MODULE THREE

WRITING Skills

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Learning Outcomes

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Writing Skills

3.2 Effective Writing

3.3 Types of Writing

3.4 Technical Report

Writing

3.5 Skills in writing

Technical

3.6 Grammatical Features

of Technical Report

3.7 Summary Writing

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Reading

Introduction
This section of the study deals with effective writing. It talks about the skills to be developed
in order to write effectively. As you already know, writing is one of the four basic language
skills, others being listening, speaking and reading. You would also recall that we mentioned
writing as a verbal skill. It is also a secondary language skill where your thoughts are put on
paper for others to read and understand. To achieve this goal, you require some basic writing
skills as we continue in this discussion.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you are expected to be able to:
i. internalize the basic writing skills; and
ii. apply such learned skills in your day-to-day writing activities.

3.0 Learning Contents

Unit 1

3.1 Writing Skills

In the four basic language skills, writing, like reading is a learned skill, unlike listening and
speaking skills that are acquired naturally. Writing is a complex skill that involves the use of
graphic symbols to create a text. Remember that writing is another form of language in print.
It is a form of communication in print. It is a form of social behaviour limited to elites or
literate people. The success of written communication is determined by the sense made of it
by the reader. The process of writing therefore involves a way of thinking and putting down
ideas, thoughts, feelings and any other form of communication. I am sure you will agree with
me that writing is one of the most important human activities of a literate community.
Skills such as research, planning, outlining, editing, revising, spelling and grammar, and
oranisation are critical components of the writing process. In the workplace, writing skills
include documentation and summarizing. Writing skills are a subset of communication. They
allow us to communicate our thougts clearly with others and to create useful resources for
academic activities and the workplace. Writing skills include all knowledge and abilities
related to expressing ideas through the written word. The skill to be developed in writing
include: entering into correspondence in terms of casual letters to friends, formal letters or
official letters of application. It also includes official letters to relevant authorities and writing
or responding to advertisements in a newspaper, filling prescribed forms or questionnaire,
answering examination questions and giving acknowledgment receipts. Other skills include
developing powers of creative expression in terms of narration and description. You also
need the skill to be able to record observations in terms of experience in science, personal
experience, as in a diary and even recording commercial or business transactions. You need
to adjust your tone of language according to the audience you are writing to. It is Important
also to develop a simple logical sequence in your writings. Remember, that you are not in a
face-to-face encounter with your readers. It is therefore important that you write in simple
clear, unambiguous language, so that your reader understands you very well. This is what
makes writing effective.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Explain the process of writing communication.
2. What is the importance of writing as a communication medium?

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 2

1. List and explain four writing skills.

2. How do you develop the writing skills?

Unit 2
3.2. Effective Writing
Effective writing is a skill you can learn. Practice they say makes perfect. Remember that you
are in a form of communication. Be conscious of your reader, in terms of his/her level of
maturity and literacy. There are many reasons why we write. Whether you write to describe a
phenomenon or action, or even to entertain, to invite or complain, the audience determines
your tone, that is, your choice of words. Effective writing is readable, that is, clear, accurate,
and concise. When you write, try to get your ideas across in a way that your audience will
understand tem effortlessly, unambiguously, and rapidly, i.e. write in a straightforward way.
The fundamental issue is to make sure you are well understood by your prospective reader(s).
There are five main features of effective writing. The following are five qualities of good
writing: focus, development, unity, conference, and correctness. Focus: an essay should a
single clear central idea. Each paragraph should a clear main point or topic sentence.
Development: each paragraph should support or expand the central idea of the paper. The
paragraph should be explained and illustrated through examples, details, and descriptions.
Unity: every paragraph in an essay should be related to the main idea. Each paragraph should
stick to its main point.
Coherence: an essay or paper should be organized logically, flow smoothly, and stick
together. In other words, every word in the writing should make sense to the reader.
Correctness: Writing should be written in generally correct Standard English, with complete
grammatically correct sentences and should be relatively error-free.
For further perspective on effective writing, access the qr code (Broome,2021)
 Fig.1

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 3

1. List any three skills required for effective writing.

2. What is the role of topic sentence in writing?
3.
4.0 Conclusion
Each writing skill is unique in itself. You therefore need to be familiar with the appropriate
style. Identify your purpose of writing so as to adopt the appropriate skill. Write simple
things. Develop your writing skill from simple to complex. To be a good writer, you must
also be a good reader too. Reading helps to improve or develop your vocabulary.

