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Making Media
Taking essential media production processes, this book
deconstructs them into the most basic components. Students
will learn the concepts of media production—frame, sound,
light, time, motion, and sequencing—and be able to apply
them to any medium they choose, from film and television
to fine art and online applications. They will also become
well-grounded in the digital work environment and the tools
required to produce media in today’s digital environment. The
primacy of content and the importance of an ethical approach
to media making are also emphasized.
This new fifth edition is fully updated throughout, featuring
updates on technology and processes. Included is new informa-
tion on shooting with a cell phone, developments in mirrorless
cameras, color grading, tips for recording good audio, intimacy
training, and much more. Fully illustrated, this book includes
sidebar discussions of pertinent issues throughout. There is
also a companion website with interactive exercises for each
chapter, allowing students to explore the process of media
production.
This book is ideal for media students on courses including
media production, film production, audio production, and
photography.
Jan Roberts-B reslin is a media artist whose video art has been
screened and won awards at US and international film and
video festivals, aired on PBS, and exhibited at museums. She
is a Professor of Visual and Media Arts at Emerson College
in Boston, where she has served as the Founding Director of
the MFA in Film and Media Art and as Dean of Graduate and
Professional Studies. She has been a Visiting Scholar at the
Communications University of China in Beijing.
To Leon, the next generation.
Making Media
FOUNDATIONS OF SOUND AND IMAGE PRODUCTION
Fifth Edition
JAN ROBERTS-BRESLIN
ILLUSTRATIONS BY DANIEL BRESLIN

Cover image © Olena Agapova / Getty Images
Fifth edition published 2022
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Jan Roberts-Breslin
The right of Jan Roberts-Breslin to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Focal Press, 2011
Fourth edition published by Routledge, 2018
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Roberts-Breslin, Jan, author.
Title: Making media: foundations of sound and image production/Jan Roberts-Breslin.
Description: Fifth edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021056685 (print) | LCCN 2021056686 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367638313 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003120889 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Multimedia systems. | Sound–Recording and reproducing. |
Image processing–Digital techniques.
Classification: LCC QA76.575 .B74 2022 (print) |
LCC QA76.575 (ebook) | DDC 006.7–dc23/eng/20211129
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021056685
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021056686
ISBN: 978-0-367-63831-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-63830-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-12088-9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003120889
Typeset in Slimbach
by Newgen Publishing UK
Access the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/breslin
C O N T E N T S
Acknowledgments ix
1 Content and Development 1

The Primacy of Content 1
Developing Story Ideas 2
Classifying Content 5
Development 10
Ethical and Legal Responsibilities 17
Conclusion 18
Putting It Into Practice 19
Key Concepts 19
2 Composing the Frame 21

Seeing the World Through a Frame 21
The Still Image 21
Controlling the Frame 22
What’s in the Frame and What Isn’t: Shot Sizes 27
The Weight and Magnetism of the Frame 32
Conclusion 37
Key Concepts 39
3 Reproducing the Frame 41

PART 1: Creating the Image 41
Lenses 41
Focal Length 42
Lens Characteristics 45
Aperture 47
Shutter Speed 47
Sensitivity 49
vi Contents
Focus 49
Resolution 53
PART 2: The Frame Applied to Different Media 53
Analog Versus Digital Reproduction 54
Still Image Making 55
Film 55
Digital 57
Resolution 58
Compression 60
Motion Pictures 61
Conclusion 69
Key Concepts 70
4 Depth, Movement, and Time 71

Media Illusions 71
Movement 77
Movement Considerations in Different Media 89
Animation and Motion Graphics 91
Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Reality 94
Time and Space 96
Sounds and Images Existing in Time 100
Conclusion 106
Key Concepts 107
5 Light 109
The Importance of Light 109
Understanding Light 110
Lighting Concerns of Different Media 134
Conclusion 141
Key Concepts 141
6 Sound 143
The Importance of Sound 143
Understanding Sound 144
Contents vii
Reproducing Sound 147

Sound Variations 159
Types of Audio Media 168
Conclusion 170
Key Concepts 171
7 Sound and Image 173

A +B =C 173
Elements of Sound Design 174
Sound Recording for Different Media 177
Conclusion 181
Key Concepts 181
8 Approaches to Production 183

Determining Your Approach 183
The Production Team 191
The Role of Collaboration 194
Conclusion 195
Key Concepts 197
9 Making It Happen 199

The Preproduction Process 199
Insurance and Permissions 209
Production Safety 212
Conclusion 218
Key Concepts 218
10 The Theory of Linear Structure 221

Putting the Story Together 221
Issues of Structure in Preproduction 222
Approaches to Structuring Motion Pictures 224
Applications of Structure 239
viii Contents
Conclusion 243
Key Concepts 244
11 The Practice of Linear Structure 245

Sound and Image Transitions 245
Live Editing 247
Postproduction Editing 249
Digital Nonlinear Editing 259
Issues of Convergence and Compatibility 271
Conclusion 273
Key Concepts 273
12 Nonlinear Structure 275

Understanding Nonlinearity 275
Types of Interactive Media 280
The Process of Making Interactive Media 285
Putting the Pieces Together 292
Conclusion 295
Key Concepts 295
13 Exhibition and Distribution 297

Changing Media Forms 297
Getting the Work to an Audience 299
The Future 301
Making Media Professionally 302
Conclusion 303
Key Concepts 303
Glossary 305
Index 325
newgenprepdf
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
I want to thank David Kelleher, media maker and educator,

for his contribution to this edition. He has again updated
Chapter 12, Nonlinear Structure, an aspect of the media that
he understands well.
In addition to all who have contributed to past editions,
and whose image, work, or help is still evident in this edition,
I would like to thank Rae Shaw, Daniel Callahan, Shaun Clarke,
Allyson Sherlock, and Brystin Ivey for contributing their
creative work.
ix
C H A P T E R 1
Content and
Development
Content is primary to making media. The various classifications
of content are presented, as well as the importance of cul-
tural perspective and attention to ethical and legal concerns.
The development stage of production is broken down into
budgeting and financing. The range of visualization techniques
are illustrated—script formats and site maps.
THE PRIMACY OF CONTENT

Why make media? Different aspects of media production
may draw you to the practice. It may be the challenge of
understanding and mastering the technology that can turn light
and physical vibrations into mediated sounds and images of
breathtaking fidelity and clarity. It may be the aesthetic sat-
isfaction of a stunning composition, evocative sound mix,
or artfully choreographed camera movement. It may be the
collective energy of a collaborative process or the satisfaction
of individual creation. And it may be the power of mediated
sound and image to express, confess, inform, persuade, and
subvert. Ultimately there has to be something you want to say.
The message can be literal and direct or abstract and implied.
You may want to communicate to an audience of one or to
the world.
This is not a book on writing. There are many good ones
out there already. There are books about writing scripts for
mainstream movies and television shows. There are ones that
present an alternative approach and ones that emphasize the
creative process and development of story ideas. This book is
about the production process and the ways of realizing story
ideas through sound and pictures. However, if we don’t rec-
ognize the importance of content, the rest is in vain. All the
virtuosity in the world when it comes to camera work, sound
recording, lighting, and editing is not what brings us to the
movie theater or causes us to turn on the TV, radio, or com-
puter. We want information. We want to be entertained. We
want to feel emotion or get a glimpse of life through another
person’s point of view. The techniques of media production are
the tools that make expressing yourself possible.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003120889-1 1
2 Content and Development
Figure 1.1 Careful observation of life

around you is an important tool of story
development.
DEVELOPING STORY IDEAS

The term story is used here in the broadest sense. It refers
to imagined events enacted by made-up characters. It also
refers to information you want to teach or messages you want
to share. I would even argue (though some would certainly
disagree) that an emotional response elicited from abstract
sounds and images tells a story of sorts. Sometimes production
is a process of realizing your own story idea; sometimes it’s
a matter of interpreting an idea developed by someone else.
Generating these ideas comes easily to some people; for others,
it’s a challenge.
There are many techniques for encouraging creativity, such
as keeping a dream journal and creating a scrapbook of intri-
guing news. Careful observation of everyday life helps you
create fictional characters and situations that are believable
(Figure 1.1).
Keeping involved in the community and informed about
social and political issues spurs the desire to inform and per-
suade others. Appreciation of other art forms, such as painting,
sculpture, theater, live music, and dance, helps in making
artful media. Ultimately, passion, keen observation, and per-
severance mark good storytellers.
KNOWING YOUR AUDIENCE

