Using sustainable development indicators in

developing Saudi cities—case study: Makkah

city
..............................................................................................................................................................

Mansour Helmi1 , Ibrahim Hegazy1 , Emad Qurnfulah1 , Rahif Maddah2 and

Hossam Samir Ibrahim1, *
1
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, King

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Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Faculties Street, 80200, Saudi Arabia; 2 Department of
Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah,
Faculties Street, 80200, Saudi Arabia
.............................................................................................................................................
Abstract
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has achieved a rate of 69% in development sustainability level and ranked
101st out of 157 countries participating in the United Nations (UN) Convention of Sustainable Development
Achievement. This shows a weakness in the extent of achieving sustainable development in the cities of the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Therefore, Makkah city, as one of the most significant cities in the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia, was selected to measure to what extent it achieves sustainable development. The study
sought to identify the indicators through which the extent of sustainable development achievement can be
measured in Makkah. The values of indicators in Makkah were determined with reference to the accredited
authorities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, such as the General Authority for Statistics and the establishment
of the Makkah Comprehensive Plan. In addition, the quality-of-life program document was reviewed and
links between the sustainable development indicators and livability indicators included in the quality-of-life
document were considered. Then, a gap analysis was identified to find out the difference between the status in
Makkah and the standard established by the UN and those included in the quality-of-life document. Finally,
the study revealed the extent of achieving sustainable development in Makkah, which reached a score of
77.5%. The weaknesses of the city were determined in comparison to the established standards. Initiations
and several programs were proposed for the purpose of bridging the gap identified in the study.

Keywords: sustainable indicators; economic sustainability; social sustainability; environmental sustainabil-

ity; Makkah city
*Corresponding author:
hoskau2020@gmail.com Received 6 May 2021; accepted 14 June 2021
.................................................................................................................................................................................

1 INTRODUCTION accessibility and transportation, upgrading the quality of water

and air and improving methods of wastes management and
In general, sustainable development is a type of development recycling.
aiming to fulfil the needs of the present without prejudice to the • Social sustainability: It is achieved through increasing accessi-
next generation’s ability to fulfil its own needs [1]. Moreover, it can bility in neighborhoods, raising housing, enriching the quality
be defined as the process of developing land, cities, communities of open spaces and improving the level of education, sanitation
and businesses on condition that they fulfill the current needs and health.
without affecting the next generations to fulfill their needs. • Economic sustainability: It is achieved by providing job oppor-
Elements of sustainable development can be categorized into tunities and sustainable economic growth achievement.
three main aspects (Figure 1) as follows [1]: According to the definition of sustainable development, ‘a type
• Environmental sustainability: It is achieved through increas- of development aiming to fulfil the needs of present without
ing landscapes, reducing harmful effects of energy, improving prejudice to the next generation’s ability to fulfil its own needs’, it
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2021, 16, 1328–1340
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Figure 1. Elements of sustainable development.
is found that the essence of this type of development is achieving a
stable relation between human activities and natural world. This
enables next generations to have quality of life the same as it is
today [2].
In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the unprecedented trend of
sustainable development is obviously noted. The practical appli-
cation of this dimension began in the successive 5-year develop-
ment plans that had been launched in 1970, but it is recognized
that the 5-year development plans had dealt with the concept of
sustainable development in a way that contains several problems
including the following:
1. Not seeking to achieve sustainability concept as agreed glob-
ally.
2. Sustainable development mentioned in the 5-year develop-
ment plans is concerned with the environmental aspects.
3. The concept of sustainable development is covered superfi-
cially not in detail.
It deserves mentioning the following: the 5-year development
plans aimed mainly at developing the national’s capabilities and
improving its standard of living. This is considered as one of the
highest goals of sustainable development [3]. The Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia Vision 2030 has adopted many programs, initiatives
and constructive projects that enhance efforts towards achiev-
ing sustainable development. The three main objectives of the
Kingdom’s Vision 2030 (a vital society—prosperous economy—
an ambitious nation) include many sub-goals that achieve the
concept of sustainable development [3].
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ranks 101st out of 157 countries
in achieving sustainable development within their cities. This
shows a problem in Saudi Arabia in achieving the concept of
sustainable development. With the emergence of many concepts
and technologies developed at the global level aiming to improve
the level of sustainable development within its three aspects
(economic, environmental and social), it is recognized that the
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2021, 16, 1328–1340
Using sustainable development indicators in developing Saudi cities
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frameworks designed for the cities of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia that achieve the link between global goals and local goals
become limited. This requires establishing a framework suitable
for the cities of Saudi Arabia and measures the sustainability of
Saudi Arabia cities [4].
The main research problem lies in the limitedness of indicators’
frameworks designed for Saudi Arabia’s cities to measure the
extent of the performance of the cities of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia in achieving sustainable development and improving the
standard of living in its cities making them more sustainable.
Thus, the current study aims to measure the performance of
Makkah city as a case study in sustainable development in its three
aspects in comparison with United Nations (UN) standards and
livability standards, aiming at transforming Makkah into a more
sustainable city. In this context, the study intends to achieve the
following aims:
1. Merging the different frameworks to obtain a suitable
framework for Makkah city now and other cities of
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the future.
2. Determining sustainable development indicators that can
be used in the process of developing cities and improving
the standard of living.
3. Analysing the current situation of the city and identifying
the gap between the standard and the current situation to
develop recommendations to bridge such gap.
4. Measuring the performance of Makkah city in achieving
sustainable development.
2 CASE STUDY OVERVIEW
Makkah is one of the most populous regions of Saudi Arabia
(Figure 2), as it has ∼26.3% of the total population of Saudi Ara-
bia. Makkah Region consists of 16 governorates such as Jeddah,
Makkah and Taif. However, the most important governorate in
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M. Helmi et al.