5.0 Summary
The unit has exposed you to writing, the writing skills and how to write effectively. Effective
writing involves learning and practicing the act of writing for different purposes. It also
involves taking into consideration your readers, their level of maturation and literacy. Writing
is a very important means of communication. You are therefore advised to inculcate the habit
of writing constantly as practice is said to result in perfection.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. List five skills you need to develop your writing ability.
2. For your reader to understand you clearly, what factors would you always bear in mind?

7.0 Reference/Further Reading

Adekunle, M.A. (1991) Functional English. Ibadan: Onibonoje Press.
Ahmed, M.S. (2002). Applied Communication in English. Okene: Blessing Publishers.
Idowu, A.O. (1998). Round up English. Ibadan: Longmans.
Murray, D, Rockowitz, A.C. (2023). The writing process: five qualities of a good writing.
Retrieved on 13th April, 2023, from www.unter.curry.edu
Broome, L.(2021).10 principles of writing to help you write in plain English. Retrieved on 20t, July,
2023, from, https://gathercontent.com/blog/10-plain-english-principles-writing-better-web-content
UNIT 3
TYPES OF WRITING
The four main types of writing styles are persuasive, narrative, expository and descriptive
as well as non-fiction and fiction writing. Each of these writing styles is used for specific
purpose, but a single text may include more than one writing style (Philippa, K and
Kimberly, M. 2023).

ESSAY WRITING

Contents
1.0 Introduction

2.0 Learning Outcomes

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Narrative Essay

32. Descriptive Essay

33. Augmentative Essay
3.4. Expository Essay

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
As mentioned earlier, writing is a social behaviour that requires some basic skills which you
must learn. This section takes us to the specific skills required for effective writing of
different essay types. In this unit, we shall discuss skills required for Narrative, Descriptive,
Argumentative and Expository essays.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
the types of essays; and
write good essays of whatever type.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 The Narrative Essay
As the name rightly denotes, narrative writing tells a story. It is used for telling a nonfiction and
fiction story. It relates mainly a sequence of events. It tells us what happened, when, how and
possibly where it took place. It tells the characters involved in such an event. Narrative could
be stories, minutes of meetings, biographies and autobiographies. In writing any of these or
other narratives, the following points should guide you:
(a) Be clear about the story you are going to tell.
(b) Make a point outline of the main events in the order in which they naturally occurred.
(c) Be clear and specific about what the characters say and do.
(d) Past tense is predominantly used in this essay type

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 1

1. Define narrative essay.

2. What are the characteristics of narrative writing?

3.2 The Descriptive Essay

Just as the name suggests, this type of essay predominantly describes. However, there may be
some elements of narrative as you describe. We describe every aspect of human life, be it
sports, politics, architecture, lectures, writing scenes, machines, movies, music, places,
events, persons, ceremonies, wars, buildings, human beings, vehicles and host of other
uncountable events.
Descriptive calls for a very high sense of imagination, comparison and expression. A vivid
description calls for all the necessary details, so that the reader grasps the correct mental
picture of what is described. The main purpose of a descriptive essay is to impress the reader
with a picture as clear and as accurate as that in the mind of the writer.
In a descriptive writing, we appeal to the various senses of sight, smell, touch, taste and
hearing through appropriate comparisons. Thus, we resort to such literary forms as simile,
metaphor, personification and hyperbole, as the need arises.

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 2

1. Write an essay describing your school.

2. What are the features of descriptive essay?

3.3 The Argumentative Essay

Authors who want to convince readers use persuasive writing. Before an argument occurs,
there must be two or more opposing views on a subject matter. In other words, there must be
a dispute in which people take sides and argue to defend their stand. In order to have a
persuasive and forceful argument, there must be some relative objectivity in your argument.
It must be well organized and logical.
The following strategies will guide you in argumentative essay:
(a) At the beginning of the argument, state your stand. Let your position be known
clearly and present the weak points first. The stronger ones should be presented last.
By this approach, the stronger points may gain more strength.
(b) Separate arguments ‘for’ and those for ‘against:’ they should not run parallel to each
other.
(c) Show the weaknesses in your opponents’ points. (It is assumed that you have read
your opponents’ stand and you now write to oppose them.)
(d) Avoid over stating a particular point in the course of your argument or dispute.
(e) Avoid such expressions as:
1. It is known to everybody that; or it is obvious that……
2. None among you will fail to realize that……
3. Everybody knows without doubt that……

