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 i

Manual of Structural
Kinesiology
R. T. Floyd EdD, ATC,
CSCS
Director of Athletic Training and
Sports Medicine
Distinguished Professor of Physical
Education and Athletic Training
Chair, Department of Physical
Education and Athletic Training
Chair, School of Health Sciences and
Human Performance
The University of West Alabama
Livingston, Alabama

TWENTY-FIRST EDITION
 ii

MANUAL OF STRUCTURAL KINESIOLOGY

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New

York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2021 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior
written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in
any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast
for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may

not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20

ISBN 978-1-260-57563-7
MHID 1-260-57563-2

Cover Image: Erik Isakson/Blend Images LLC

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are
considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of
publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an
endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill
LLC does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at
these sites.

mheducation.com/highered
 iii

To
my family,
Lisa, Robert Thomas, Jeanna, Rebecca, and Kate
who understand, support, and allow me to
pursue my profession

and to my parents,
Ruby and George Franklin,
who taught me the importance of a strong work ethic
with quality results

R.T.F.
 iv

Contents
Preface
1 Foundations of Structural Kinesiology

2 Neuromuscular Fundamentals

3 Basic Biomechanical Factors and Concepts

4 The Shoulder Girdle

5 The Shoulder Joint

6 The Elbow and Radioulnar Joints

7 The Wrist and Hand Joints

8 The Hip Joint and Pelvic Girdle

9 The Knee Joint

10 The Ankle and Foot Joints

11 The Trunk and Spinal Column

12 Muscular Analysis of Selected Exercises and Related Concepts

Appendix
Glossary
Index
 v

About the Author

R. T. Floyd is in his forty-sixth year of providing athletic training
services for the University of West Alabama. Currently, he serves as
the Director of Athletic Training and Sports Medicine for the UWA
Athletic Training and Sports Medicine Center, Program Director for
UWA’s CAATE accredited curriculum, and as a distinguished
professor in the Department of Physical Education and Athletic
Training, which he chairs. He also serves as chair of the recently
established School of Health Sciences and Human Performance. He
has taught numerous courses in physical education, exercise science
and athletic training, including kinesiology, at both the
undergraduate and graduate levels since 1980.

Floyd has maintained an active professional life throughout his

career. In 2017, he completed two terms as President of the National
Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA) Research & Education
Foundation after serving in multiple roles on the Board of Directors
since 2002. He previously finished eight years of service on the
NATA Board of Directors representing District IX, the Southeast
Athletic Trainers’ Association (SEATA). Previously, he served as the
District IX representative to the NATA Educational Multimedia
Committee from 1988 to 2002. He has served as the Convention Site
Selection Chair for District IX from 1986 to 2004 and has directed
the annual SEATA Competencies in Athletic Training Student
Workshop since 1997. He has also served as a NATA BOC examiner
for well over a decade and has served as a Joint Review Committee
on Educational Programs in Athletic Training site visitor several
times. He has provided over a hundred professional presentations at
the local, state, regional, and national levels and has published
several articles and videos related to the practical aspects of athletic
training. He began authoring the Manual of Structural Kinesiology
in 1992 with the twelfth edition after the passing of Dr. Clem W.
Thompson, who authored the fourth through the eleventh editions.
In 2010, much of the content of this text was incorporated into
Kinesiology for Manual Therapies, which he co-authored with
Nancy Dail and Tim Agnew.

Floyd is a certified member of the National Athletic Trainers’

Association, a Certified Strength & Conditioning Specialist, and a
Certified Personal Trainer in the National Strength and Conditioning
Association. He is also a member of the American College of
Sports Medicine, the American Orthopaedic Society for Sports
Medicine, the American Osteopathic Academy of Sports Medicine,
the American Sports Medicine Fellowship Society, SHAPE America
and the Athletic Equipment Managers’ Association. Additionally, he
is licensed in Alabama as an Athletic Trainer and an Emergency
Medical Technician.