Table 1. Adopted indicators for examining sustainability of Makkah city.

Category Indicator

Economic sustainability
Social sustainability
Environmental sustainability
Unemployment rate
Female participation in the total workforce
People living under poverty line
Literacy rate
Internet accessibility
Homeownership rate
Per capita green areas
Number of beds in hospitals per 1000
Water networks coverage
Sewage networks coverage
Electricity networks coverage
Air quality index

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Figure 2. Makkah city and its region.

the region is Makkah, which is the administrative capital of the

region as well as representing the religious capital of Saudi Arabia
in which the Holy Mosque lies in.
Makkah is the Qibla of all Muslims around the world. This
shows its global importance. Due to the increasing number of
Muslims and Makkah being the main destination for all Muslims
in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Makkah is required to be the
priority in development and sustainable development orientation.
According to statistics, the total number of Muslims around the
world reached 1.6 billion in 2010. This number is expected to be
2.7 billion by 2050 [5].
The population growth rate of Makkah reached 3.3%, and the
population number in 2010 was 1.53 million, and 1.57 million in
the last census conducted in 2017. The population of Makkah is
expected to reach 2189 million people by 2020; 52% of them are
Saudis while 48% are non-Saudis [5].
The unprecedented increase in the number of pilgrims and
Umrah performers from 5.9 million Hajj and Umrah performers
in 2016 to 15 million by 2020 and to 30 million Hajj and Umrah
performers by 2030. The unprecedented number of visitors to
a city of Saudi Arabia is one of the most important reasons for
selecting the city of Makkah [5].
Moreover, there is a change in the form of city development
structure since 2000 and so far, reflecting the kingdom’s attention
to Makkah, in 2000, a supreme commission was established in
2000 to be concerned with developing Makkah Region. In 2005,
this commission was restructured to be concerned with develop-
ing only Makkah, the Holy sites and Medina. In 2010, the commis-
sion was restructured again to be specialized in developing only
Makkah and the Holy sites. In 2018, according to the Royal Order,
the Royal Commission for Developing Makkah and the Holy sites
was approved.
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The UN in the Sustainable Development Objectives Program
established 98 indicators to measure the sustainability of the 157
Figure 3. Unemployment situation of Makkah city.
countries that signed the agreement to strive towards achieving
these goals. The reason for setting this number of indicators is
to help countries to meets their political, economic, and social
frameworks in order to achieve sustainable development. In the
report of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, there are only 69 indi-
cators adopted to measure the extent of achieving sustainable
development in Saudi Arabia [6]. As it is difficult to adopt all
indicators that measure the extent of the sustainability of the
country to measure the extent of the sustainability of all cities
in such country, there are 12 indicators adopted for the current
case study (Table 1). Makkah city was evaluated against these
indicators to identify to what extent it achieves sustainability as
presented in the next section.
4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Indicators of economic sustainability
4.1.1 Unemployment rate
The index represents the percentage of the unemployed individ-
uals out of the total workforce. Its importance lies in providing
a perception of the efficiency of operating the workforce within
the city. The index falls under the indicators of economic growth.
In addition, this index is one of the relative indicators that are
measured in the percentage unit [7].