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 3

1. List three conditions associated with argumentative essay.

2. Write a paragraph on the topic; a teacher is more important than a doctor.

3.4 The Expository Essay

Simply put, expository means detailed explanation of all the main aspects of the subject or
topic. In expository writing, a great deal of description and narration is involved. In addition,
however, it also gives detail explanation of how things work or operate and goes further to
show their relations to each other. This type of essay is mainly to give specific information
about:
(a) how things are made;
(b) how certain processes are carried out;
(c) how machines work; and
(d) definition of concepts.
Newspaper articles use expository writing.
There five expository modes which reflect five more essay types. They are definition,
illustration, classification, cause and effect and comparison and contrast. Just as stated in
writing descriptive essay, expository writing calls for every high sense of imagination and
expressions. In this type, one is expected to give more detailed information. Thus, you should
be a good observer and good at comparing similar things or things or events with similar
qualities. Expository writing is the highest level of writing among the essay types. It therefore
calls for greater imagination, high level of vocabulary, relevant registers and good
expression.

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 4

1. What is exposition?
2. What are the requirements of expository essay?
3. Write an essay on how Rice is cooked.

4.0 Conclusion
Essay writing calls for your sense of imagination, creativity and resourcefulness. It tasks and
helps you to develop your writing skills. Essay writing is a productive language skill that
allows you to express your feedings, thoughts and belief in writing for others to read.
Remember that you might never know who your readers are. Therefore, you should be
careful in your choice of words and expressions to suit your perceived or your intended
readers. You should be careful with your content, mechanical accuracy and your expressions
generally.

5.0 Summary
There are four major types of essays. They include Narrative, Descriptive, Argumentative and
Expository writing. Each of these deserves special skills as mentioned earlier in the Learning
Content. The bottom line is that you should be clear as to what you want to write on; prepare
an outline as a guide; be logical in your presentation and be careful with your expressions.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
i. Write an essay on the merits and demerits of Distance Education in Nigeria.
ii. Write an essay titled; my memories.
iii. Write for or against corporal punishment in schools.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Adekunle, M.A. (1991). Functional English: Onibonoje Press.
Adegbemi, O.B. (1996). Foundations of Communication: Enicrownfic Publishers.

Ahmed, M.S. (2002). Applied Communication in English; Okene: Blessing Publishers.

Idowu, A.O. (1998). Round up English. Ibadan: Longmans.

Philippa, Kirby and Kimberly, McLaughlin, 2023). Study.com

Unit 4: Technical Report

Content

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 What is a Report?
3.2 Types of Reports

3.3 Characteristics of Non-Technical Writing

3.4 Technical Report

3.5 Purpose of Technical Report Writing

3.6 Characteristics of Technical Information

3.7 Strategies for writing Technical Report

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
Knowledge and skills are useless if you cannot communicate your ideas. There are basically
two ways of using language to communicate meaning and these are by speaking and by
writing. Of these two, speaking is basic and writing is derived from it. What distinguishes
speech form writing is the degree of organization. While the organization of speech tends to
be loose, that of writing is much tighter. This is especially so in scientific and technical
communication where special language is used. Students who study applied sciences or
engineering or other related technology courses need to first master the conventions of
reporting scientific or engineering or other related technology courses needed to first master
the convention of reporting scientific and technical communication in writing. They need to
acquire the skill of reporting technical information that they encounter in the course of their
study such as when writing reports on laboratory experiments, field trips, surveys, research
work or other report writing in the professional world. For these various situations, you will
need to collect information, organize it, and present it in a logical and concise form.
The following provides a guide to writing reports in general and scientific and technical
reports in particular. In addition to describing the characteristics of technical writing and why
they exist, you will get a clearer idea of how to approach this type of writing.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. identify a report;
ii. understand why reports are written;
iii. distinguish between nontechnical and technical writing; and
iv. identify the characteristics of technical writing.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1What is a Report?
A report can be defined as a written account of something observed, heard, done or
investigated. It is a document which presents information in an organized format for a specific
audience and purpose. Although, summaries of report may be delivered orally, complete reports are
almost always in the form of written document. Report writing is useful and valuable when it is
done right. A report is written for a clear purpose such as to give a straight forward account
of an issue, answer a question, offer solutions to a problem, or recommend an action. Specific
information is presented in a clearly structured format making use of sections and headings so
that the information is easy to locate and follow.
Generally, reports are carefully collected records written is a formal language. They are the
most significant communications in many fields including business, science, technology and
education; they summarize and present information or record the results of past actions that
may influence or determine policies.
In education, some academic assignments ask for a “report” rather than an essay and students
are often not sure what that really means. The confusion often arises about the writing style,
what to include, the language to use, the length of the document and other factors. In brief,
the differences between the two are due to the functions they serve and the structure they
follow. For example, while an essay is used to demonstrate knowledge, understanding and
critical analysis, a report basically presents information that can be used to help make
decisions or give an account of action taken. The flow of an essay is a continuous narrative
using minimal sub-headings. Graphics are rarely used, neither are recommendations given.
On the other hand, a report has specific sections of ten using numbered headings and sub-
headings; it may use graphics (tables, graphs, illustrations) and be followed by
recommendations.