Deciding what story you want to tell is just the first step. Next,
you must decide to whom you want to tell it. There are a
couple of ways to look at this. Do you want to produce your
work and then try to find an audience that will respond to it?
Or are you trying to target your message to a specific audience,
be it large or small?
Media artists often fall into the first category. The creation of
the work is satisfying in and of itself. Artists hope that others
will appreciate the work too and that recognition, profit, or
Developing Story Ideas 3
at least subsistence will be forthcoming. As satisfying as self-

expression can be, however, most artists are not satisfied to
work in a vacuum. They want to contribute to the culture
and have their voices heard. Their work might be a critique
of social values or an attempt to encourage debate or evoke a
universal emotion. For that to happen, the work must find its
audience.
Media activists and advertisers often fall into the second
category. The work is created from and based on researched
data or intuitive beliefs as to what will sway opinions and
motivate action. The media activist might be promoting sus-
tainable energy through a grassroots documentary to be shown
at a community gathering. The advertiser might be trying to get
everyone to buy a certain brand of shampoo. Both are driven
by how the audience responds.
For many makers of media, the audience relationship is
somewhere in between. There is the desire to create high-
quality work that fulfills the maker’s drive for self-expression,
but media makers must also face the realities of the market-
place and the need to make a living. In a capitalistic society,
the value of a piece of work is judged, by many, in primarily
economic terms. Sometimes the motivation to express one’s
creativity and the motivation to reach an audience are com-
patible; sometimes conflict arises between them. Sometimes
that conflict exists within an individual maker; sometimes it
is a conflict between different participants in a collaborative
media project. The dynamics of self-expression and audience
response, and the resulting tension between them, can create
a better piece of work.
MATCHING THE MEDIUM TO THE

MESSAGE
You can categorize a work of audiovisual media in many different
ways. You can consider the type of programming: fiction fea-
ture, sitcom, installation, webisode, documentary, and so on.
You can consider the method of production used to create the
programming: digital camera, audio recording, or even film.
You can also consider the means of distribution, the specific
form of media on which the programming has been distributed.
This could be a movie theater, streaming service, museum or
gallery, or website.
In the past, the relationship between the programming, the
method of production, and the means of distribution was much
more straightforward than it is today. Movies were shot on film
and viewed in the theater. Television programming originated
live and was broadcast to the TV set in your living room. Radio
programming, also broadcast live, traveled through the air, via
radio waves, and was heard in your house or car. Museums
and galleries were for paintings, sculpture, and sometimes
photography.
Now, the types of programming, the production methods,
and the distribution means of media overlap much more. This
is sometimes called convergence of the media. Movies can

be in the theater, viewed on demand from your cable or sat-
ellite provider, or streamed over the internet and viewed on
your computer or mobile device. Some movies are still shot
on actual film (including many high-budget blockbusters), but
high-definition and digital imaging techniques are increasingly
used to shoot feature films. Even if it is shot originally on film,
footage is converted to digital media to be edited and almost
always digitally projected.
In the 1950s, television was almost exclusively the live
broadcast of video images and sound. By the 1960s, film
became the prevalent production tool of primetime televi-
sion, and it is still used, though it has been mostly replaced
by high-definition digital media. Digital video is widely used
in websites and for other interactive uses, such as kiosks and
social media platforms. Radio programming is usually simul-
taneously broadcast via radio waves and streamed online. Such
convergence is expected to increase, but that doesn’t mean
the end of current combinations of programming, production
methods, and means of distribution. It means new types and
combinations of each. It means increased opportunities for
media artists to create new forms and explore challenging
content (Figure 1.2).
Having so many options provides a challenge to the media
maker: “I have a story to tell. What is the best way to tell it?
Should it be a two-hour film or an online game? Should it be
a podcast or a web series?” These are not easy questions. The
answer is often driven by many factors. Audience becomes
key to determining programming type and means of distribu-
tion. Who is your audience and what forms of media are they
Figure 1.2 One example of media

convergence is the wide use of video in
social media.
most likely to use? An entire sector of the media industry is

dedicated to audience research to help answer these important
questions.
What programming type best communicates the message
you want to send? Is the history of the civil rights movement
in the United States told best by a dramatized reenactment
or a factual website or perhaps by both? If you want to teach
children about biology, is it better to create an entertaining
TV show with a wacky scientist host or an interactive website
that allows students to conduct virtual experiments and create
digital habitats? The method of production is driven by the
maker’s talents and preferences, industry practice, and budget
restrictions. The maker might prefer film over video, but the
industry practice is to shoot talk shows on video. Accepted
industry practice might dictate that sitcoms are shot with mul-
tiple cameras in the studio, but a creator’s vision and budget
might instead be produced as a single-camera, location-based
sitcom. If the audience likes it, there will be more, and it, too,
will become an accepted way of doing things.
CLASSIFYING CONTENT
A basic premise of this book is that certain underlying concepts
and concerns apply to all types of media productions, from
Hollywood blockbusters to museum video installations. As you
make your way through this book you will find that concepts
such as framing, sound, time, and movement exist in all types
of media, but you will also find that it becomes necessary
or convenient at times to be able to classify works of media
production, even though those classifications can overlap. One
way of starting to organize the types of media production is to
set up categories that apply to the relationship of the content
to reality, or whether the content of the production is fiction
or nonfiction.
Any time you start exploring the concepts of what is real
or what is true, you’re opening up a can of proverbial worms.
Philosophers have been struggling with these questions for
thousands of years, but for the sake of convenience and trying
to provide some structure to the way we organize our thinking
about the broad spectrum of media production, perhaps we
can agree that fiction is based on an imagined event or series
of events, often with made-up participants and locations. Non-
fiction, then, portrays actual events or situations that exist in
the material world. Examples of fiction media include horror
films, detective TV series, radio dramas, and role-playing
games. Generally, fiction media will involve actors playing roles
and plot and dialogue constructed by a writer. (In role-playing
games, the player might be the one assuming the character’s
identity and making decisions.) Nonfiction media range from
historical documentaries, to web diaries, to reality TV, to live
coverage of a football game. The events are often constructed
into a story or narrative, but that narrative is based on real
events. Participants or subjects represent themselves. It doesn’t
take long, however, to start asking questions about these terms.
As with many attempts to categorize and label, these terms

are problematic or, at the very least, incomplete. What about
a fictionalized account of actual people or events that really
happened in which real and imagined characters interact?
What about documentary subjects that stage events for the
camera or behave only as they do because the camera is there?
What about “mockumentaries” that are made to look like non-
fiction but are completely scripted and cast with actors? What
about a webcam diary that is made to look real but turns out to
be someone playing a character? What about reality TV, where
“real” events are later constructed into a narrative that may
not accurately represent the people or events? In our times,
truth is often perceived as a subjective notion, and the media
follow suit.
An equally tricky category to nail down is the common term
documentary. Some would argue that any piece of media is a
documentary—a document of the physical world around us or
our imaginations. More commonly, a documentary is considered
a subcategory of nonfiction media—a narrative based on real
people, places, and events. This definition assumes a maker
with a point of view and a hand in structuring the narrative. It
would not include certain nonfiction media forms such as radio
talk shows, game shows, testimonials, or coverage of a news
event, although they may share some characteristics.
Another category of media production could be called
nonnarrative. Works of mediated sound or image that don’t
tell a story in the conventional sense would fall into this group.
Once again, some would argue with this thinking, saying that
any media representation has a story or narrative of some kind,
but I think we can agree that some works of media art defy
our broadest definition of story. Nonnarrative works include
art pieces found in a museum or gallery, such as a work of
acoustic art composed of ambient nature sounds or a video
installation made up of abstract computer-generated images.
It could also include a website that creates maps and gives
driving directions or a cell phone game where the player shoots
animated clay pigeons. Nonnarrative media works may not tell
a conventional story, but they can evoke meaning or emotion
or give information.
Despite the arguments and contradictions, some forms of
media are, by convention, associated with fictional stories,
and other forms or approaches are associated with nonfiction
stories. Theatrical films, primetime TV dramas, sitcoms, web
series, and radio dramas are common forms of fiction. News
features, historical and nature programs, reality TV shows,
talk shows, and websites are generally considered to be non-
fiction or based on “real” events and featuring “real” people.
Because of these conventions, the audience has expectations
as to whether a production is fiction or nonfiction. Therefore,
a prescripted reality show is perceived as “fixed” or somehow
dishonest, and Hollywood feature films based on actual events
are often perceived as more emotionally compelling than ones
that are purely fiction.
Fiction or nonfiction, story is key. Much of what we know

Go to the Source—
about presenting a good story was observed and recorded Aristotle’s Poetics
by the Greek philosopher Aristotle in the fourth century b.c.
(Go to the Source—Aristotle’s Poetics). Plot, or the building The Greek philosopher Aristotle
of events or actions, is vital. Character development—letting was born in 384 b . c . and died
the audience know who your characters are and why they’re in 322 b . c . His thinking and
doing what they’re doing—enriches the plot. Thought (under- writing in the areas of science,
philosophy, art, literature, and
lying meaning), diction (the quality of the writing), song, and logic were fundamental to the
spectacle (e.g., sets, special effects) all add to the power of development of Western cul-
the story. ture. His work titled Poetics
was the first systematic study
Stories can be told in many ways. Say you want to tell the of dramatic or narrative form.
story of your grandmother’s life. How many different types of Aristotle gave plot (mythos)
stories could you tell? If she’s still alive, you could record her the primary importance in a
oral history by asking her questions about her life experiences. drama, a position still held by
You could interview people who know her and ask for anecdotes some literary theorists. He also
presented concepts of complica-
about her. You could take a particular event in her life or use tion (or conflict), climax, and
her entire life to write a script and cast actors to dramatize it. denouement (or resolution) as
You could collect photos, memorabilia, and songs that were part of plot development. Much
popular when she was young and create a sound and image of what Western culture takes
for granted as part of a good
collage with no words at all. All of these approaches could tell
story or narrative was initially
a different story of your grandmother. What’s most important recognized and explained by
is that it is the story you want to tell and that it is told in such Aristotle.