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Figure 4. Job distribution in Makkah city.

→ How to calculate the index: number of the unemployed

÷ total workforce × 100.
→ The index value: 143 663 ÷ 1 105 105 × 100 = 13%.
Current situation of the indicator in compared to the standard. Figure 3 shows
the unemployment rate in Makkah compared to Saudi Arabia and
the UN Standard. It is found that Makkah reached a score of 13%
after calculating the index. Compared to the UN Standard, which
stated the unemployment rate as 5%, there is an 8% gap between
Makkah city and the standard.
Current situation of Makkah and jobs distribution in the city. According to
Figure 4, most of the laborers in Makkah, 69% of the total work-
force, work in the public services sector, followed by the trade
sector at an estimated rate of 14.4. The difference is clear and Figure 5. Female participation in total workforce in Makkah.
noticeable, which necessitates exploiting the gap in providing jobs
in inactive sectors [7].
are many chances for females in other businesses where females’
role can be developed [7].
4.1.2 Female participation in total workforce
This index represents the extent of female participation in total
workforce compared to males to identify the differences between 4.1.3 People living under poverty line
males and females in employment. This index is classified under This index represents the percentage of people living under
economic growth indicators. In addition, it is not a relative index poverty line in the city. It aims to identify the extent of spreading
that can be measured in percentage. [8]. poverty in society. The index is enlisted under the economic
→ How to calculate the index: total employed females ÷ total growth indicators. In addition, it is a relative indicator as it is
workforce × 100. measured by percentage [7].
→ The index value: 271 855 ÷ 1 105 105 × 100 = 24.6%. → How to calculate the index: total number of people under
Current situation of the indicator in compared to the standard. Figure 5 shows
poverty line ÷ total population × 100.
the rate of female participation in the total workforce in Makkah → The index value: 153 609 ÷ 1 578 722.05 × 100 = 13.9%.
compared to Saudi Arabia and the UN Standard. Makkah Figure 7 shows
Current situation of the indicator in compared to the standard.
achieved a score of 24.6% after calculating the index. Compared the rate of people under the poverty line in Makkah city compared
to the UN Standard, which stipulated the female’s participation in to Saudi Arabia and the UN Standard. Makkah city achieved a
total workforce as 50%, there is a 25.4 gap between Makkah and score of 13.9% based on calculating the index. Compared to the
the standard. UN Standard, which determined the rate of people under poverty
Current situation of Makkah and the most significant work sectors for females. As
line to be 10%, there is a 3.9% gap between Makkah city and the
shown in Figure 6, most women work in Makkah in the educa- standard.
tional sector as ∼52% work in this sector. The educational sector The relative poverty line in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia compared to other. As shown
is followed by the health sector in 24% rate. This means that there in Figure 8, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia adopted the concept of