3.2Types of Reports
There are broadly speaking two types of reports, formal and informal. This classification is
arrived at according to the purposes the two categories of reports serve and their content. The
formal report is usually written on goals and objectives of an organization, an institution, a
company or ministry. It can be a report that is written after studying or investigating a
specific issue or phenomenon. The writer of a formal report writes it in his official capacity
and such writing is essentially on an important matter that needs careful compilation,
analysis, interpretation and documentation. Examples of formal reports are progress reports,
justification report, annual reports, memos, minutes, feasibility studies, field trips,
recommendation reports and laboratory reports.
On the other hand, an informal report is meant for future guidance. It provides information on
related issues that may occur in the future. It is the type written on activities of social clubs,
family affairs, of even religious activities. The informal report may be written or given
verbally. The form of presentation is usually dictated by the composition of the target
audience and to some extent, the time available to prepare and present the report.

3.3Non-Technical Writing
Before attempting to understand what technical report writing is, it is necessary to examine
the characteristics of non-technical writing so as to be able to distinguish it clearly. Non-
technical writing gives an account of what is based on imagination and emotions and it is
subjective in nature. In describing reality, this type of writing makes use of creativity,
intuition, figures of speech such as found in poetry and fiction. The subject matter is usually
popular and entertaining.
 3.4Technical report
A technical report is written information that is based on an account of what has been learned
by experience, observation of investigation. It is information that reports and interprets what
has been observed. It does this responsibly from a technical viewpoint based on facts that are
verifiable. Technical report is a written statement of the facts of a situation, project, process
or test; how these facts were ascertained, their significance, the conclusions that have been
drawn from tem; and, in some cases, recommendations that are being made
Technical report writing conveys formally specific information about a technical subject to a
specific audience for a specific purpose. This type of report is characteristic of science,
technology, business and various other professions. The information provided is complex,
specialized and is organized and presented in a certain format. The writing is concise, clear
and accurate and conveys the exact meaning you intend. It also takes into account the
audience’s needs, biases and prior understanding. The writing presents information to help
readers solve a problem or gain a better understanding of a situation. The graphics of
technical writing is meant to be practical, that is, to communicate a body of factual
information that will help an audience to better understand a subject or carry out a task.

3.5 Purpose of Technical Report Writing

Technical reports are usually written to report experimental works, observations from
fieldwork, report feasibility studies, review activities already carried out and discuss possible
solutions to them. The chief aim of technical report writing is to inform and persuade the
readers by providing facts and opinions based on facts in such a manner that it can help the
reader to answer a question, solve a problem, make a decision or perform a task. This kind of
writing does not seek to entertain, create suspense or stimulate emotions. It is therefore the
type of writing which seeks to give readers information clearly and objectively. Therefore, a
technical report should contain data that can be verified. Such data will not change unless
new findings emerge after the report has been written.