a way that others (your audience) will care, too.
CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Although fiction narrative film is dominated by the Holly-
wood model and its conventions, rich histories of film have Go to the Source—
Ousmane Sembène
developed in many parts of the world and by many subcultures,
underrepresented in the mainstream Western media. Like all Renowned African filmmaker
media, non-Western media is a product of the culture that Ousmane Sembène (1923–2 007)
produces it. History, customs, and indigenous art practices was born in Senegal, the son of
shape stories and how they are told. Many non-Western a fisherman, and he received
narrative traditions are based on the oral tradition—as opposed only a limited formal educa-
tion. He worked as a laborer but
to the written word—and are rooted in a communal expression was an avid reader who became
of the wisdom and values of the culture. Use of fables, morals, a respected writer, film dir-
and metaphors are common. Rhythms, structure, and sense of ector, and intellectual. He was
time are different from those used by Western forms. African drafted into the French mili-
cinema, for example, often portrays a more reflective sense tary during World War II and
later moved to France, working
of time and a porous boundary between the physical and the on the docks, while writing
spiritual. Africa’s history of the oppression of colonialism and fiction and speaking out against
the struggle for identity often lie beneath the surface of the colonialism. When Senegal
story (Go to the Source—Ousmane Sembène). was granted political inde-
pendence in 1960, Sembène, a
Throughout history, subcultures that have been repressed Marxist, returned to Senegal as
because of race, gender, religion, or ethnicity have created a recognized writer and political
media work that reflects and celebrates their identity, lobbies activist. Sembène turned to film
for acceptance, and demands that all voices are heard. Some as a way of reaching, in their
own “voice” or language, that
makers choose to work within the established genres of fiction segment of the African audi-
feature films or documentary. Some choose to work in less ence who could not read. In
traditional ways, such as experimental films, installations, or 1962 he spent a year studying
online art (Go to the Source—Su Friedrich). filmmaking in the Soviet Union
and made his first short film
In recent times the Hollywood culture that has dominated
film and television has been challenged and has started to (continued on next page)
change. Social and political movements such as Me Too and

Go to the Source—
Ousmane Sembène
Black Lives Matter have increased pressure for Hollywood
(Continued) to be more diverse, to encourage women and people from
underrepresented groups to have the power to tell their stories
in 1963. Black Girl (1966) was and be in positions of power to determine what stories are
his first feature film, and it being told. We still have a long way to go in this respect, but
gave Sembène an international the conversation is happening and we’re starting to see the
reputation and acclaim as the
“father” of African cinema. It is results on our screens.
a tragic story of a young Sene-
galese woman, working as a
governess for a wealthy French LINEAR VERSUS NONLINEAR
family, who travels with them STORYTELLING
to France and finds herself
demeaned and alone. Her story In media, we frequently use the distinction between linear and
is an allegory for the plight of nonlinear to describe different aspects of a production, such
Africans, marginalized by col- as the process by which we structure or put a piece together.
onization and its legacy. He Rerecording pieces of video from one machine to another in
continued to write and to make
films—f eatures, shorts, and the order that you want them is a linear process and used to
documentaries. Sembène’s films be how video editing was done. Editing done on a computer is
are known for being populist— nonlinear, letting you jump easily from spot to spot and make
using local African languages— changes that ripple through the whole piece. These processes
and unyielding in their defense
will be covered in detail in Chapter 10.
of African political unity and
an aesthetic that is uniquely Forms of media can be inherently linear or nonlinear as
African.
well. A movie is meant to be watched from beginning to middle
to end. The structure of the movie is a straight line, one shot
following the next—a linear experience. An informational web-
site or a video game can be experienced in many different
Go to the Source— sequences and in many different time frames. Such works of
Su Friedrich media can be visualized as a branching structure, instead of
a straight line. Even the story itself can be linear or nonlinear.
This is true whether the form of the medium is linear or not.
A movie, which provides a linear viewing experience, can
have a story that unfolds chronologically in which there is a
strong cause-and-effect relationship between one shot and the
next (i.e., a linear story). A good linear story will give us the
information we need to understand what is happening (expos-
ition) and will lay out events in a logical manner, leading to a
culmination or climax of events that seems believable, given
what has come before. Elements of the climax have been
Su Friedrich (1954– ) is an
American filmmaker who creates foreshadowed or predicted, but an element of suspense keeps
films and videos that explore the audience waiting and engaged (Go to the Source—Story
large issues of gender politics Structure). These conventions of linear storytelling are effective
through personal experience and in a current blockbuster action-adventure film, a documentary
reflection. Her feminist/lesbian
on the endangered rain forest, and also in the story of your
perspective comes through in
her stories of family, dreams, grandmother. The chronology of the events is implied. Even
health, and religion. Like many if everything does not move in strict chronological order, the
experimental media makers, order of events is clear. Flashbacks are signaled and lapses of
she writes, produces, directs, time are clearly indicated so there is no viewer confusion. But
shoots, and edits her own work.
all stories do not need to be told in that way.
Her work diverges from trad-
itional narrative structure; for Some stories jump through time and space, where one event
example, in her film Sink or suggests another through emotional association. Think of how
Swim, her troubled relationship
your memory works. You see (or hear or smell or taste) some-
with her father is presented in
thing in the present that triggers a memory. Something in that
(continued on next page) memory triggers another line of thought of another time or
Go to the Source—
Su Friedrich
(Continued)
26 chapters, each corresponding

to a letter of the alphabet. Her
films are distributed largely
through festivals, museum
screenings, and sales to
schools and colleges. She has
received numerous grants and
screened her work at major
film festivals all over the
world. Personal filmmaking,
like that practiced by Fried-
rich, allows the perspectives of
underrepresented groups to be
expressed.

Figure 1.3 Stories can be nonlinear, like memories.
place. I walk into a room that reminds me of my grandmother. Go to the Source—

I realize that the tall, narrow windows in the room are like Story Structure
the ones upstairs in her farmhouse. I then remember looking
out those windows, seeing my grandmother on her way back The three-a ct structure has
from collecting fresh eggs in the henhouse and then having become the accepted conven-
tion for Hollywood fiction fea-
the eggs with toast for breakfast. Toast reminds me of picking ture films. This structure calls
strawberries for homemade preserves. I’m back in the room for a first act of approximately
with the narrow windows, and a bowl of strawberries is on the 30 minutes, where characters
table (Figure 1.3). I pop one into my mouth. are introduced and the main
character or protagonist faces
It is not a story in the classical sense, lacking Aristotle’s a conflict. A turning point or
primacy of action or plot. A nonlinear story freely defies time reversal occurs at the end of the
and place and concentrates on creating a sense of character or first act. During the second act
eliciting an emotional response, as opposed to the unfolding of approximately 60 minutes,
conflict grows and intensifies,
of events. Nonlinear storytelling can be found in more experi- known as rising action. A second
mental, non-mainstream media, but is increasingly employed and more intense turning point
in mainstream programming. Audiences have become used to or climax takes place at the end
a certain amount of time-shifting and stories being told not of the second act, which leads
through chronology but through memory, fantasy, altered to the 30-m inute third act where
resolution of the conflict occurs.
states, or conflicting points of view (Figure 1.4).
Though many successful and
critically acclaimed films follow
DEFINING THE STAGES this structure, many writers and
directors dismiss this formula
The process of creating a media project is usually divided into as being too restrictive. Films
the stages of development, production, and distribution. can have two acts, five acts, or
Production is further broken down into preproduction, prin- even a more episodic structure.
Commercial television dramas
cipal photography or acquisition, and postproduction stages.
and comedies have commercial
These terms are not used exactly the same way by everyone, breaks, which generally define
and the point at which a project moves from development their acts. A turning point in the
into preproduction can be a bit unclear. Generally, though, action is designed to bring the
development is the stage from the conception of the idea until viewer back after the commer-
cial
announcements.
the project has all of the resources to happen. The preproduc-
tion stage is everything leading up to the actual recording of
sounds and images. This is the acquisition stage, whether it is a
Figure 1.4 Nonlinear storytelling can

portray altered psychological states, as
in the feature film Come On In directed
by Daniel Callahan. (Courtesy of Create
& Record/T CGT Entertainment © 2018.)
20-minute audio interview or two years spent in principal pho-