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M. Helmi et al.
Figure 6. Work sectors employing females in Makkah.
Figure 7. Poverty rate in Makkah city.
adequacy line instead of the poverty line as poverty line is used in
the developing countries. Saudi Arabia determined 12 496 saudi
riyals (SAR) per family of 7 persons as a standard of “””poverty [7].
4.2 Indicators of social sustainability
4.2.1 Literacy rate between people from 15 to 24 years old
The indicator represents the extent of literacy for the age group
between 15 and 24 years. The indicator aims to determine the
quality of education. The indicator falls under the education indi-
cators. In addition, it is considered one of the relative indicators
that are measured by the percentage unit [9].
→ How to calculate the index: total number of literate people
within the age group ÷ total number of people within the group
age × 100.
→ The index value: 404 300 ÷ 416 805 × 100 = 97%.
Figure 9 shows that
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard.
literacy rate in the age group 15–24 reaches 97% compared to
Saudi Arabia and the UN Standard. It is noted that a 3% gap
between the best in achieving the UN standard and Makkah city.
Educational level of the population in Makkah city. As shown in the unem-
ployment rate indicator and jobs status in Makkah, most laborers
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in Makkah city work in public service sectors. Education is one
of such sectors. However, as shown in the indicator’s values, there
is no problem in education sector (Table 2). Thus, this sector was
necessary to be studied on a larger scale. On study, there was a
shortage in both of teachers and schools. For higher education,
Umm Al-Qura University’s rank fell from 14th in 2016 to 21st in
2019 as is the QS Order of Arab Universities.
4.2.2 Internet accessibility rate
The indicator represents the internet accessibility to housings and
inhabitants in Makkah. This indicator is enlisted under educa-
tional indicators. In addition, its relative indicator is measured by
percentage [10].
→ How to calculate the index: total number of houses with
internet access ÷ total number of houses × 100.
→ The index value: 188 029 ÷ 217 124 × 100 = 86.6%.
Figure 10 shows the
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard.
rate of accessing to the internet in Makkah compared to Saudi
Arabia and the UN Standard. Makkah achieved 86.6% score on
calculating the indicator and comparing it the best in achieving
the UN Standard, which stated the internet accessibility rate with
100%, there is a 13.4% gap between Makkah and the standard.
As shown in Figure 11, most internet
Access to the internet in Makkah.
users in Makkah use smartphones to access the internet. Only
half of users use laptops to access the internet. In Figure 12, it is
noticeable that the majority of the internet users use it personally.
It is noticeable that there is a shortage in using the internet in work
and educational environments [10].
4.2.3 Houses ownership rate
The indicator represents the percentage of houses ownership in
Makkah city. It aims to explain the extent of houses ownership
in the city. The indicator is enlisted under the housing indicators
and urban design. In addition, it is a relative indicator measured
by percentage unit [11].
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Figure 8. The relative poverty line of Saudi Arabia compared to other.

Figure 9. Literacy rate in Makkah. Figure 10. Internet accessibility rete in Makkah.

Table 2. Certain educational indexes in Makkah compared to standard of

the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs.
Indicator Value indicator Indicator assumed

Mean number of students 16.3 13

per teacher
Mean number of students 395 280
in school
Means number of 33 30
students in classroom

→ How to calculate the index: total number of owned

houses ÷ total houses × 100.
→ The index value: 163 349 ÷ 217 124 × 100 = 59.3%. Figure 11. Access to the internet.
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard. Figure 13 shows the
percent of houses ownership in Makkah compared to Saudi Ara-
15%. For ownership, 88% of the traditional houses are owned.
bia and the QoL Standard. Makkah scored 59.3% on calculating
On the other hand, only 44% of the residential apartments are
the indicator and comparing the best in achieving the document
owned [11].
standard, the ownership rate reached 81%. There is a 21.7% gap
between Makkah and the standard.
Distribution of houses in Makkah city and ownership rate for each type. As shown 4.2.4 Landscape rate per capita
in Figure 14, most houses in Makkah are residential apartments The indicator represents individual’s share of total landscape. The
in rate 64% followed by traditional houses in 21%, and villas increase of this indicator is related to the increase of quality of