Floyd was presented the NATA Athletic Trainer Service Award in

1996, the Most Distinguished Athletic Trainer Award by the NATA in
2003, and received the NATA Sayers “Bud” Miller Distinguished
Educator Award in 2007. In 2013 he was inducted into the NATA
Hall of Fame. He received the District IX Award for Outstanding
Contribution to the field of Athletic Training by SEATA in 1990 and
the Award of Merit in 2001 before being inducted into the
organization’s Hall of Fame in 2008. In 1997, the UWA Faculty and
Board of Trustees recognized Floyd for outstanding achievement in
scholarship, teaching, and leadership by presenting him with a
Loraine McIlwain Bell Trustee Professorship. In 2001, he was
inducted into the Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi and the University
of West Alabama Athletic Hall of Fame. He was inducted into the
Alabama Athletic Trainers’ Association Hall of Fame in May 2004. In
2012, he was presented the Great Minds Award by the UWA Phi
Kappa Phi Honor Society and the Nellie Rose McCrory Service
Excellence Award by UWA. In 2014, he was inducted into the Society
of the Golden Key at UWA and was selected as the first recipient of
the UWA Distinguished Professorship. Upon completion of its
expansion in 2014, the athletic training facility was named the R.T.
Floyd Athletic Training and Sports Medicine Center by the UWA
Board of Trustees. In 2018, he received the NATA Research and
Education Foundation Lifetime Contribution Award.
 vi

Preface
I greatly appreciate the loyalty that the numerous faculty members,
students, and other professionals have shown this work over the
years. Conversations with many of you have continued to generate
ideas to improve and advance the presentation of the content which I
continue to incorporate while attempting to maintain the successful
presentation approach the late Dr. Clem Thompson established from
1961 through 1989. I first used this book as an undergraduate and
later in my teachings over the years. Having developed great respect
for this text and Dr. Thompson’s style, it is my intention to continue
to preserve the effectiveness of this time-honored text, while adding
material pertinent to the professions working with today’s physically
active population. I have attempted to maintain and improve clarity
while continuing with a concise, simple, and straightforward
presentation method. I have drawn upon my career experiences,
both as a clinician and an educator, to assist in this process and
sincerely hope that this approach is beneficial to those who use this
text.
This text, now in its 73rd year, has undergone many revisions over
the years. My goal continues to be making the material as applicable
as possible to physical activity and to make it more understandable
and easier to use for the student and professional. While reading this
text, I challenge kinesiology students and professionals to
immediately apply the content to physical activities with which they
are individually familiar. I hope that the reader will simultaneously
palpate his or her own moving joints and contracting muscles to gain
application. Concurrently, I encourage readers to palpate the joints
and muscles of colleagues to gain a better appreciation of the wide
range of normal anatomy and, when possible, appreciate the
variation from normal found in injured and pathological
musculoskeletal anatomy. Additionally, with the tremendous growth
of information and media available via the Internet and other
technological means, I encourage careful and continuous exploration
of these resources. These resources should be helpful, but must be
reviewed with a critical eye, as all information should be. I also
encourage you to reach out to me with questions, concerns and
suggestions you may have regarding the content and presentation
style and I will do my best to respond.

Audience
This text is designed for students in an undergraduate structural
kinesiology course after completing courses in human anatomy and
physiology. While primarily utilized in physical education, human
performance, movement science, exercise science, athletic training,
physical therapy, and massage therapy curriculums, it is often used
as a continuing reference by other clinicians and educators in
addressing musculoskeletal concerns of the physically active. Applied
kinesiologists, athletic trainers, athletic coaches, physical educators,
physical therapists, occupational therapists, health club instructors,
strength and conditioning specialists, personal trainers, massage and
manual therapists, physicians, and others who are responsible for
evaluating, diagnosing, improving, and maintaining the muscular
strength, endurance, flexibility, and overall health of individuals will
benefit from this text.
With the ever-continuing growth in the number of participants of
all ages in a spectrum of physical activity, it is imperative that
medical, health, fitness, and education professionals involved in
providing instruction and information to the physically active be
correct and accountable for the teachings that they advance. The
variety of exercise machines, techniques, strengthening and
flexibility programs, and training programs is continuously
expanding and changing, but the musculoskeletal system is constant
in its design and architecture. Regardless of the goals sought or the
approaches used in exercise activity, the human body is the basic
factor and must be thoroughly understood and considered to
maximize performance capabilities and minimize undesirable
results. Most advances in kinesiology and exercise science continue
to result from a better understanding of the body and how it
functions. I believe that an individual in this field can never learn
enough about the structure and function of the human body and that
this is typically best learned through practical application.
 vii

Those who are charged with the responsibility of providing

assessment, examination, diagnosis, instruction and consultation to
the physically active will find this text a helpful and valuable resource
in their never-ending quest for knowledge and understanding of
human movement.

