, 238, 240, 244.
—— Exhibition, ix. 108.
—— Opera, The, ix. 169.
—— Philosophy, xi. 162, 285.
—— Plays, xi. 352.
—— Poetry, xi. 162.
—— Revolution (Mignet’s), ix. 186.
—— —— The, i. 89 n., 105 n., 117, 138, 214, 427, 430; ii. 133, 156, 162,
176; iii. 32 n., 114, 116, 146, 157, 160, 169, 179, 205, 206, 210, 221,
246, 250, 279, 281, 302, 304, 343, 460; iv. 218, 237, 263, 282,
338; v. 83, 161, 359; vi. 55, 147, 150, 151, 155, 198; vii. 51, 240, 257;
viii. 309, 347, 416; x. 128, 150, 151; xi. 306, 311, 374, 418, 420; xii.
157, 170, 236, 269, 287, 288, 291, 459.
—— —— Reflections on (Burke’s), i. 71 n., 214; iii. 100, 170, 255, 335;
iv. 284 n.; vi. 33; vii. 118, 227–8, 247, 257; viii. 347; xi. 458; xii.
132.
—— Writers, iv. 277.
Frere, Mr, ii. 232.
Freres, The (Frere, John Hookham), x. 139.
Freybourg, ix. 298.
Friar, The (in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet), viii. 199.
—— John (in Rabelais), i. 52, 131; v. 112, 113, 277; xii. 348.
—— Lawrence (in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet), viii. 209.
—— Onion (in Rabelais), v. 277.
—— Tuck (in Scott’s Ivanhoe), iv. 223; viii. 424, 426.
Fribble (Miss in her Teens), ii. 80.
Fribourg, ix. 285.
Friedland, iii. 112.
Friend (Coleridge’s), iii. 130 n., 139, 159, 294 n.; vii. 374; x. 123, 135,
141, 150; xi. 452, 516.
—— Where to Find a, viii. 258.
Friends of Revolution, xi. p. vii.
Friendly Reproof to Ben Jonson (by Carew), v. 312.
Frightened to Death (Oulton’s), viii. 358.
Friscobaldo, Signor Orlando, vi. 192; vii. 121.
Froissart, Jean, i. 87, 100; vii. 229; xii. 16.
Frontiniac (a wine), xi. 487.
Frontispiece (Hogarth’s), ix. 357.
Fry, Mrs, ix. 91.
Fudge Family (Moore’s), iii. 311, 312; iv. 359, 360; vii. 380; viii. 176
n.; xi. 440.
—— —— in Paris, The, iii. 311.
Fuessly, Johann Heinrich. See Fuseli.
Fugitive Writings, xi. 1.
Fulham, ii. 221.
Fullarton (? William), ii. 186.
Fuller, Thomas, iv. 331, 365; vi. 245; vii. 16; xii. 137, 392.
Fulmer (in The West Indian), ii. 83.
Fulvia (in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra), i. 229.
Funeral, The (Donne’s poem), viii. 52.
—— (Steele’s), viii. 158.
Furies (in Æschylus), viii. 159; xi. 506.
Furor (Spenser’s), x. 245.
Fuseli, Henry, ii. 180; iv. 208 n., 233; vi. 10, 270, 296, 336, 340, 342,
363, 365, 379, 385, 389, 393, 400, 403, 428, 434; vii. 41, 89, 90,
93, 94, 104; viii. 99, 307; ix. 15, 131, 226, 427; x. 197, 200; xii. 168.
Fusina (town), ix. 266.
G.
G——, xii. 355, 369.