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M. Helmi et al.
Figure 12. Uses of the internet.
Figure 13. House ownership rate in Makkah.
urban design for residential areas. This indictor is included under
housing indicators and urban design. In addition, it is a digital
indicator measured by the square meter per capita.
→ How to calculate the index: total landscape area ÷ total
population × 100.
→ The index value: 744 260 ÷ 1 578 722 = 0.47 m2 per capita.
Figure 15 shows the
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard.
per capita share of landscape area in Makkah city compared to
Saudi Arabia and the QoL Standard. Makkah scored 0.47 m2
per capita. On calculating the indicator and comparison to the
standard stipulated in the document standard, the per capita share
in Makkah of landscapes was 1.46 m2 . There is a 0.99% gap
between Makkah and the standard.
As shown in Figure 16, Makkah city
Open spaces distribution in Makkah.
has many areas that can be used in the process of compensating for
the shortage of landscapes and is illustrated in Figure 17, which
shows the distribution of open spaces in Makkah. Landscapes
represent only 0.13% of all open areas [12].
4.2.5 Number of beds in hospitals per 1000 persons
The indicator represents number of beds in hospitals per 1000
persons. The higher value of this indicator, the better quality the
health sector is. The indicator is included in the public health
1334 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2021, 16, 1328–1340
indicator. It is a digital indicator measured by the unit of beds
number per 1000 persons.
→ How to calculate the index: total number of hospital beds in
the city ÷ total population ÷ 1000.
→ The index value: 2992 ÷ (1 578 722 ÷ 1000) = 1.89 beds per
1000 persons.
Figure 18 shows
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard.
number of hospital beds per 1000 persons in Makkah compared
to Saudi Arabia and the QoL Standard. Makkah scored 1.89 beds
per 1000 persons. On calculating the indicator and comparison to
the standard stipulated in the document standard, the number of
hospital beds per 1000 persons is 2.3. There is a 0.0.41 beds per
1000 persons gap between Makkah and the standard.
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As shown in the analysis of unem-
Health services situation in Makkah.
ployment indicator and jobs status in Makkah, most laborers in
Makkah work in public service sectors. Health sector is one of
such sectors. There are 15 hospitals, 116 healthcare units and
12 Red Crescent Cents. The number of laborers in Makkah is
3326 doctors and 6337 nurses. Table 3 shows the distribution of
workforce in hospital and healthcare units [9].
4.3 Indicators of environmental sustainability
4.3.1 Water networks coverage
This indicator represents the rate providing public water network
service in Makkah city. This indicator is enlisted under infrastruc-
ture indicators as well as being a relative indicator measured in
percentage unit [9].
→ How to calculate the index: total number of serviced
houses ÷ total houses × 100.
→ The index value: 162 200 ÷ 275 461 × 100 = 63%.
Figure 19 shows the
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard.
rate of water networks coverage in Makkah compared to Saudi
Arabia and the UN Standard. Makkah scored 63%. On calculating
the indicator and comparing the best in achieving the UN stan-
dard stipulating water networks coverage to be 98%, there is a 32%
gap between Makkah and the standard.
Water network in Makkah. Figure 20 shows serving the houses in
Makkah with water networks reach 63%. Compared to the
UN Standard, there is a large shortage in service. In addition,
Figure 21 shows that the network service is centered in the central
area only. So, it is necessary to focus on solving this problem to
cope up the population rapid growth of the city.
4.3.2. Sewage network coverage
This indicator represents the rate providing public sewage net-
work service in Makkah city. This indicator is enlisted under
infrastructure indicators as well as being a relative indicator mea-
sured in percentage unit [9].
→ How to calculate the index: total number of serviced
houses ÷ total houses × 100.
→ The index value: 132 211 ÷ 275 461 × 100 = 48%.

Figure 14. Types of housing and ownership percentage for each type.
Figure 15. Per capita share of landscape area.
Figure 16. Open spaces area in Makkah (m2 ).
Figure 22 shows the
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard.
rate of sewage networks coverage in Makkah compared to Saudi
Arabia and the UN Standard. Makkah scored 48%. On calculating
the indicator and comparing the best in achieving the UN stan-
dard stipulating water networks coverage to be 95%, there is a 47%
gap between Makkah and the standard.
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Using sustainable development indicators in developing Saudi cities
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Figure 17. Distribution of the relative open spaces.
Figure 18. Number of beds per 1000 persons.
Sewage network in Makkah. Figure 23 shows serving the houses in
Makkah with sewage networks reaches 48%. Compared to the
UN Standard, there is a large shortage in service. In addition,
Figure 24 shows that the network service is centered in the central
area only. So, it is necessary to focus on solving this problem to
cope up with the rapid population growth of the city.
1335
M. Helmi et al.

Table 3. The distribution of workforce in health sector in Makkah.

Laborers Hospitals Healthcare units

Sex Male Female Male Female

Doctors 70% 30% 62% 38%

Nurses 17% 83% 30% 70%

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Figure 19. Water network coverage in Makkah.

Figure 21. Water network in Makkah.

Figure 20. Water network coverage in Makkah.

Figure 22. Sewage network coverage in Makkah.