New to this edition

A very careful review of the entire text including all figures and tables
has been conducted with the intent of simplifying and clarifying for
better understanding when possible. Additional terms, content and
concepts in select cases have been added. These include body
positions, open vs. c;lose packed joint positions, concave-convex
rule, Lombard's paradox, and a lever terminology table. Chapters 4
through 11 now have a table detailing how to locate and palpate the
key bony and joint landmarks. The labeling and captions in many
figures have been enhanced with further details. Terms for the
"peroneal" muscles and nerves have been changed to more current
international term fibular or fibularis. In many cases fibularis is
directly followed by peroneal in parenthesis to avoid confusion.
Further details on the plantaris muscle have also been added.
Additional references have been added along with some revisions
and additions to the review and laboratory exercises, and end-of-
chapter worksheets. Additional questions and exercises will continue
to be added to the Online Learning Center. Finally, a few new terms
have been added to the Glossary.

The 21st edition of Manual of Structural Kinesiology is now

available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated
assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook
for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience
proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively.
All of the title’s website and ancillary content are also available
through Connect, including:
 Downloadable PowerPoint presentations
Image bank
Test bank questions
End-of-chapter exercise and worksheet answers
Student Success Strategies

Acknowledgments
I am very appreciative of the numerous comments, ideas, and
suggestions provided by reviewers. These reviews have been a most
helpful guide in this revision and the suggestions have been
incorporated to the extent possible when appropriate. These
reviewers are:

Tammy Bovee, Northwest Christian University

Kristin Heumann, Colorado Mesa University
Jeffrey Lowes, Liberty University
Jim Romagna, University of Dubuque
Eric Sorenson, Azusa Pacific University
Ron Walker, The University of Tulsa
Henry Wang, Ball State University
Amanda Wooldridge, Assistant Professor of Exercise Science
and Wellness at Montgomery County Community College

I would like to especially thank the kinesiology, exercise science

and athletic training students and faculty of the University of West
Alabama for their suggestions, advice, and input throughout this
revision. Their assistance and suggestions have been very helpful. I
am particularly grateful to Britt Jones of Livingston, Alabama, for his
outstanding photography. I also acknowledge John Hood and Lisa
Floyd of Birmingham and Livingston, Alabama, respectively, for the
fine photographs. Special thanks to the late Linda Kimbrough of
Birmingham, Alabama, for her superb illustrations and insight. I
appreciate the models for the photographs, Audrey Crawford, Fred
Knighten, Darrell Locket, Amy Menzies, Matthew Phillips, Emma
Powell, Jay Sears, Marcus Shapiro, and David Whitaker. My thanks
also go to Katie Roman and Erika Lo, and the McGraw-Hill staff who
have been most helpful in their assistance and suggestions in
preparing the manuscript for publication.

R. T. Floyd
 viii

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x
 1

Chapter 1
Foundations of Structural Kinesiology

Objectives

To review the anatomy of the skeletal system

To review and understand the terminology used to describe body part locations, reference positions,
and anatomical directions
To review the planes of motion and their respective axes of rotation in relation to human movement
To describe and understand the various types of bones and joints in the human body and their
functions, features, and characteristics
To describe and demonstrate the joint movements

Kinesiology may be defined as the study of the principles of anatomy (active and passive structures),
physiology, and mechanics in relation to human movement. The emphasis of this text is structural
kinesiology—the study of muscles, bones, and joints as they are involved in the science of movement.
To a much lesser degree, certain physiological and biomechanical principles are addressed to enhance
the understanding of the structures discussed.
Bones vary in size and shape, which factors into the amount and type of movement that occurs
between them at the joints. The types of joint vary in both structure and function. Muscles also vary
greatly in size, shape, and structure from one part of the body to another.
Anatomists, athletic trainers, physical therapists, occupational therapists, physicians, nurses, massage
therapists, coaches, strength and conditioning specialists, performance enhancement specialists,
personal trainers, physical educators, and others in health-related fields should have an adequate
knowledge and understanding of all the large muscle groups so they can teach others how to strengthen,
improve, and maintain optimal function of the human body. This knowledge forms the basis of exercise
programs followed to strengthen and maintain all the muscles. In most cases, exercises that involve the
larger primary movers also involve the smaller muscles, however, in certain instances more detailed
programs are needed to address certain muscles.
More than 600 muscles are found in the human body. In this book, an emphasis is placed on the
larger muscles that are primarily involved in movement of the joints. Details related to many of the small
muscles located in the hands, feet, and spinal column are provided to a lesser degree.
Fewer than 100 of the largest and most important muscles, primary movers, are considered in this
text. Some small muscles in the human body, such as the multifidus, plantaris, scalenus, and serratus
posterior, are omitted because they are exercised with other larger primary movers. In addition, most
small muscles of the hands and feet are not given the full attention provided to the larger muscles. Many
small muscles of the spinal column, and the facial muscles, are beyond the scope of this text, and are not
considered in full detail.