tography for a documentary. Postproduction is everything that
needs to be done to the raw material (e.g., digital files, a roll
of film, videotapes) to prepare it for exhibition or distribution.
DEVELOPMENT
Development starts with the inception of the concept, the for-
mation of that concept into a concrete expression or story,
the identification of the audience, and the decision as to what
media form is best suited to the material and the intended audi-
ence. At this point, a proposal is often written that clearly and
persuasively states those decisions for the purpose of obtaining
cooperation such as funding, access to necessary people, and
the participation of others you need to help you. For fiction
projects, a proposal often includes a synopsis or treatment.
A synopsis is a concise summary of the plot. A treatment is
a detailed telling of the story, in the present tense, generally
without dialogue. Though opinions vary, a treatment for a
feature film could be as long as 15 to 20 pages, but it should
be no longer than it needs to be. For a nonfiction project, a
discussion of the subject matter and description of how it will
be approached and structured is recommended.
The proposal may be sent to a client or your teacher or a
funding organization or network executive. The format of the
proposal may be prescribed or flexible. It may be complemented
by a verbal description of the project, a pitch, which is com-
monly made in the film and television industry. During a pitch,
a producer meets with decision makers and tries to interest
them enough in an idea that they ask for a script.
FINANCING
Finding the funds to create media is an obvious need. This
could be anything from small out-of-pocket costs to many
millions of dollars. It’s also important to accurately predict
how much it will cost to accomplish your production, in
order to avoid running out of funds before it is completed.
Types of funding and the budgeting process will be covered
in Chapter 9.
Development 11
SCRIPT
The development stage usually also includes the creation of
a concrete plan to take into production. In many cases, that
plan is a script, or written version of the text of a production.
Some media projects lend themselves to prescripting. A dra-
matic fiction piece, a narrated educational documentary, and
a situation comedy are just some of the program types that
require a specific word-for-word script. However, many types
or formats of scripts are used for various types of program-
ming. A screenplay format is used for fiction pieces, such as
feature films, television dramas, and comedies (Figure 1.5).
Typically, a screenplay breaks the story down into scenes
and includes location, time of day, dialogue, and action. Later,
a shooting script, which breaks the action down into spe-
cific shots and camera angles, is created from the original
screenplay.
Prescripted documentaries, commercials, educational
videos, or training media are usually written in column scripts.
Figure 1.5 An example of a standard

screenplay format used for single-c amera
fiction narratives on film and video. This
is a page from the pilot episode of Black
Kung Fu Chick, which premiered at the
Slamdance Film festival. (Courtesy of
screenwriter Rae Shaw.)
Figure 1.6 An example of a two-c olumn radio script with voice and sound effects. (Courtesy of writer Christopher Outwin.)
A prescripted radio program uses either a single- column

script—including spoken lines, descriptions of music, and
sound effects cues—or a two-column audio script format. One
way to organize a two-column audio script is to have the left
side indicate the speaker and dialogue and the right side contain
engineering instructions, music, and sound effects (Figure 1.6).
Scripts for television or other video programs usually use a
two-column script, though a one-column format exists. A two-
column script has visual content on the left and audio on the
right. A fully scripted program includes every word said and
each shot seen. In radio and television, a run-down sheet is
used to time and describe the content of the show, without
writing out what people will say. An example would be a talk
show. A run-down sheet allows for ad-libbed conversation and
interviews, while still keeping tight control over the structure
and timing of a show. A semiscripted program combines
fully scripted segments with general descriptions of ad-libbed
material. A good example of a semiscripted program is one that
has scripted narration and a general outline of the parts of the
show when interviews take place (Figure 1.7).
Scripts are generally written before production, laying out
the plan for what follows. However, some types of projects
cannot be prescripted. If you want to produce a documentary
about a college basketball player in their first year, you might
have an idea of what the story is going to be, but you’re not
going to know all the details. You may know the kind of footage
Development 13
Figure 1.7 A two-c olumn script often has video on the left and audio on the right. This is a script from a semiscripted
children’s show in which some of the dialogue and shots are prescripted and some portions of the script are outlined.
Because interviews cannot be prescripted, a time limit is given, and the director can choose shots from a list as the interview
progresses.
you want to get—recruiters courting the player, the big move

to campus, a day of practice, the first game, footage of college
life, and interviews with family, coaches, fellow players, and
friends. What you don’t know is what people will say or how
the experience will play itself out. It’s not until after you shoot
and you know that the team had a losing year and your subject
is injured that you know your story and can write your script.
Even for a project like this, preproduction planning is very
important. You can create a list of interview subjects and write
lists of questions. You can create a script outline that includes
different shooting locations and describes the shots you envi-
sion, so you can go into production prepared. A script can be
written after the production is complete, prior to postproduc-
tion. Although this is not always done, it is recommended in
order to make the editing process more efficient.
VISUALIZING THE SCRIPT

For media projects with a visual component, a storyboard
is often created. A storyboard is a series of frames, much
like a comic strip. The frames can be hand drawn, made
up of still photos, or computer generated by several brands
1 2 3
natural sound natural sound Ed: I thought I'd

(Man opening door) (Man climbing stairs) find you here.
4 5
Lana: I almost left. Ed: But you didn't.
Figure 1.8 A storyboard visualizes each shot, allowing others to see the maker’s vision.
of software—some open source and free online, such as

Storyboarder, and some with sophisticated preproduction
tools, such as Artemis, that have to be purchased (Figure 1.8).
Each frame represents a shot or part of a shot when camera or
subject movement changes the shot composition (Figure 1.9).
Storyboards are helpful in allowing others to previsualize
the project that is taking form in the maker’s head. Storyboards
are not used for talk shows or situation comedies, where the
framing and camera angles tend to remain constant. Nor are
they used in documentaries, where shooting is done in uncon-
trolled situations. For dramas, TV commercials, and music
videos, however, storyboards can be very helpful. In feature
films, a storyboard organizes the director’s thoughts and helps
them communicate their vision clearly to the cameraperson
or director of photography and, later, the editor. In TV
commercials, a storyboard and script are combined to help
sell the client on the idea for the ad.
BRANCHING STRUCTURES
Nonlinear, interactive media projects require a different type of
scripting. Although components of some interactive media may
be scripted or storyboarded, the branching structure requires
a site map. A site map uses rectangles and lines to show the
content and structure of a website (Figure 1.10). The home
page of a website about coral reefs might feature a short linear
movie with narration that describes how coral reefs are formed.
Before footage is shot and animations are created, storyboards
Development 15
Figure 1.9 A frame for a storyboard created with Artemis for the short film, Noro, directed by Brystin Ivey. (Courtesy of
Chemical Wedding—A rtemis Pro.)
would be drawn, and a script would be written. From that

home page, however, the user might be able to navigate to four
different sections of the site, dealing with types of coral reefs,
animal life on or near the reefs, locations throughout the world,
and the threats to reefs from pollution and overuse. From any
of those pages, there might be a variety of options to con-
tinue to other pages, with the opportunity to return at any time
Fringing
Reefs
Barrier
Reefs
Types of
Reefs
Coral
Home Atoll
video
Coral
Types
Species
Animal
Shelter
Life
Food
Locations Maps
Damage
Examples
Threats
Figure 1.10 A site map shows the What Can

pages that are available to the user of a Be Done
website or other interactive project.
to the main menu or to travel sideways to other information

flow. To illustrate the navigation, you need a flowchart, which
indicates with geometric shapes and arrows the possible ways
of moving through the website and the relationships among the
different elements (Figure 1.11).
ALTERNATIVES
Not every media project lends itself to a script or flowchart.
A nonnarrative film in which many images are edited together
to evoke an emotional response would be difficult to script.
Ethical and Legal Responsibilities 17
If you were seeking a grant to make such a video, you might

write about the emotion that you were attempting to evoke and
Start
list the types of shots you plan to shoot. The order of the shots
might not be known until different options were tried in post-
production. A gallery installation might need a diagram and
written explanation to make your intention clear. A changing
media landscape demands flexibility in process expectations User
as well. Submits
Data
ETHICAL AND LEGAL

Show
RESPONSIBILITIES Errors
ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Any
You are undoubtedly aware of the power and pervasiveness Missing
Yes
of the media—be it TV, internet, movies, or radio. That per- Required
vasiveness, and the subsequent ability to have our message Fields?
seen and heard, draws many of us to the field. With power
comes responsibility. We hear much about the news media’s No
responsibility to be unbiased and balanced but less about the
responsibilities of those who make art and entertainment. Yet
Save To
these people define our cultural landscape. The media show
Database
us our middle ground and our extremes. Where you decide to
focus your media-making attention and what you choose to
say or not say become part of the definition. The message of
your media project is just one of many potential ethical issues.
Thanks
User
Production Ethics
The production process itself can also present ethical
challenges. What is your responsibility as a producer to the
subjects of your documentary film or website? Have they been
told the true purpose of your production? Are they capable of
giving informed consent? Are they aware of their rights to cease End
participation even if they have previously given their consent?
Are you conducting a production that may be insulting or
disturbing to subjects who are part of a different culture? Might Figure 1.11 A flowchart uses shapes
their cultural norms keep them from verbalizing a complaint, and arrows to represent navigation
design.
even if they were offended? The ethical challenges faced by
researchers and filmmakers coming as an outsider into a cul-
ture not their own have been studied and written about for
many years by anthropologists and filmmakers, but any maker
of media faces these and other challenges. Issues of legal per-
mission or consent are discussed in this chapter, but ethical
treatment of subjects and others affected by your production
extends beyond a signed release form. If you are part of a
college or university, your institution may require a review
process before you begin a production using human subjects.
Postproduction Ethics
The possibilities of the digital manipulation of sound and
image have created a whole new world of ethical questions. By
seamlessly changing backgrounds and physical characteristics,
still and moving images can suggest events and relationships
that exist only in the digital realm. Is this deceptive or just