4.3.3 Electricity network coverage

This indicator represents the rate providing electric network ser-
vice in Makkah city. This indicator is enlisted under infrastruc-
ture indicators as well as being a relative indicator measured in
percentage unit [9].
→ How to calculate the index: total number of serviced
houses ÷ total houses × 100.
→ The index value: 256 688 ÷ 275 461 × 100 = 99.7%.
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard. Figure 25 shows
the rate of electricity network coverage in Makkah compared to
Saudi Arabia and the UN Standard. Makkah scored 99.7%. On
calculating the indicator and comparing the best in achieving the
UN standard stipulating water networks coverage to be 100%, Figure 23. Sewage network coverage in Makkah.
there is a 0.03% gap between Makkah and the standard.
Electricity network in Makkah. Figure 26 shows that most houses in that Makkah is covered fully with electric networks (Figure 27).
Makkah are covered with electric public networks in 99.7%. The Compared to the UN Standard, it is believed that this rate opens
remaining 0.03% is private networks. This makes us to consider the road towards sustainability in energy [9].

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Figure 24. Sewage network in Makkah. Figure 27. Electricity network in Makkah.

Figure 25. Current situation of Makkah. Figure 28. Current situation of Makkah.

4.3.4 Indicator of air quality

Air quality manual is a simple method to introduce the quality
of air. It depends on the data obtained from the quality of air
record and control stations. The concentrations of pollutants are
transferred into simple number to be understood by ordinary
people in the form of certain colors.
Current situation of the indicator compared to standard. Figure 28 shows
indicator’s reading of quality of air in Makkah city compared to
Saudi Arabia and the UN Standard. Makkah scored 38 and when
comparing with the UN Standard stipulating 15, there is a 23 kg
per capita gap between Makkah and the standard.
Green : Healthy, when the value
Readings the types of air quality indicator.
of quality of air indicator varies from 0 to 50, the status of air
Figure 26. Electricity network coverage in Makkah.
quality is considered very good. Makkah scored a reading within
this type (Figure 29).

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M. Helmi et al.
Figure 29. Details of air quality indicator’s readings.
Figure 30. Order of indicators as per the findings of gap analysis.
Yellow : Mediate, when the value of quality of air indicator
varies from 51 to 100, the status of air quality is considered
acceptable.
Orange : Unhealthy for sensitive groups, when the value of
quality of air indicator varies from 101 to 150, the status of air
quality is considered mediate.
Red : Unhealthy, when the value of quality of air indicator varies
from 151 to 200, the status of air quality is considered unhealthy
[13].
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Gap analysis finding is a significant guide showing problems
rate and size in Makkah as well as identifying the most harmful
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problems affecting the city to the least harmful ones to get a
clear perception of the city in achieving sustainable development.
Figure 30 shows the order of indicators as per the findings of gap
analysis.
In order to bridge the gaps in the above-mentioned indicators
in achieving more sustainability in Makkah city, the research
proposed some principles and related action plans, which are
needed to be considered (Table 4).
In order to facilitate this action plans for the current case study
and for other cities in Saudi Arabia, the following recommenda-
tions are to be considered:
1. Developing an agency to be concerned with monitoring and
collecting the values of indicators and updating the values
periodically in order to achieve sustainable development on
an ongoing basis.