Kinesiology students frequently become so engrossed in learning individual muscles that they lose
sight of the total muscular system. They miss the “big picture”—that muscle groups move joints in given
movements necessary for bodily action and skilled performance. Although it is vital to learn the small
details of muscle attachments, it is even more critical to be able to apply the information to real-life
situations. Once the information can be applied in a useful manner, the specific details are usually much
easier to understand and appreciate.

Reference and body positions

It is crucial for kinesiology students to begin with a reference point in order to better understand the
musculoskeletal system, its planes of motion, joint classification, and joint movement terminology. Two
reference positions can be used as a basis from which to describe joint movements. The anatomical
position is the most widely used and is accurate for all aspects of the body. Fig. 1.1 demonstrates this
reference position, with the subject standing in an upright posture, facing straight ahead, with feet
parallel and close and palms facing forward. The fundamental position is essentially the same as the
anatomical position, except that the arms are at the sides with the palms facing the body.

FIG. 1.1 • Anatomical position and anatomical directions. Anatomical directions refer to the
position of one body part in relation to another.
R.T. Floyd (left, right)

In addition to these primary reference positions, there are many different positions for a variety of
medical exams and procedures. Those of primary importance to musculoskeletal exam and palpation are
listed below.

Fetal: Lying on either side with spine flexed, head flexed toward chest, and extremities flexed and
drawn toward the torso
Hook lying: Lying supine with hips flexed approximately 45 degrees and knees flex approximately 90
degrees with feet flat on the surface. Also known as dorsal recumbent
Lateral recumbent: Lying on the side (may be right or left), knees and hips may be straight or slightly
flexed. Also known as lateral decubitus position
Long sitting: Sitting with legs extended forward, toes pointed; trunk erect, and hands on hips
Prone: Face-downward position of the body; lying on the stomach
Short sitting: Sitting upright with knees flexed and hanging over the edge of the surface
Supine: Face-upward position of the body; lying on the back

Reference lines
To further assist in understanding the location of one body part in relation to another, certain imaginary
reference lines may be used. Some examples follow in Fig 1.2.

FIG. 1.2 • Reference lines.

Source: Joe DeGrandis/McGraw-Hill Education

Mid-axillary line: A line running vertically down the surface of the body passing through the apex of
the axilla (armpit)
Mid-sternal line: A line running vertically down the surface of the body passing through the middle of
the sternum
Anterior axillary line: A line that is parallel to the mid-axillary line and passes through the anterior
axillary skinfold
Posterior axillary line: A line that is parallel to the mid-axillary line and passes through the posterior
axillary skinfold
Mid-clavicular line: A line running vertically down the surface of the body passing through the mid-
point of the clavicle
Mid-inguinal point: A point midway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic
symphysis
Scapula line: A line running vertically down the posterior surface of the body passing through the
inferior angle of the scapula
Vertebral line: A line running vertically down through the spinous processes of the spine

Anatomical directional terminology

FIGS. 1.1, 1.3, 1.4
It is important that we all be able to find our way around the human body. To an extent, we can think of
this as similar to giving or receiving directions about how to get from one geographic location to another.
Just as we use the terms left, right, south, west, northeast, etc. to describe geographic directions, we
have terms such as lateral, medial, inferior, anterior, inferomedial, etc. to use for anatomical
directions. With geographic directions we may use west to indicate the west end of a street or the
western United States. The same is true when we use anatomical directions. We may use superior to
indicate the end of a bone in our lower leg closest to the knee, or we may be speaking about the top of the
skull. It all depends on the context at the time. Just as we combine south and east to get southeast for
the purpose of indicating somewhere in between these directions, we may combine anterior and lateral
to get anterolateral for the purpose of describing the general direction or location “in the front and to
the outside.” Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 provide further examples.