Gabriel, the Angel, xii. 199.
Gabrielle (in Morton’s Henri Quatre), viii. 443.
—— ix. 175.
Gadshill, i. 285; vi. 318, 403; viii. 33.
Gaffer Gray (in Holcroft’s Hugh Trevor), ii. 137, 138.
Gainsborough, Thomas, ii. 189; vi. 128, 129, 369, 437, 438; ix. 38,
395; xi. 202, 248.
Gainsborough’s Pictures, On, xi. 202.
Galaor (early romance), x. 57.
Galatea (Cervantes’), vii. 229; viii. 110.
—— (Raphael’s), i. 76, 134; ix. 239, 419, 429; x. 278.
Galba, ix. 221.
Galicia, xi. 317.
Galignani’s, vi. 422; ix. 287.
Galileo, vi. 466; vii. 306; ix. 211, 212 n., 429; xi. 424; xii. 134.
Gall, Dr, vii. 19, 137, 138, 144, 155, 231; ix. 206 n.
Gallantry, or Adventures at Madrid, viii. 399.
Gallaspy, Mr (in Amory’s John Buncle), i. 54; iii. 142.
Galley, Mdlle., i. 90.
Galt, John, vii. 134.
Gamaliel, iv. 202.
Gamble, Andrew (Irish boxer), xi. 487.
Gamester, The (E. Moore’s), ii. 265; v. 359; vii. 299; viii. 198.
Gammer Gurton’s Needle (John Still), v. 274;
also referred to in v. 286.
Gandy, William, vi. 21, 345, 367; x. 181.
Ganges, vi. 64.
Ganlesse (Scott’s Peveril of the Peak), xi. 540.
Ganymede (Titian’s), ix. 11 n.
Garat, Dominique Joseph Comte, ii. 180.
Garda, The Lake of, ix. 277.
Gardiner, Sir Allan, iv. 231, 232.
Gargantua (Rabelais), iii. 287 n.; v. 113; viii. 29, 200.
Garnish (in Kenney’s Touchstone), viii. 369.
Garofalo (Tisi, Benvenuto), ix. 238, 239.
Garrard, George, iii. 121 n.
Garrick, David, i. 156–8, 290, 335; ii. 72–80, 358, 367; iii. 389; vi. 46
n., 50, 273, 275, 301, 322, 342, 350, 399, 404, 405, 418, 438, 444,
453; vii. 305, 306; viii. 83, 103, 144, 163, 173, 174, 180, 198, 209,
261, 263, 273, 285, 313, 345, 384, 406, 429, 435, 443, 454, 514; ix.
46; xi. 349, 363, 393, 449; xii. 33, 34, 207.
—— (Gainsborough’s portrait of), xi. 203.
—— between Tragedy and Comedy (Reynolds’s), ix. 402.
Garrow, Sir William, ii. 186; iii. 164; xi. 476.
Gas Lights, i. 139.
—— Man, The, xii. 4 et seq.
Gasparo (Webster’s White Devil), v. 241, 245.
Gassendi, Peter, xi. 48.
Gaston de Foix (Giorgione’s), ix. 271.
Gate Beautiful (Raphael’s), viii. 147; ix. 47.
—— of Galienas, The (Verona), ix. 277.
Gates, General, iii. 422.
Gathering of Manna (Rubens’s), ix. 52.
Gatti, Signor, ix. 205.
Gattie, Henry, viii. 229, 245, 403.
Gatton, Borough of, ii. 154 n.
Gatty (actor), xi. 364.
Gaveston (in Marlowe’s Edward II.), v. 211.
Gay, John, i. 46, 65; iv. 365; v. 83, 98, 104, 106, 108, 129, 164, 369,
373; vi. 96, 367; vii. 36; viii. 56, 158, 193, 255, 256, 323; x. 375; xi.
273, 375; xii. 32, 35, 121, 355.
Gayrard, Raymond, ix. 168.
Gazette, The, x. 161.
Gazza Ladra, The (Rossini’s opera), ix. 174.
Gebir (Landor’s), x. 255.
Geddes, Dr, ii. 177, 178.
—— Miss, xi. 245.
Geese that cackled in the Capitol (bronze), ix. 239.
Geiseveiller, Mr, ii. 173, 178, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 192, 193,
194, 195, 201.
Gelamont (a town), ix. 285, 287.
Gelling, Rev. Isaac, vi. 364.
General Advertiser, The (newspaper), ii. 92.
—— Savage (Wycherley’s School for Wives), ii. 83.
—— Torrington (in Leigh’s Where to Find a Friend), viii. 258, 259,
260.
—— Warrants, Lord Chatham’s speech on, iv. 210.
Genesis, v. 183.
Geneva, i. 92; ix. 182, 197, 280, 281, 285, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297; x.
45.
Genevieve (Coleridge’s), v. 377; xii. 436.
Genevra, The Story of, x. 56, 62, 62 n.
Genius and Common Sense, vi. 31, 42.
—— is Conscious of its Powers? Whether, vii. 117.
—— and Originality, On (Reynolds’ Discourse), xi. 210.
Genoa, iii. 158, 234; iv. 281; vi. 384, 385; ix. 198, 207, 267; xi. 467;
xii. 223.
Gensano Girls, vii. 175; ix. 236, 376.
Gentle Geordie (in Scott’s Heart of Midlothian), vii. 137; xi. 534
—— Shepherd (Allan Ramsay’s), ii. 77–8.
Gentleman Comedian, The, or Alwyn. See Alwyn.
—— Dancing Master, The (a farce), viii. 78.
—— On the Look of a, vii. 209.
Gentleman’s Magazine, i. 374, 376, iv. 365; x. 221, 222.
Geoffrey Crayon, iv. 362.
—— of Monmouth, x. 20.