3.6 Characteristics of Technical Report

The reporting of technical information involves three elements, which are:
1. It focuses on a problem or subject matter that is not popular knowledge, but rather
specialized in that it belongs to arts, science, medicine, engineering or other related fields.
2. Study, observation analysis, experimentation and measurement are used to obtain
accurate and precise information about the problem or subject matter.
3. Information thus gained is organized and presented in such a way that it will be clear and
meaningful to the person for whom it is intended.
 3.7 Strategies for Writing Effective Reports
Reports should be informative: a report examines and discusses a subject, decision of
actions is sometimes left to others but frequently recommendations are made.
Reports are based on research: personal opinions or general knowledge do not constitute
material for a good report, although for example, a progress report on a business venture may
be based on employees’ knowledge. Reports are mainly based on facts both gathered for the
report and analysed.
Reports should be clearly organized: the occasions on which reports are written are varied
and the kind of reports may call for so many guides, therefore, that no single guide can show you
how to write every kind of report. However, if for example one is going to write a report in a
work place, reference can be made to previous reports kept in the organization’s files.
Libraries can also provide one with texts on the structure and format of different kinds of
professional reports.
Reports should be written clearly: since reports are often addressed to a relatively narrow
audience of specialists, professionals or experts, they are often filled with technical terms,
concepts and language that might not be readily understood by the general public. Given the
audience of specialists; this technical language is often appropriate and even necessary.
However, if the body of a report must be technical, the introduction can often be put into less
formidable language to spell out the initial issues and to explain potential solutions.

4.0 Conclusion
Report writing is a communication form that is especially used in science and technology and
therefore an important skill that students need to learn how to handle. The above introduces
the concept of report writing in a clear and easy way to help you gasp how a report differs
from essay writing. The special characteristics of report writing such as the use of formal
language and the structure it requires are emphasized. Mastering report writing will help you
communicate scientific and technological information in academic assignment at university
and also help you prepare for professional life.

5.0 Summary
This unit introduces the concept of report writing and how language is employed in a special
way to technical writing. The purpose and characteristics of reports are described as well as
strategies that can be used to ensure that you achieve effective report writing.

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 1

1. In a table form, list three differences between an essay and a report.

2. List five important strategies that can be adopted for report writing.
3. What are the informal equivalents of the following words?
a. Conduct
b. Discover
c. Investigate
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
1. Briefly explain the differences between Technical and Non-Technical writing in
scientific writing.
2. Identify four examples of formal technical report writing. Write four sentences on each
one of them.
3. What are the basic differences between an essay and a report?
4. Explain why proper research is important for a good technical report?

7.0 References/Further Reading

Bowden, J. (2011). Writing a report: how write to books: Oxford: United Kingdom.
Green Hall, M. (2010). Report writing skills training course: how to write a report and
executive summary and plan, design and present your report. Bertrams: Norwich.
Unit 5

Skills in Technical in
writing Technical Report

Content

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 What is Exposition?
3.2 Topical Arrangement
3.3 Exemplification
3.4 Definition
3.5 Classification
3.6 Comparison and Contrast
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
8.0 References/ Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
The writing skills required for technical writing can be acquired by anyone who is proficient
in English. However, there is need to pay attention to how to use them in research reports in
particular, expository writing which is the most important skill used in technical writing.
Attention is paid to the different aspects of exposition such as definition, exemplification,
classification and comparison.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. mention the skills used in writing technical report;
2. explain the expository modes in technical writing; and
3. explain how to use the different expository modes in writing research reports.

3.0 Learning Content

Knowing the characteristics of technical writing is very important. Technical writing in
particular is informative. The purpose is to explain a variety of topics to other people. Hence,
learning the characteristics is important if you are to write effectively. Any kind of writing is
skills-based and this is also true for technical writing. A well-written technical report requires
four types of writing skills. These are Exposition, Narration, Description and Argumentation.
Of all these, Expository writing skill is most employed in writing technical reports and
learning about it will be useful for much of the writing you will be required to do in your
course as well as in your professional career.

3.1 What is Exposition?

Expository writing is a type of writing used to explain, describe, or give information. The text
is organised around one topic and developed according to a pattern or combination of
patterns. As it is used in technical research reports, a number of strategies are employed to
expose a material. These are: topical arrangement, exemplification, definition, classification,
analysis, comparison and contrast.