the result of technological advancement? Sophisticated use of
green screen in motion pictures allows movies to match any-
thing our imaginations can conjure up. Does that destroy the
fragile relationship between film and the natural world and
undermine the trust that the audience and subjects have in a
“truth” that the recorded sound and image can reveal?
CULTURAL SENSITIVITIES
To some extent we are all the products of our cultural
upbringing. Even those with developed cultural awareness do
not at times realize the extent to which we hold beliefs, biases,
and presuppositions that are specific to our national, religious,
ethnic, gender, or sociopolitical backgrounds that we wrongly
consider universal. Issues of law, ethics, courtesy, and common
practice vary widely and are determined by cultural practice
and political policy.
In a world where the media we make is often available
to audiences that transcend our own cultural boundaries, we
need to be aware of how others with different beliefs and
backgrounds might perceive our messages. The attempt here
is not to censor your voice, but instead to ask that you con-
sider the questions and create from an informed perspective.
As makers of media, we are in a privileged position. Let’s try
to be worthy of it.
LEGAL ISSUES
Similar to the ethical decisions you make, but not the same,
are many legal issues that media makers face. You should
refrain from defaming anyone’s character. You should obtain
permission to use anyone’s voice, image, or creative work as
part of your media production. That is the ethical thing to
do. It is also the law. Issues of copyright, intellectual prop-
erty, and obtaining releases will be covered in more depth in
Chapter 9.
CONCLUSION
Media making is about telling your stories through sounds and
images. There are an infinite number of stories to be told and
many ways to tell them. Defining your message and deciding
on the most appropriate medium are the first big challenges.
Many other tasks need to be accomplished before you ever
touch a camera or a microphone, though. Thorough preproduc-
tion is an absolute requirement for success, and these issues
are covered in Chapter 9. Conceptualizing; determining your
audience; completing a distribution plan and budget; hiring
your cast and crew; creating a plan (e.g., a script, flowchart, or
outline); scouting locations; arranging for equipment, transpor-
tation, catering, props, hair, and makeup; and resolving legal
issues are just some of the responsibilities of media making.
Key Concepts 19
Whether it is a personal medium artwork or a large commercial

production, whether for an audience of a few or millions, you
are responsible for your stories. You are responsible for the joy
and knowledge they bring to people, for the effects they may
have on the participants or audience, and for the vision of the
world that you put forth.
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE

OBSERVING
Observe three examples of media programming from the
following list: a fiction narrative film or video, a web-based
interactive documentary, a radio talk show, a video or multi-
media installation in a museum or gallery, a music video. For
each one, define the story and then describe how that story
could have been told using the other two programming types.
For each example, note when and what type of script or pre-
production planning technique would have been most useful.
WRITING AND DOING

Start a notebook for the following exercises. Keep it for
exercises in subsequent chapters. Follow each direction before
reading the next:
1 List ten people you would like to interview.

2 List ten locations that would be visually interesting to shoot.
3 List ten things you feel passionate about.
4 Take choices three and seven from the first list and put them in
choice four from the second list and have them talk about choice
one from the third list. Write a one-page script of the conversation.
Think about being 6 years old. Write down your memories in

the order they occur to you. Now storyboard your list or mem-
ories. Is it a linear narrative with a cause-and-effect chronology
or is it a nonlinear narrative based on association?
KEY CONCEPTS
convergence nonfiction
development nonlinear
distribution nonnarrative
documentary pitch
exposition postproduction
fiction preproduction
foreshadowed producer
fully scripted production
installation proposal
linear run-down sheet
narrative screenplay
KEY CONCEPTS Continued
script outline subject

semiscripted synopsis
shooting script three-act structure
site map treatment
storyboard
C H A P T E R 2
Composing the Frame

The concepts of framing and composition are covered—shot
sizes, balance, closure, the rule of thirds, headroom, and
lookspace. Also discussed is aspect ratio and the options for
transferring media from one aspect ratio to another.
SEEING THE WORLD THROUGH

A FRAME
The frame defines what we see and hear. It also defines what
is implied beyond what we see and hear. By putting a frame
around something, by including it within a frame, we call it art.
We carve out a rectangle of reality (or fantasy) and claim it for
ourselves as media makers. The word frame can have many
meanings—from the slats of wood we place around the edges
of a painting to the single exposure on a strip of photographic
film to falsifying the evidence that unjustly sends someone
to jail. All of these meanings, however, include the idea of
defining or shaping a certain reality. It is the crux of what we
do as media makers. Understanding the power of the frame
and the aesthetic principles at work within the frame are key
to effective visual and aural storytelling.
Some media makers resist the idea of analyzing or intel-
lectualizing the creative process. Such a film director or inter-
active designer “just knows” that something works. The truth
is that—whether you consciously acknowledge it or not—every
time you set up a camera and frame a shot, every time you
arrange text and images within a computer screen, and every
time you place one sound source in the foreground and another
in the background, you are making aesthetic decisions. Those
decisions have implications in terms of how an audience will
receive your product. The results of those decisions either
conform to accepted conventions of media making or break
those conventions. If you learn to externalize and understand
those decisions, you will have more control over the power and
meaning of your message.
THE STILL IMAGE

Photography has been around since the 1800s when large-
view cameras and wet-plate developing required a strong
back and a chemist’s knowledge to create black-and-white
DOI: 10.4324/9781003120889-2 21
22 Composing the Frame
Go to the Source—
Early Photography
Camera obscura could be called

the beginnings of photography.
Records date back to the Renais-
sance, but likely it existed much
earlier. In this practice, light
reflected off a subject entered a
tiny hole in the wall of a dark
room. The image of the sub-
ject (upside down) appeared
on the wall opposite from the
hole. The image was first used
to view eclipses and later as an
aid for drawing and perspective.
The room became a box and the (Daguerreotype by E.T. Whitney, Portrait of Mary Eloise and Emma Walbridge,
hole replaced by a lens. This c1852. By permission of George Eastman House.)
is the optical part of photog-
raphy that was then combined
with a chemical process that
portraits, landscapes, and documents of major events (Go to
allowed light to cause a reac-
tion, with the purpose of pre- the Source—Early Photography). A photograph possesses the
serving the image captured by power to freeze a moment in time. It creates a representation of
the lens. There were many early reality but also a new entity—an art object. Once you separate
processes, but the daguerreo- the photographed subject from its context and translate the
type, invented in 1839, was the
light reflected from an object into grains of silver on a sheet of
first of the early photographic
processes to become commer- paper, or into rows of pixels on a screen, it is both the same as
cially available. and different from the original. You have mediated the experi-
Daguerreotypes were created ence. You have made media.
through a complex process Even though advanced technology has made the process
where copper plates with a silver
surface were washed with an
of creating a still photograph as simple as “point and shoot”
acidic solution and coated with with your mobile device, the potential power of the image
iodine. This plate was exposed has not been diminished. We are still awed by a fast-moving
to an image reflected through object frozen poetically in time or a heartbreaking expression
a lens for several minutes. The or gesture plucked from the chaos of a tragedy. Although it is
image was “developed” or made
visible by heated mercury fumes the most obvious, it is not merely the subject matter of a photo-
and “fixed” or made permanent graph that grabs us. It is the placement of objects within the
with saltwater. frame. It is the play of light, dark, and color. It is the movement
The result was a unique, implied by frozen action. Those aesthetic principles enhance
metallic-
l ooking image. This the content for the viewer and become the media makers’ tools
process was soon replaced by for making a slice of reality their own expression.
paper prints, which allowed
for more than one image to be
produced.
CONTROLLING THE FRAME
THE SHAPE OF THE FRAME
When we put a frame around media, theoretically, it can be
any shape we like. Paintings are most commonly in rectangular
frames—sometimes horizontal and sometimes vertical—but a
frame can also be round, oval, or triangular. Convention (and
the relative ease of stretching a canvas to a rectangular shape
as opposed to a round one) dictates our expectations. The
technology involved in making mediated visual images (e.g.,
photographs, motion pictures, video, or computer images)
demands even more conformity. For multiple rolls of film to
be able to run through a camera, they need to be the same size
and shape. An exposed frame of film used for still photography
can be square, horizontal, or vertical and, when printed, can

be cropped to any proportion. It is different with media where
the means of exhibition (e.g., the TV set, computer screen, or
movie projector) are mass produced. The shape and proportion
of a mass-produced frame must remain constant. A horizontal
rectangle is the most-used shape, but the widespread presence
of photographs and video viewed on mobile devices has made
vertical rectangles common as well.
The proportions of the rectangle (its relative width and
height) are called aspect ratio. It varies from medium to
medium and can vary within a medium as well. A frame of
35 mm film used for still photography has an aspect ratio of
3:2. That means a frame of film that is 35 mm wide is 23.3 mm
high and 34.9 mm wide. A typical snapshot printed full frame
from 35 mm film measures 3.5 × 5 inches or 4 × 6 inches.
Older television and computer screens have an aspect ratio of
4:3 (sometimes described as 1.33:1). Most current digital, high-
definition television (HDTV) systems and widescreen computer
monitors, however, have a 16:9 aspect ratio (though there are
ultrawide monitors that have a 21:9 aspect ratio). A 16:9 or
21:9 image is proportionally wider and more panoramic than
one that is 4:3.
Film used for motion pictures has a range of aspect ratios
and has changed over time. The specifics are discussed later
in this chapter, but 35 mm motion picture film is generally
projected in the United States at a dimension of 1.85:1, similar
to the 1.78:1 or 16:9 aspect ratio of HDTV (Figure 2.1).
Differences in aspect ratio become an issue when one media
produced with one aspect ratio is seen on a screen or projected
with a different dimension. At this point, we have generally
transitioned to the 16:9 aspect ratio for television, but television
is currently still broadcast and cable-cast in both 4:3 standard
definition and 16:9 high definition. There is still much older
content viewed from a time when all TV was 4:3. People watch
4:3 programming on 16:9 televisions and vice versa, creating
issues of either distorted images or missing visual information.
There are three ways to accommodate these differences. The
first is to maintain the original aspect ratio of the programming,
Figure 2.1 Common media aspect