George I., i. 425; iii. 405, 409; iv. 343 n.; v. 359; vi. 59 n., 445; xii.
269.
—— II., i. 25, 156; iii. 285 n., 414; vi. 445, 521; vii. 211; viii. 106, 121,
122, 134, 263; ix. 76; x. 26, 40; xii. 269.
—— III., iii. 114, 123, 221, 360, 445; vi. 322, 387; vii. 16, 88; viii. 122;
ix. 465; x. 40, 41, 152; xi. 555; xii. 24, 242.
—— IV., iv. 338; vi. 55, 482; xi. 547; xii. 56, 168, 249.
—— the Fourth, A Portrait of, ix. 367.
—— Prince, x. 377.
—— a Green, or The Pinner of Wakefield (by Robert Greene), v. 289,
294.
—— Barnwell (by George Lillo), viii. 268;
also referred to in i. 154.
—— Dandin (Molière’s), viii. 28.
—— of Douglas (Scott’s Abbot), iv. 248.
—— St., vi. 120.
Georges, Mademoiselle, ix. 154.
Georgics (Virgil’s), xi. 492; xii. 273.
Georgium Sidus, x. 331.
Gerald (in Kinnaird’s Merchant of Bruges), viii. 265, 266.
Geraldine (in Coleridge’s Christabel), x. 413.
Gérard, François Pascal Simon, Baron, ix. 123, 124, 125, 137.
Gerardeschi, The, ix. 211.
Gerat (the singer), viii. 363.
German Drama, contrasted with that of the Age of Elizabeth, On the,
v. 345.
German Hotel, The (a play from Brandes), ii. 116.
—— Painters, xi. 209.
—— Philosophy and Literature, Account of (Madame de Staël’s), xi.
162.
—— Play, The (Mr Canning’s), xi. 341.
—— Poetry, xi. 162.
—— School of Singing, xi. 428, 501.
Germany, iii. 53, 55; iv. 218; v. 182, 362; xi. 162, 289.
Gertrude (in Jonson, Marston, and Chapman’s Eastward Hoe), vi.
164, 165.
—— (in Cooke’s Green’s Tu Quoque), v. 290.
—— (in Kinnaird’s Merchant of Bruges), viii. 264, 265.
—— of Wyoming (Campbell’s), iv. 345, 346; v. 149, 150, 377; viii. 153;
x. 15; xii. 239.
Gerusalemme liberata, The (Ariosto’s), x. 14.
Gessner, Mr, ii. 186.
Ghengis Khan, xii. 37.
Ghent, ix. 302.
Ghetto Judaico, xii. 462.
Ghibellines, The, xi. 443.
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, iv. 217; vii. 254; ix. 205, 261, 409; xi. 238;
xii. 36, 38.
Ghost, The (in Shakespeare’s Hamlet), viii. 186, 188, 189.
—— of King of Ormus (in Fulke Greville’s Mustapha), vii. 255.
Giannuzzi, Giulio dei. See Romano, Julio.
Giant Despair (in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress), iv. 337; vi. 54; ix.
229.
Giant’s Causeway, xii. 273.
Giaour, The (Byron’s), v. 153.
Giardini, Felice, vi. 373.
Gib the Cat (in Still’s Gammer Gurton’s Needle), v. 286.
Gibbet (in Farquhar’s Beaux’ Stratagem), viii. 10.
Gibbon, Edward, i. 138; iii. 144; iv. 365; vi. 222; ix. 153 n., 375.
Gibbons, Grinling, ix. 67.
Gibbs, Vicary, ii. 147.
—— Mrs, viii. 251, 252, 319, 333, 465, 468; xi. 397, 402.
Gibby (in Mrs Centlivre’s The Wonder), viii. 156, 333; xi. 402.
Gibson’s Field, vi. 418.
Gifford, John, iii. 206, 295.
—— William, iv. 298;
also referred to in i. p. xxx., 166; iii. 45, 206, 219, 262, 295; iv. 421;
vi. 212, 475, 494; vii. 121, 207, 301, 516; ix. 247; x. 139, 228; xii.
324.
—— A Letter to William, i. 363.
Gil Blas (Le Sage’s), i. 12, 136, 138, 160; v. 91; vi. 118, 224–5, 457; vii.
33, 36, 74, 173, 303, 311, 380; viii. 111, 112, 116, 141, 151, 315; ix. 29,
99 n.; x. 30, 31, 34, 214; xi. 252, 458; xii. 141.
Giles (in Bickerstaffe’s Maid of the Mill), ii. 83.
—— Arbe (in Miss Burney’s The Wanderer), x. 44.
Gillies, Mr, ii. 176, 231.
Gilray, James, ii. 185; vi. 455; viii. 330, 400; xii. 20, 363.
Gin Lane (Hogarth’s), viii. 142; ix. 323; xii. 364.
Ginevra, a fragment (Shelley), x. 270, 271.
Giordano, Luca, vi. 128 n.; ix. 67.
Giorgione, vi. 11 n.; ix. 26, 31, 225, 226, 239, 271, 386; xii. 36.
Giotto, iv. 217; vii. 254; ix. 205, 206, 261; xii. 36, 38, 347.
Giovanni in London (Moncrieff’s), viii. 461, 462.
Girard & Co., ii. 113.
Girl with Beer (picture), ii. 228.
—— drawing with a Pencil (Reynolds’), ix. 399.
—— and Pigs (Gainsborough’s), xi. 204.
Girl feeding Pigs (Watteau’s), vi. 437.
—— Reading (Correggio’s), ix. 41.
—— going to the Well (Gainsborough’s), xi. 204.
—— at a Window (Rembrandt’s), ix. 22.
Girodet-Trioson, Anne Louis, vii. 331; ix. 131; xi. 241; xii. 190.