3.2 Topical Arrangement

An ordinary arrangement of information is an important requirement that makes for easy
reading and comprehension of any piece of writing. A good method of achieving an orderly
presentation of information is choice of a topic which can be sub-divided into sub topics. We
can see from these explanations that any form of arrangement of information in a technical
writing material is referred to as topical arrangement. A laboratory report writing material is
referred to as topical arrangement. Laboratory report writing can be cited as an example of a
technical writing that has a good form of topical arrangement. It has a topic, that is, a title
upon which other sub-topics within this report are based. The topical arrangement of a typical
laboratory written experiment may look like this:
  Title
 Abstract
 Aims/objectives
 Introduction/theoretical Background
 Equipment and Materials (Apparatus)
 Procedure
 Results
 Discussion of results
 Conclusion

3.3 Exemplification
This is a mode of symbolization that is characterized by the relation between a sample and
what it refers to. An element of expository writing is to start with generalizations which are
then supported by concrete examples. It uses specific, vivid examples for the purpose of
adding more information. For example, a question like, I achieved success, requires
exemplification.
,
3.4 Definition
For further clarification and proper understanding of any message being communicated in
technical writing, we may use some technical words that have to be defined. These technical
terms may be concepts, idea or words that readers (specialists and non-specialist) may not be
found in non-technical dictionaries. Definition makes something clear or distinct. It sets
boundaries or specifications with the intention of making the defined item stand out. For
example, what is language?

3.5 Classification
Another form of exposition found in technical writing is the presentation of information in a
clear and logical manner known as classification. It is used essentially to make a description
of similar or related objects, concepts, substances and ideas. How we classify objects or ideas
depends on the importance we attach to common characteristics that each of these objects or
concepts possesses. For instance, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of female
education in Nigeria.

3.6 Comparison and Contrast

This is a strategy or method in which you examine the similarities and / or differences
between two related things, Ideas etc. An example is, compare and contrast water flowing
through a pipe to electricity flowing through a wire.
4.0 Conclusion
In order to write technical reports competently, it is necessary to master the skills of
expository writing. Understanding the terms explained above and how to use them in
expository writing will help you have more confidence when writing technical report. They
will enable you to show how the information you have relates to each other.

5.0 Summary
This unit focuses briefly on the main expository skills of definition, exemplification,
classification and comparison used in technical report writing. This will help you to present
your information in a logical and objective manner.

Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Write one-sentence definition of the words below for a non-expert reader.

i. Microscope
ii. Cyberspace
iii. Chromosomes
iv. Desertification
2. Rewrite the following steps from the instructions for changing a car’s oil:
a. Get drainage pan and place it under the oil pan of the car.
b. Grab a crescent wrench and locate the oil plug, on one side of the oil pan.
c. Use the crescent wrench to turn the plug counter clockwise until it comes
out and the oil drains out.
d. While this is draining, grab a filter wrench and locate oil filter.
e. Turn the oil filter counter clockwise with the filter wretch until it comes off
and drains into the drainage pan.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

1. What is an expository essay?
2. Write and explain the different expository modes.
7.0 References/Further Reading
Jordan, R.R. (1989) Academic Writing Course. Collins ELT: London Neufeld, J.K. (1987) A
Handbook for Technical Communication. Prentice Hall: Englwoods Cliffs: NJ
Riordan, D.G. and Pauley, S.E. (2002) Technical Report Today. Houghton Mifflin
Co: New York.
 Unit 5
Grammatical Features
Content of Technical
Writing
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Writing Reports from Scientific / Technical View Point.
3.2 Use of Complex Phrases
3.3 The Use of Complex Noun Cluster
3.4 The Use of Nominalization
3.5 Use of the Passive
3.6 The Use of Personal versus Impersonal Forms
3.7 Past Tense
3.8 Language Items Used in Writing Laboratory Report
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Reading
 1.0 Introduction
Technical writing is a type of writing that requires direction and instruction. A well written
technical report therefore requires that you master a certain style of writing. This style of
writing has a very specific purpose and different characteristics. This means acquiring the
ability to write using grammatical features that distinguish this type of writing from other
types of writing. In the following units, you will learn some peculiar linguistic items you
need to use in writing report.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. explain the style of writing technical reports;
2. use language items in writing technical reports; and
3. explain and use some grammatical features in technical report writing.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1. Writing Report from Scientific/Technical View point
It is important to possess the English language skills needed to write scientific or technical
reports at university level. Essentially, this Unit will help you build up a repertoire of
language forms which you can use effectively when writing reports, such as laboratory
experiments. Thus, experiments conducted in physics, chemistry and biology etc. can in turn
serve as a vehicle for language practice. Since it is assumed that students are already familiar
with how to carry out experiments in these aforementioned subject areas, language activities/
practice they are exposed to could assist them in overcoming problems they may have in
organizing technical reports as well as in expressing relevant ideas clearly. Each form of
writing has its special grammatical characteristics. In scientific/technical texts the following
grammatical features are prominently used. Certain attributes are always revealed in the
substance being communicated in any technical report.
3.2. Use of specialized Vocabulary
The vocabulary tends to be specialized, which may not appear in small dictionaries for
general use. These specialized terms are not defined within the text on the assumption that
members in the profession the writer is addressing e.g. engineering, medicine etc. will be
familiar with such terms. Sentences are tightly packed with information for the intended
readers who are highly motivated and will not be bored when faced with the technical
language. When appropriate to the material, numbers and dimensions are exact rather than
rounded up. Graphs and tables may substitute prose or reinforce and expand upon the
surrounding prose. Documentation and citations appear in foot notes and bibliographic
supplements.
3.3. Use of Complex Phrases
Technical writing is characterized by the use of complex phrases. These are made up of three
to four words. Typical examples are:
a. population-based control study;
b. the experimentally determined structural parameters employed in the plot; and
c. cool-start solenoid system.
These complex phrases cannot be easily simplified without losing their meanings.