ratios are compared. The common photo-
graphic snapshot ratio is 3:2. The shape
3×2 of the old standard television screen is
4:3. The aspect ratio of an HDTV screen is
4×3 16:9, very close to the 1.85:1 dimension
16×9 of most movie projections in US theaters.
16
9 3
A 4 B
Figure 2.2 A Letterboxing allows the full 16:9 image to be seen on the 4:3 TV screen. B It does, however, reduce the
possible image size by not utilizing all of the screen space.
Figure 2.3 Pillarboxing allows an

undistorted 4:3 image to be displayed on
a 16:9 monitor.
with the result of black bars at the top and bottom or sides
of the frame. When 16:9 programming is displayed this way
on a 4:3 television, the bars are at the top and bottom; this is
called letterboxing. This is also the case when full-frame film
is shown on an old TV (Figure 2.2). When the aspect ratio of
4:3 programming is maintained on a new TV, this is referred
to as pillarboxing (Figure 2.3). Windowboxing is a term that
is used to include both of these methods. The advantage of
windowboxing is that the full frame, as created, is displayed
undistorted. The disadvantage is that full benefit is not taken
of the screen real estate.
The second alternative is digitally stretching or squeezing
the image to fit the screen. While using the full screen, the
distortion of the image can be very distracting (Figure 2.4).
The third possibility is to crop the image to fit the screen. In
the past, when all televisions were 4:3, cropping films to show
on TV was the norm (Figure 2.5).
Film directors often prefer the letterboxing technique
because they have carefully composed shots for the shape
A B
C D
Figure 2.4 The transition from 4:3 to 16:9 televisions results in distortion when A 4:3 images are stretched to B 16:9 or
C 16:9 images are squeezed to D 4:3. Windowboxing and cropping are preferred alternatives.
16
3 9
16
Figure 2.5 Pan and scan is an

approach to cropping the image where
3 9 the composition of each shot is analyzed
and cropped in such a way that the least
amount of visual information is lost. This
approach is used widely in preparing
motion pictures and high-d efinition tele-
vision for broadcast on standard defin-
4
ition TV.
of the film frame and don’t like to see their original vision
compromised by any type of cropping. Some viewers, however,
do not like how letterboxing essentially reduces the size of the
image and prefer a cropped image.
The adoption of HDTV standards, which include the 16:9
aspect ratio, compatible with widescreen motion pictures,
solved the problem created by conflicting aspect ratios. This
change is not without implications, however. The “boxier”
aspect ratio of original TV is the ideal shape for a head-and-
shoulders shot—the staple shot of many forms of television.
Television, sometimes called a close-up medium, invites
intimacy between the viewer and the on-screen character or
personality (Figure 2.6).
Close-ups were necessary when television screens were
small, but they are not necessary with today’s large-screen
monitors. The wider rectangles of motion pictures and HDTV
encourage a more panoramic vision, ideal for landscapes and
shots with at least two people (Figure 2.7). This is appropriate
for the larger screens of movie theaters and big TVs.
Now that the compatibility of aspect ratios between movies
and television causes fewer technical headaches, aspect ratio
can be used aesthetically to reinforce the tone or meaning of
Figure 2.6 The proportion and small size of early television screens contributed to its reputation as a close-u p medium.
Its location within the living rooms of viewers also adds to the sense of intimacy that movies in a theater do not have.
Figure 2.7 Aspect ratios of 16:9 and

wider lend themselves to panoramic
scenes and action.
Figure 2.8 In his 2016 dystopian

short film, Aster and Sidney, director
Sean Temple uses a 4:3 aspect ratio to
add tension, causing the viewers to feel
the characters’ sense of danger and
entrapment.
a narrative. To viewers who are used to the wider 16:9 ratio, a

film shot in 4:3 can add a sense of claustrophobia—a feeling
that the characters are trapped (Figure 2.8). Many filmmakers
now are using the 4:3 aspect ratios to lend a sense of nostalgia
to their films, hearkening back to the early days of both televi-
sion and film. Some have even experimented with switching
aspect ratios within a film, perhaps as a visual clue to a shift
in time.
The use of the 16:9 aspect ratio has changed the way televi-
sion directors frame their shots and brought a more “cinematic”
look to television programming. Interestingly, at the same time
that directors are getting used to creating content that works
on large widescreen TV monitors, an increasing amount of
programming is being viewed on the much smaller screens
of laptops and mobile devices. Although a detailed panorama
might look great on a 60-inch high-definition monitor, the
close-up, favored by 1950s low-definition television, might be
best on the tiny screen of your phone.
WHAT’S IN THE FRAME AND WHAT

ISN’T: SHOT SIZES
As we capture an image within the frame, we make decisions
about the size of the subject within the frame and how much
of the subject we will show. These are called shot sizes. Shot
sizes apply to the human figure, but they can be used to
describe objects as well (Figure 2.9):
• ECU (extreme close-up)—crops the top of the head and the bottom
of the subject’s chin;
• CU (close-up)—shows head of subject with just a bit of the
shoulder line;
• MCU (medium close-up)—shows head and shoulders of subject;
• MS (medium shot)—shows subject from just above or below
the waist;
Figure 2.9 Shot sizes: ECU, CU, MCU,

MS, MLS, LS, and WS.
Figure 2.9 (Continued)

Figure 2.9 (Continued)
Figure 2.10 Closure within the frame

can create a strong graphic composition.
• MLS (medium long shot)—shows subject from just above or below

the knees;
• LS (long shot)—just wide enough to show subject’s full body;
• WS (wide shot)—shows environment.
Note that in these definitions, the crop points on the human

body avoid the natural cutoff points, like the neck, waist, and
knees. This is because of a phenomenon called closure, which
is short for psychological closure. Closure results from a human
psychological desire for wholeness and our need to make sense
out of chaos. When we look at a framed image, we try to per-
ceive it as a completed pattern. When visual elements create
simple geometric shapes, closure within the frame can create
a strong graphic composition (Figure 2.10).
Often though, the frame shows just part of a figure or object.
If framed with the appropriate visual clues that suggest that
the figure continues beyond the frame line, the viewer is com-
fortable with a sense of closure beyond the frame (Figure 2.11).
If, however, the frame line intersects with a point on the
body that separates discrete body parts (i.e., the neck, waist,
elbow, knee, or ankle), we accept the body part as the complete
image, even if intellectually we know that the body continues
beyond the edge of the frame. This makes the image disturbing.
Figure 2.11 When given the appro-

priate visual clues, the viewer’s mind
creates closure beyond the frame.
Figure 2.12 Closure causes us to see

this shape as complete. Even though we
logically know better, it seems that this is
a disembodied head, not an image of just
part of a person.
Figure 2.13 This image gives a

glimpse of the continuation of the body
by showing the shoulder line. We see
the head as part of a body that extends
beyond the frame. We also mentally
complete the top of the head beyond
the frame.
If cut off exactly at the knee joint, the subject appears to have
no lower legs. If cut off right at the neck, the subject appears
to be a disembodied head (Figure 2.12).
If, however, a subject is cropped just above or below the
knee for a medium long shot or if the frame shows just a
suggestion of the shoulder line for a close-up, our minds see
the continuation of the subject beyond the frame line. We
mentally complete the figure beyond the edge of the frame
(Figure 2.13).
THE WEIGHT AND MAGNETISM

OF THE FRAME
Subjects within the frame have psychological weight. Too
much mass on one side of the frame makes the viewer feel
like the frame is about to tip over. Even if a viewer is not con-
scious of it, the lack of balance conveys a feeling of uneasiness
(Figure 2.14).
During a suspenseful moment in a film or in a photograph
of a dangerous situation, nervousness may be just the message
you want to convey. Generally, we try to reinforce the content
of the shot with our formal choices. If you want the viewer to
feel a sense of control and well-being about what is happening
on screen, a balanced composition is most appropriate. There
are many ways to accomplish a sense of balance. You can
center the subject within the frame. Our eyes are drawn to the
center of the frame; we expect to find the subject or object of
most importance there. This symmetrical balance conveys a
scene that is stable or static (Figure 2.15). The news anchor,
for example, framed in the center of the screen, holds our
attention, and does not seem likely to mislead us.
Figure 2.14 An unbalanced com-

position creates a feeling of uneasiness
(often unconscious) in the viewer.
Figure 2.15 Symmetrical balance

gives the sense of stability and calm.
There is usually a lack of dynamic energy.
The Weight and Magnetism of the Frame 33
The primary subject does not have to be centered, how-