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Liberation in Higher Education A White

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1. Endarkening Spirituality in Education: Theoretical

2. Cynthia B. Dillard, Endarkened Feminist

3. Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: From

November 20: Learning by Watching and Listening  67

4. Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: Voices from Ghana 79

Connecting Research to Past Histories 104

5. The Power of Cultural Memory Work Across

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My thanks and gratitude go to my family, especially my parents, my

and chair of a department who invested so much time and energy in

AERA American Educational Research Association

The art of teaching embodies a spiritual essence that is frequently sup-

Despite the NCC’s support for the implementation of non-religious

According to Hoi, “definitions, discussions, around stereotypes

While Hoi’s insights are extremely useful and contribute greatly

psychology and standpoint theory (Harding, 1987); the tenets of Afri-

Dillard’s (2006b) EFE draws upon spiritual principles, emancipa-

experiences abroad, and in practice. I explored the origins of EFE with

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her students make meaning of it in their research and experiences with

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Spirituality in education is education with purpose; education that is libera-

In her piloting of a new dissertation seminar, where she challenges the

The course was designed to be a space where an endarkened and transna-

to help connect the frameworks and highlight the power of certain

1. What professional and personal experiences, events, or cir-

To my knowledge, the guiding questions are significant given that

emancipatory aspects of education. To add another layer of context to

Man is free when he belongs to a free community seeking to emancipate itself

This book is the first qualitative case study on the contemporary

As I stated earlier, Dillard (2006b) has written extensively on the rela-

My intent is to uphold the establishment clause (i.e., the separation of

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Furthermore, Wringe (2002) asserts that human beings who have a

order to create optimal opportunities for spiritual growth during les-

Another advocate for spiritual curricula, Rachael Kessler, the late

The Wisdom of Black Feminist Writers

1. Endarkening Spirituality in Education: Theoretical

2. Cynthia B. Dillard, Endarkened Feminist

3. Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: From

November 20: Learning by Watching and Listening 67

4. Endarkened Feminist Epistemology: Voices from Ghana 79

Connecting Research to Past Histories 104

5. The Power of Cultural Memory Work Across

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