Table 4. Proposed action plans as per the findings of gap analysis.
Indicator
Per capital share of
landscape indicator
Indicator of sewage
networks service
Indicator water
network coverage
Quality of air
indicator
Indicator of females
participation in total
workforce
Houses ownership
rate indicator
Indicator of hospital
beds number per 1000
persons
Principle
Studying the
developable mountain
areas and converting
them into landscape
Identifying the space
lands and agricultural
areas to expropriate
and convert them into
landscape
Classification of
landscapes in Makkah
Recycling wastewater
in Makkah
Developing sewage
network in Makkah:
Developing water
network in Makkah
Developing new
requirements to
eliminate the
pollutants’
concentrations in
Makkah
Reducing pollutants’
concentrations in
Makkah
Providing qualifying
programs for females
in Makkah
Private–public sectors
initiation to employ
females in Makkah
Approving projects to
develop the random
areas in Makkah
Attracting investors of
housing sector in
Makkah
Gap bridging in health
sector in Makkah
Attracting the private
sector investment in
the health sector in
Makkah
Using sustainable development indicators in developing Saudi cities
Action plan
1. Classifying the mountain areas into exploitable and non-exploitable areas.
2. Classifying the exploitable mountain areas into ones with historic heritage and others
with no historic heritage.
1. The process of monitoring all vacant lands, classifying them based on the types of possible
investments and encouraging the process of developing them by establishing facilities and
features for these lands.
2. The process of monitoring and classifying agricultural areas in Makkah and determining
the possible investment types.
1. Classifying landscapes into investable and non-investable areas.
2. Providing advantages and facilities to investors in the process of maintenance and
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operation of landscapes in Makkah, such as advertising spaces and lease spaces.
1. Distributing plants to recycle wastewater.
2. Converting sewage water into secondary exploitable products such as gray water and
methane gas.
1. Developing the current sewage network in a phased manner. The first phase is to start
with government support.
2. Creating a government-subsidized company aiming to complete the development of the
sewage network in Makkah to attract the owners of companies specialized in transporting
wastewater in the city and making them shareholders of the company.
1. Developing the current water network in a phased manner, the first stage of which is
government support.
2. Upgrading of a government-supported company aiming to complete the development of
the water network in Makkah to attract the owners of companies specialized in the process
of servicing water in Makkah make them shareholders of the company.
1. Adopting the Environmental Studies Policy updated by the Ministry of Municipal and
Rural Affairs stipulating the classification of projects. Industrial facilities are in the first
classification, exhaust fumes pollutants are in the second classification, industrial and
construction sites are in the third classification and agricultural sites are included in the
fourth classification.
1. Establishing new requirements aimed at reducing pollutants’ concentrations in Makkah.
2. Educating the residents of Makkah with regard to pollutants’ concentrations in the city.
3. Making the reduction initiation a governmental one. Then, engaging the private sectors
in such initiation through facilitating administrative procedures for companies that
manufacture eliminating pollution materials.
1. Working on supporting and developing females desiring to work in Makkah.
2. Providing qualifying and development programs to develop human resources in the city
targeting females.
1. Classifying jobs and identifying the jobs that can be employed by females in Makkah.
2. Concentrating on sectors of public services, industry and private housing.
3. Providing merits to the bodies employing females in Makkah (such as public support,
insurance and allowances) to encourage employing females.
1. Identifying the random areas in Makkah and classifying them into areas requiring urgent
intervention and others that do not.
2. Converting the areas requiring urgent intervention into areas with high density. Other
areas are to be converted into areas with low capacity.
3. Developing a questionnaire for residents to determine their development desires
(engaging residents in the development process).
1. Facilitating administrative procedures for investors in the housing sector and giving them
special advantages such as private investment areas.
2. Developing programs, in cooperation with the banking sector, aiming to facilitate home
ownership for the population.
1. Selecting the best sites to establish two public hospitals to bridge the gap.
2. Determining the investment opportunities in health sector in Makkah.
1. Encouraging the private sector investment to operate and maintain health facilities.
2. Facilitating the administrative procedures necessary to engaging the private sector in the
field of health facilities maintenance and operation in Makkah.
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2021, 16, 1328–1340 1339
M. Helmi et al.
2. Making Makkah an example for achieving sustainable
development and generalizing the method of measurement
on other cities of Saudi Arabia.
3. Publishing statistical data for general population and creat-
ing a guide for each city aiming to upgrade all cities in Saudi
Arabia and improve KSA’s result in achieving sustainable
development.
4. Considering global experiences, problem-solving methods
and developing initiatives suitable for every city in Saudi
Arabia considering the relative advantage of each city.
5. Re-studying the necessary administrative procedures for the
purpose of facilitating the process of engaging the private
sector in the sustainable development process and setting
advantages for the parties taking part in the process.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
There is no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
• This project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research
(DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under
grant no. KEP-5-137-41. The authors, therefore, acknowledge
and thank DSR for technical and financial support.
• The authors would like to thank Mr. Mohammed Sleem, the
external consultant, for his contributions, assistance and sup-
port during the study and research.
1340 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2021, 16, 1328–1340
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