3.4. Use of Complex Noun Cluster

One other feature of technical writing is the tendency to modify noun by means of other
nouns. Examples include:
a. to prevent poor thermostat operating the machine
b. the dangers of nationwide population explosion are imminent
c. an informal modification system was used.
d. a highly accelerated air-conditioned tinted glass car may not be good for Nigerian roads.

3.5. Use of Nominalization

Nominalisation means the tendency to turn verbs into nouns. In its use, actions, procedures
and objects are often used as subjects of sentences. This leads to the use of passive
construction in many scientific or technical texts e.g. Measurement of internal diameter was
performed by the probe, conclusion of an observation

3.6. Use of Passive Voice

Passives occur frequently in scientific/technical writing. It is frequently used in writing the
procedure section of experiments and describing the methodology of a typical research study.
Examples:
a. Some water was added to the distilling flask.
b. The water was steadily heated
c. The boiling point of water was obtained
d. The sample was tested
e. The graph was plotted
f. The temperature was taken
Also, there is the use of passive to convey impersonal information in technical writing.
E.g. the rational for the studies was discussed. This means, there is more emphasis on the action
rather than on the doer of the action.

3.7. Use of Personal versus Impersonal Forms

In technical texts, there is the tendency to avoid personal forms like,
I, you, we. Therefore, the use of the third person singular, 'it' is used
or subjects such as, the study, the result, etc. For instance, it has
been shown that…..
From the preliminary studies, it was found that…………
The result of the study shows that………………….

3.8. Past Tense

The past tense is used in writing conclusion of experiments e.g. the value……..was……..
 4.0. Language Items Used in Writing Some Sections of
Labouratory Report
A. Writing Title- Words often used include: Study: this relates to careful observation of a
phenomenon e.g. “Studying the mass of an object using the principle of moment of reflection of
light rays from a plane mirror.”
Investigation: concerned with a careful study by means of observations, tests and deductions
from these. An example of title in this area is-
“Investigating the Milkan’s oil drop experiment”
Measurement or determination: relates to finding the value of property by comparison
with a standard E.g. “Measuring current by means of standard input”.
“Determining the boiling point of water at saturated vapour pressure”
Verification: involves carrying out an experiment to show that a scientific law is true or
false. This means observations made by previous researchers are true e.g.
Verifying Hooks Law by determination of elastic Constance of spring or
Verifying the law of conservation of matter

B. Aims/Learning Outcome
This could either stand as a separate section or form part of the introduction. For example:
it is usually derived from the title of the experiments and is in phrases. Examples:
to verify that at a point in a stationary liquid, pressure acts equally in all directions;

to determine the boiling point of water at saturated vapour pressure;

to determine the height of ceiling by simple pendulum; and
to study the reflection of light rays at place surface.
C. Procedure
In writing the procedure section, certain “verbs of process” are used. Below is a list
of frequently used ones:
determined as in “was determined”
conducted as in “was conducted”
noted as in “was noted”
 Tested as in “was tested”
Observed as in “was observed”
Followed as in “was followed”
Plotted as in “was plotted”
Set as in “was set”
Recorded as in “was recorded”
D. Results and Discussion of Results
The results section presents data in the form of a table comparing experimental results
with published or standard values which are very important. There are particular ways of
expressing comparison of results. For example, if the results are in good agreement with
published values, then the expressions like the following can be used:

Subject Verb Is/are consistent with Published values

Result(s)
The Finding(s) Agrees/agree with The standard value
However, if the results obtained are not in good agreement with the published values, then we
use language expressions like the following.