Go to the Source—
ever. A more effective composition is often achieved by placing The Golden Mean
your subject off center. There is a mathematical relationship,
the identification of which dates back at least to the ancient The golden mean or golden
Greeks, called the golden mean (or golden section) (Go to the section is a concept that applies
Source—The Golden Mean). It is based on the value 1.618 and to many academic areas ran-
is created when design elements exist in such a relationship ging from Aristotelian ethics
and philosophy to mathematics
that A +B is to A as A is to B (Figure 2.16). to visual composition in art and
This relationship is identified in nature, including the human architecture. Simply, the golden
body, and is used in architecture and visual arts to create aes- mean is a proportion of 1:1.618.
That proportion creates a frame
thetically pleasing compositions. A somewhat similar principle somewhere between the aspect
used in visual composition is the rule of thirds. It describes an ratio of standard television
approach to effective composition where a rectangular frame is (1:1.33) and that of HDTV or
divided into thirds both vertically and horizontally. The inter- projected 35 mm film (1:1.85).
section of these lines defines powerful locations within the The golden mean also defines
the division of the frame (see
frame (Figure 2.17). Using the grid lines defined by the rule of Figure 2.16). The relationship
thirds as a guide for placing subjects and objects encourages of B to A is the same as A to
the viewer’s eyes to move through the frame, creating dynamic A + B. Placement of subjects or
energy within the image. objects according to the golden
mean creates aesthetically
A subject placed on one of the lines of thirds can be pleasing images because of their
balanced symmetrically or asymmetrically. A subject of similar mathematical relationships.

size and mass could be placed on the opposite line of thirds.
This creates a balanced but static feeling (Figure 2.18). Asym-
metrical balance can also be achieved with a smaller, distant
object or a shadow (Figure 2.19).
1 A B
Figure 2.16 The golden mean defines
ideal proportions of the frame itself and
of division of the frame. This rectangle
1 .618 has a 1:1.618 aspect ratio. Within the
frame the ratio of the length of B to A is
1:1.618. The ratio of A to A + B is also
1.618 1:1.618.
Figure 2.17 The rule of thirds gives

visual guidelines for a dynamic and
pleasing composition.
Figure 2.18 Symmetrical balance can

be achieved by placing similar objects
along opposite lines of thirds.
Figure 2.19 A Symmetrical balance

creates a graphic and formal presen-
tation. B Asymmetrical balance can be
achieved by balancing a primary subject
with a background object and creates a
more naturalistic look.
Balance does not even have to involve a visible object.

A subject’s gaze, a pointing gesture, and sense of direction
portrayed by movement all carry psychological weight. That is
the reason that we use lookspace and leadroom.
Lookspace is extra space allowed in the frame to balance
a subject’s gaze in the direction the eyes are looking. The
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him who had been father, mother, friend, and companion to
her. She had indeed other friends, and a choice of homes
for the future, but none could ever fill his place in her heart.
Yet, in the worst of her woe, Annie could not but be

thankful. She could not but know how very tenderly her
Heavenly Father had dealt with them both. When she
thought of the terrible death which might have been his
portion, this most childlike falling "asleep in the Arms of
Jesus" did indeed seem only mercy.
Almost all Littleburgh went to the funeral. So great a

throng had never before been seen in the cemetery. Few
dry eyes could be perceived throughout the concourse of
people, and more than once a widespread burst of weeping
drowned the voice of the clergyman who read the service.
For Arthur Wilmot had given up his life for others; had
spent lavishly time and powers, money and strength, upon
those who needed help. No marvel that years of outpoured
sympathies should have brought a wealth of love in return.
Mrs. Stuart like others had been to the cemetery, and

like others she had wept there freely for the friend whose
face she could never see again on earth. Since returning
home, she had sat long in thought, giving vent to no
remarks.
Archie had noted his mother's gravity and absence of

mind since the day of Mr. Wilmot's death—not grimness,
which was usual, but a softened gravity which was unusual.
He noted too that her manner of speaking was gentler,
more humble, less stiff and self-asserting. He felt sure that
she was grieving deeply over the loss they had all
sustained.
"It was a wonderful sight this afternoon, mother, wasn't
it?" he said, to break in upon a silence which lasted long.
Archie had been to the funeral as well as his mother: and so
had many scores of working-men, set free from work for
the purpose by their employers.
"Ay," she said, with a deep sigh.
"There wasn't a soul stayed away that could manage to

go," pursued Archie.
"Ay," repeated Mrs. Stuart. "'Twould have been a deal

more wonderful if they hadn't gone, after all he's been and
done."
"I'm afraid we'll never get another Rector like him,

mother."
Mrs. Stuart sighed again.
"And to think of his being bitten after all by that dog,—

and nobody knowing all this while what might come of it,"
said Archie; for the fact had become known in the town.
There was no longer any reason for concealing what had
occurred. It was well that the people should know to the full
the brave and self-sacrificing spirit of the man who so long
had lived among them. If any more were needed to make
them cling to the memory of their beloved Rector, that
"more" was now supplied.
He had not, indeed, in one sense, died from the results

of the bite or scratch; but in another sense, he perhaps
had, since without it, the break-down of his health might
have been long postponed. There could be no question as to
the tremendous and terrible peril which he had willingly
incurred for the sake of helpless little ones.
"It isn't many would do what he did," said Mrs. Stuart.
"It isn't many would have thought of such a thing,

either," added Archie. "I'm sure I shouldn't. But I liked that
what the preacher said to-day, mother, about Mr. Wilmot
being willing to give up his life for the children, and about
God's pity being greater, and the Son of God giving up His
life for us. It seemed to bring the thought out so clear. I
don't know as I ever saw it so plain before. And I can
remember Mr. Wilmot telling us how pretty near all the
kindness and pity we do see round us was learnt from
Christ."
Mrs. Stuart said "Yes" thoughtfully. After a pause, she

added, "You put your life in danger too, Archie, for the sake
of Nancy Dunn."
Archie was very much astonished at such a remark from

his mother. He did not, however, show his astonishment,
but said only—"It wasn't for Nancy, mother. I didn't see her
to be Nancy till after. I hope I'd do all I could for any girl in
danger—though what I did wasn't what Mr. Wilmot did."
"But you'd sooner help Nancy than any other girl?" said
Mrs. Stuart.
"Yes—I would," said Archie, his face kindling. "Mother, I

love Nannie so much—I do think I could die for her."
"That's easy enough said," rejoined Mrs. Stuart. "It

wouldn't be so easy if you'd got to do it. But you're a brave
lad, I know. And as the preacher told us to-day—it's one
thing to be willing to die for one that loves us, and another
thing to die for them that hates us. There wouldn't be many
who'd do the last."
"Only Christ," said Archie, wondering anew at his
mother's mood.
"Only—Christ," she repeated. "Yes—He did. I don't know

as I've hated Him, like some do—but I haven't cared. I
haven't thought about Him; and that's bad enough, after all
He's done. And I hope I shan't go on so—not any longer.
You needn't tell what I'm saying—not to anybody, Archie.
But it did seem as if I must say it to somebody. And Mr.
Wilmot 'll never come again. He'd have helped me—and
there's nobody now."
"Mother, there's One," said Archie shyly; "there's One

who'll help, if anybody asks Him—and He's best of all. Mr.
Wilmot would tell you to go to Him."
"But if He shouldn't want me?" she said.
"I shouldn't think there's any chance of that, mother,"

said Archie. "I should think, if He cared enough about you
to die for you, when you weren't even born—why, it isn't
likely He'd stop caring, and turn away, just the minute
you're beginning to want to know Him."
"No—I think you're about right," said Mrs. Stuart. And

she stood up slowly, left him alone, and went upstairs to her
bedroom for a while. There are times when one needs to be
all alone with God.
CHAPTER XXVII.
HOW THINGS CAME ABOUT.
THE next evening Mrs. Stuart asked abruptly of her son
—
"Seen any of the Dunns to-day?"
"Just for a minute." Archie questioned with himself what

might be coming next.
"Nancy Dunn?"
"Yes, mother. I'd hardly a word with her, though."
"And you're hankering after her just as much as ever?"
"Mother, there isn't another girl like Nancy in all the

whole world! I give you my word for it," said Archie
earnestly.
Mrs. Stuart began to sob.
"It isn't my way to give in," she said. "I'm not one o'
those folks that's for ever chopping and changing. When I
says a thing, I mean it, and I keep to it. And I did say I'd
never have you marry Nancy Dunn. I didn't think her good
enough. Nor I don't. Leastways, her father isn't your
father's equal."
"Oh, bother!" broke out Archie.
"Yes, it's easy to say 'bother!'" she retorted, rather

disposed to flare up. She had been somewhat irritable all
day—no unusual state of things in the earlier stages of
trouble, or of any marked change in heart and life. "But if
you'd have a bit of patience and hear me out, you'd maybe
speak in a different sort of way."
"Yes, mother," Archie said meekly, a sudden hope
springing up.
"I did say I wouldn't have it," repeated Mrs. Stuart;

"and I meant it too, and I'd have kept to my word. But he—
he came in to see me, just the very same day he died—he
did, Archie, that very afternoon. And I made him a cup o'
tea, and he said—he said—I was the best tea-maker—"
"Yes, yes, mother, I know," said Archie, as she broke

out crying. "You told me all that."
"And if I did," she retorted, "there was something else I

didn't tell you nor nobody, and didn't mean to neither, till I'd
made up my mind what to do. And I couldn't make it up till
yesterday, when I was standing in the crowd, and all of 'em
in black, and everybody crying round me, and Nancy Dunn
with her pretty face all blistered—for there's no denying
she's got a pretty face."
"Yes," assented Archie, with much warmth.
"It gave me a sort of a fellow-feeling with her, and I

won't deny it," said Mrs. Stuart. "And it sort of made me
think of his talking to me like that, about you and she, and
how he hoped she'd be a good wife to you one day."
"Did he?" cried Archie.
"Yes, he did," said Mrs. Stuart, heaving another sigh.