FIG. 1.3 • Anatomical directional terminology.

FIG. 1.4 • Anatomical directional terminology.

Anterior: In front or in the front part

Anteroinferior: In front and below
Anterolateral: In front and to the outside
Anteromedial: In front and toward the inner side or midline
Anteroposterior: Relating to both front and rear
Anterosuperior: In front and above
Bilateral: Relating to the right and left sides of the body or of a body structure such as the right and left
extremities
Caudal: Below in relation to another structure; inferior
Caudocephalad: Directionally from tail to head in the long axis of the body
Cephalic: Above in relation to another structure; higher, superior
Cephalocaudal: Directionally from head to tail in the long axis of the body
Contralateral: Pertaining or relating to the opposite side
Deep: Beneath or below the surface; used to describe relative depth or location of muscles or tissue
Dexter: Relating to, or situated to the right or on the right side of, something
Distal: Situated away from the center or midline of the body, or away from the point of origin
Dorsal (dorsum): Relating to the back, being or located near, on, or toward the back, posterior part,
or upper surface of; also relating to the top of the foot
Fibular: Relating to the fibular (lateral) side of the knee, leg, ankle, or foot; also referred to as peroneal
when specifically referring to the lateral leg
Inferior (infra): Below in relation to another structure; caudal
Inferolateral: Below and to the outside
Inferomedial: Below and toward the midline or inside
Ipsilateral: On the same side
Lateral: On or to the side; outside, farther from the median or midsagittal plane
Medial: Relating to the middle or center; nearer to the median or midsagittal plane
Median: Relating to, located in, or extending toward the middle; situated in the middle, medial
Palmar: Relating to the palm or volar aspect of the hand

5
Plantar: Relating to the sole or undersurface of the foot
Posterior: Behind, in back, or in the rear
Posteroinferior: Behind or in back and below
Posterolateral: Behind and to one side, specifically to the outside
Posteromedial: Behind and to the inner side
Posterosuperior: Behind or in back and above
Proximal: Nearest the trunk or the point of origin
Proximodistal: From the center of the body out toward the distal ends of appendages
Radial: Relating to the radial (lateral) side of the forearm or hand
Rostral: Near or toward the head, especially the front of the head
Scapular plane: In line with the normal resting position of the scapula as it lies on the posterior rib
cage; movements in the scapular plane are in line with the scapular, which is at an angle of 30 to 45
degrees from the frontal plane
Sinister: Relating to, or situated to the left or on the left side of, something
Superficial: Near the surface; used to describe relative depth or location of muscles or tissue
Superior (supra): Above in relation to another structure; higher, cephalic
Superolateral: Above and to the outside
Superomedial: Above and toward the midline or inside
Tibial: Relating to the tibial (medial) side of the knee, leg, ankle, or foot
Ulnar: Relating to the ulnar (medial) side of the forearm or hand
Ventral: Relating to the belly or abdomen, on or toward the front, anterior part of
Volar: Relating to palm of the hand or sole of the foot

Alignment variation terminology

Anteversion: Abnormal or excessive rotation forward of a structure, such as femoral anteversion
Kyphosis: Increased curving of the spine outward or backward in the sagittal plane
Lordosis: Increased curving of the spine inward or forward in the sagittal plane
Recurvatum: Bending backward, as in knee hyperextension
Retroversion: Abnormal or excessive rotation backward of a structure, such as femoral retroversion
Scoliosis: Lateral curving of the spine
Valgus: Outward angulation of the distal segment of a bone or joint, as in knock-knees
Varus: Inward angulation of the distal segment of a bone or joint, as in bowlegs

Planes of motion
When we study the various joints of the body and analyze their movements, it is helpful to characterize
them according to specific planes of motion (Fig. 1.5). A plane of motion may be defined as an imaginary
two-dimensional surface through which a limb or body segment is moved.

FIG. 1.5 • Planes of motion and axes of rotation. A, Sagittal plane with frontal axis; B, Frontal
plane with sagittal axis; C, Transverse plane with vertical axis.