The Result(s) is/are significantly different from or do not agree The published
Figure(s) with value
Findings
Value(s)
Explanation of error- this forms part of discussion of results. Whenever a result is different
from what you expected, you must give one or more reasons. Language expressions such as
the following could be used in explaining the error.

Error/discrepancy Due to the Human error

The Difference May be Result of Incorrect calibration

4.0 Conclusion
Students often have difficulty in expressing themselves coherently in writing hence, it is
important to expose them to how language functions in technical writing. Here grammatical
features of English have been organized into language functions and a few examples are
offered to further explain the use of some grammatical constructions and the appropriate style
for technical writing.
 5.0 Summary
This unit focused on English language elements found in technical writing and which
students need to use. The grammatical features were organized according to the language
functions they serve in reports and a few examples have been included to give some ideas of
how they are used in writing.

Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

1. Change the following active sentences to passive voice:

a. The manager sent the memo.
b. The heated water flows into the chamber.
c. We ruled out this method.
2. Make the following passive sentences active:
a. When all work is completed, turn the blueprint machine off.
b. Recently, it was determined that the purchase of a personal computer
was needed.
c. The drawing of objects is more quickly accomplished on the computer
table functions.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

1. Identify the tense used in writing the Abstract in an experiment.
2. Which verb tense is used in the introduction to experiments? And why is it so?
3. Write down all the verbs of process in the procedure section of the experiment.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Anderson, P.V. (2007). Technical Communication. Thompson Wadsworth: London.
Markel, M. (2012) Technical Communication. St Martins: Bedford.
Tebeaux, E. and Dragga, S. (2010) The Essentials of Technical Communication. Oxford university
press: Oxford.

UNIT 4: SUMMARY WRITING

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 OBJECTIVES

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is summary writing?

3.2 Guidelines for writing summary

3.3 Sample passage and its summary

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 SUMMARY

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

7.0 REFRENCES/FURTHER READING

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, the concept of summary writing and the things to consider when writing a summary will be

considered. A sample summary from a passage will also be given.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

3.0 At the end the unit, you should be able to:

1. Define the concept of a summary

2. Identify the guidelines for writing summary

3. Write a summary from a given passage

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Summary is a condensed version of a larger reading passage, such as books, essays or paragraph. It

is a process of reading a text, identifying the main ideas, describing those ideas in your own words. It is

produced to show the teacher that you have read and understood the reading material. You can only

summarize a passage if you have read and understood it. In this way, you have to know the main points

in the passage after reading it several times. Summary makes a piece of work easier and faster for you to

understand.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Explain what is meant by summary

2. Reading and comprehension precede summary, yes or no?

3.2 Guidelines for writing summary

To be efficient in writing summary, you have to consider the following guidelines:

(1) Read the passage or article to be sure you understand it.

(2) Outline the article to note the major points.

(3) Write the first draft of the summary in present tense without looking at the article.

(4) Always paraphrase when writing a summary i. e use your own words but if you have to copy a phrase

from the original article, be sure it is a very important phrase that cannot be paraphrased and put

quotation marks around the phrase.

(5) Substitute a general term for lists of items or events and combine several main ideas into a single

sentence.

(6) Target approximately ¼ of the length of the original. That means you have to be brief and do not put

your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

 Mention and explain three guidelines for effective summary.

 What role does summary play to a reader?

 Summarize the main content of this unit.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt the concept of summary, its importance and guidelines for effective

summary writing. You should make attempts at summarizing parts of your reading manual to get used to

the technicalities of summarizing.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that summary means the condensed version of a piece of reading passage.

You have also been exposed to the guidelines for writing summary.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

1. List five guidelines for writing a good summary.

2. List two reasons why we summarize.

3. Cut an article from the newspaper and summarize it.

7.0 REFRENCES /FURTHER READING

Anderson, A & Lyinch, T (1988). Listerning Oxford: University Press

Sim, D. D. & Laufer- Dvorkin, B. (1987) Vocabulary development. London: Collins ELT

Omachoriu, G. S (2003). Effective use of English and the use of library for higher education, Jos; Eiwa

publishing press.