"And I won't deny as I was a bit grumpy, not thinking as it
was the last time I'd ever see him again. O dear, dear me!
To be sure! And the very last words he says, as he was
going out of the door—looking so bad, for all he was better
for the tea, as I'm sure I'd a foreboding in my mind it
couldn't be long—and the very last words he says to me
was how he wished I'd give in and let it be."
"And you will, won't you?" begged Archie.
"I'm not one to give in easy," repeated Mrs. Stuart. "But

seeing it was, as one may say, his last wish, it do make a
difference. And I won't deny neither that I've maybe been
too stiff; and got to learn to be different. And understanding
you don't mean to think of marrying for many a year to
come—"
"Marrying! No," cried Archie. "Not yet, mother. Not till

I'm earning enough to keep you and she too in comfort. But
I do want to have her promise. I want to know she's safe to
be my wife by-and-by."
"Folks chop and change," said Mrs. Stuart. "I'd sooner

you'd keep yourself free. Maybe you'll get tired of it, or
she'll change her mind. But there, you're set on the girl,
and he wanted me to give in, and I'm not going to stand
out against you no longer. So you just go and see Nancy
Dunn, and say whatever you like, and have it settled."
Perhaps the consent might have been more graciously

worded; but Archie was far too glad to be critical. He felt
almost ashamed of his own gladness, at a time when
everybody else was sad; yet doubtless it was only natural,
and it did not prevent his sharing in the sorrow of others for
the loss they had all endured.
That same evening, Archie made his way to Woodbine

Cottage, and told the Dunns about his mother's newly-given
permission. Nannie looked hardly so pretty as usual, for her
face was still blistered with many tears, and they
threatened to flow fast again when she heard of Mr.
Wilmot's last call on Mrs. Stuart.
"It don't seem as if we'd ought to think about ourselves

yet," she faltered. But Archie could not take that view of the
question.
"I've waited ever so long, and mother's willing at last,"

he said. No doubt the few months that he had been
acquainted with Nancy did really seem long at his age. "You
won't put me off, will you, Nancy? Say she won't, Mrs.
Dunn. I do want to have it a settled thing. And you've as
good as told me already you'd say 'Yes' if my mother didn't
make difficulties. I don't mean that I'm thinking of marrying
yet awhile. I've got my mother to keep, you know. But by-
and-by—"
"It'll have to be a good long by-and-by, I shouldn't

wonder," observed Dunn. "Mind you, Archie, I'm willing to
have it all fair and straight between you and Nannie. I do
believe it'll be for her happiness and yours too, please God.
There was a time when I wouldn't have been so willing. But
I do believe it's your wish now to be a servant of God."
"Yes," Archie answered heartily. "And if I may have

Nannie, why, I hope she and I'll be able to serve God
together, Dunn."
"That's it, lad. If I didn't think so, I'd be loth enough to

give her to you. But look you here, there's something else
I've got to say. You've got your mother to keep, and it's
right you should do it. She cared for you, and you must
care for her."
"But I hope I'll soon be making enough to keep her and

a wife too," said Archie.
"Maybe," responded Dunn. "You're a capable young

fellow, and you're steady, and I hope you'll do well. Seems
no reason why you shouldn't. Only mind this, Archie, you
don't marry our Nannie, till you've got a right good sum laid
by in the Savings Bank against a rainy day. It is all very fine
to be making enough to live on in comfort, and to spend
every penny of what you've got, never giving a thought to
the future. And if illness comes, or an accident lays you by,
or trade grows slack and work fails, what's to be done then?
No, no, I'll never give in to that for Nannie. I've seen
enough of the misery of it for wives and children, let alone a
man himself. If you're bent on marrying her, you may do it;
but you'll marry with a good provision laid by; and, what's
more, you'll not squander it all away on a fine wedding, nor
on a lot of smart furniture."
Archie was well content to bind himself by these

conditions. Perhaps, like many young men, he thought them
just a little needless. In his young vigour, he could not yet
believe that bodily strength would ever fail him. But after
all, he knew that Dunn was right, and he knew that his
mother would put no difficulties in the way. Before winter,
he would be receiving the wages of a full-blown artisan, and
then, as she had often told him, would be the time to lay
by. Archie had not quite seen the necessity till now.
Laying by for the future must of course mean some

measure of self-denial. It meant this often in Archie's case.
What if it did? His love for Nannie would have been a very
poor sort of article, If it could not have endured the least
touch of self-denial for her sake.
As time went on, months following months till they grew

into years, while the amount down to Archie's name at the
Savings Bank grew also, Archie became very grateful for
the wise advice of Richard Dunn.
For, after all, though he and Nannie waited years for

their wedding day, they did not wait so long as must have
been the case, if Archie had not persistently from the first
put aside every little sum he could spare from present
needs. Sometimes it was a few shillings, sometimes only a
few pence. But "many a little makes a mickle," says the old
proverb. Archie proved the truth of this proverb.
Little more need be said, except that when the wedding

did take place, Annie Wilmot was present, besides many
other kind friends. The wedding cake was a present from
Annie, as well as a beautiful family Bible, bound in morocco.
Nannie made a sweet-looking young bride, in her neat
brown dress and bonnet; and even Nannie's own parents
scarcely saw her with more of fond pride than did Archie's
mother. For Mrs. Stuart had long ceased to regret the
thought of Nannie becoming Archie's wife; and on that
wedding day, she gained a "daughter indeed" to be the
comfort of her old age.
THE END.
Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
Edinburgh & London

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Ebook Making Media Foundations of Sound and Image Production 5Th Edition Jan Roberts Breslin Online PDF All Chapter

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Making Media Foundations of Sound

and Image Production 5th Edition Jan

Image Processing and Machine Learning, Volume 1:

The Making Sense Of Politics, Media, And Law:

Sound and Fury The Making of the Punditocracy Eric

Critical Approaches to the Production of Music and

Foundations Of Algorithms 5th Edition Richard

Anatomy of Sound Norman Corwin and Media Authorship 1st

Optics Sound and Waves 5th Edition Nelkon Michael F

The Philosophy of Documentary Film Image Sound Fiction

ILLUSTRATIONS BY DANIEL BRESLIN

1 Content and Development 1

2 Composing the Frame 21

3 Reproducing the Frame 41

4 Depth, Movement, and Time 71

Reproducing Sound 147

7 Sound and Image 173

8 Approaches to Production 183

9 Making It Happen 199

10 The Theory of Linear Structure 221

11 The Practice of Linear Structure 245

12 Nonlinear Structure 275

13 Exhibition and Distribution 297

I want to thank David Kelleher, media maker and educator,

THE PRIMACY OF CONTENT

Figure 1.1 Careful observation of life

DEVELOPING STORY IDEAS

KNOWING YOUR AUDIENCE

at least subsistence will be forthcoming. As satisfying as self-​

MATCHING THE MEDIUM TO THE

is sometimes called convergence of the media. Movies can

Figure 1.2 One example of media

most likely to use? An entire sector of the media industry is

As with many attempts to categorize and label, these terms

Fiction or nonfiction, story is key. Much of what we know

change. Social and political movements such as Me Too and

26 chapters, each corresponding

Figure 1.3 Stories can be nonlinear, like memories.

place. I walk into a room that reminds me of my grandmother. Go to the Source—​

Figure 1.4 Nonlinear storytelling can

20-​minute audio interview or two years spent in principal pho-

Figure 1.5 An example of a standard

A prescripted radio program uses either a single-​ column

you want to get—​recruiters courting the player, the big move

VISUALIZING THE SCRIPT

natural sound natural sound Ed: I thought I'd

Lana: I almost left. Ed: But you didn't.

of software—​some open source and free online, such as

would be drawn, and a script would be written. From that

Figure 1.10 A site map shows the What Can

to the main menu or to travel sideways to other information

If you were seeking a grant to make such a video, you might

ETHICAL AND LEGAL

that exist only in the digital realm. Is this deceptive or just

Whether it is a personal medium artwork or a large commercial

PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE

WRITING AND DOING

1 List ten people you would like to interview.

Think about being 6 years old. Write down your memories in

KEY CONCEPTS Continued

script outline subject

Composing the Frame

SEEING THE WORLD THROUGH

1 Content and Development 1

2 Composing the Frame 21

3 Reproducing the Frame 41

4 Depth, Movement, and Time 71

Reproducing Sound 147

7 Sound and Image 173

8 Approaches to Production 183

9 Making It Happen 199

10 The Theory of Linear Structure 221

11 The Practice of Linear Structure 245

12 Nonlinear Structure 275

13 Exhibition and Distribution 297

at least subsistence will be forthcoming. As satisfying as self-

place. I walk into a room that reminds me of my grandmother. Go to the Source—

20-minute audio interview or two years spent in principal pho-

A prescripted radio program uses either a single- column

you want to get—recruiters courting the player, the big move

of software—some open source and free online, such as

• MLS (medium long shot)—shows subject from just above or below