There are three specific, or cardinal, planes of motion in which the various joint movements can be
classified. The specific planes that divide the body exactly into two halves are often referred to as
cardinal planes. The cardinal planes are the sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes. There are an infinite
number of planes within each half that are parallel to the cardinal planes. This is best understood in the
following examples of movements in the sagittal plane. Sit-ups involve the spine and, as a result, are
performed in the cardinal sagittal plane, which is also known as the midsagittal or median plane.
Biceps curls and knee extensions are performed in parasagittal planes, which are parallel to the
midsagittal plane. Even though these latter examples are not in the cardinal plane, they are thought of as
movements in the sagittal plane.
Although each specific joint movement can be classified as being in one of the three planes of motion,
our movements are usually not totally in one specific plane but occur as a combination of motions in
more than one plane. These movements in the combined planes may be described as occurring in
diagonal, or oblique, planes of motion and involve joints that are capable of movement in two or more
planes.

Sagittal, anteroposterior, or AP plane

The sagittal, anteroposterior, or AP plane bisects the body from front to back, dividing it into right and
left symmetrical halves. Generally, flexion and extension movements such as biceps curls, knee
extensions, and sit-ups occur in this plane.
Frontal, coronal, or lateral plane
The frontal plane, also known as the coronal or lateral plane, bisects the body laterally from side to side,
dividing it into front (ventral) and back (dorsal) halves. Abduction and adduction movements such as
jumping jacks (shoulder and hip) and spinal lateral flexion occur in this plane.

Transverse, axial, or horizontal plane

The transverse plane, also known as the axial or horizontal plane, divides the body into superior
(cephalic) and inferior (caudal) halves. Generally, rotational movements such as forearm pronation and
supination and spinal rotation occur in this plane.

Diagonal or oblique plane

FIG. 1.6
The diagonal or oblique plane is a combination of more than one plane of motion. In reality, most of our
movements in sporting activities fall somewhere between parallel and perpendicular to the previously
described planes and occur in a diagonal plane. To further delineate, all movements in diagonal planes
occur in a high diagonal plane or one of two low diagonal planes. The high diagonal plane is utilized for
overhand movements in the upper extremity, whereas the two low diagonal planes are used to
differentiate upper-extremity underhand movements from lower-extremity diagonal movements.

FIG. 1.6 • Diagonal planes and axes of rotation. A, Upper extremity high diagonal plane
movement and axis; B, Upper extremity low diagonal plane movement and axis; C, Lower-
extremity low diagonal plane movement and axis.

It should be noted that for a joint to move in a diagonal plane, the joint must be capable of movements
in at least two planes. In other words, diagonal plane movements involve combining motions in one
plane with motions of one or more other planes. Less commonly mentioned are diagonal movements
that involve biaxial joints. For example, combining wrist flexion and ulnar deviation or
metacarpophalangeal extension with radial deviation when pointing with the index finger.

Axes of rotation
As movement occurs in a given plane, the joint moves or turns about an axis that has a 90-degree
relationship to that plane. The axes are named in relation to their orientation (Fig. 1.5). Table 1.1 lists the
planes of motion with their axes of rotation.

TABLE 1.1 • Planes of motion and their axes of rotation

 Description of Description of Common
Plane plane Axis of rotation axis movements
Sagittal Divides the body Frontal (coronal,
Runs Flexion,
(anteroposterior into right and left lateral, bilateral, or
medial/lateral extension
or AP) halves mediolateral), X-Axis
Divides the body Sagittal
Frontal (coronal Runs Abduction,
into anterior and (anteroposterior or
or lateral) anterior/posterior adduction
posterior halves AP), Z-Axis
Internal
Divides the body
Transverse (axial, Vertical (longitudinal Runs superior/ rotation,
into superior and
horizontal) or long), Y-Axis inferior external
inferior halves
rotation

Frontal, coronal, lateral, or mediolateral axis

If the sagittal plane runs from anterior to posterior, then its axis must run from side to side. The frontal
axis is perpendicular to the sagittal plane. Since this axis has the same directional orientation as the
frontal plane of motion, it is named similarly. As the elbow flexes and extends in the sagittal plane
during a biceps curl, the forearm is actually rotating about a frontal axis that runs laterally through the
elbow joint. The frontal axis may also be referred to as the bilateral axis.

Sagittal or anteroposterior axis

Movement occurring in the frontal plane rotates about a sagittal axis. This sagittal axis is perpendicular
to the frontal plane and has the same directional orientation as the sagittal plane of motion and runs
from front to back at a right angle to the frontal plane of motion. As the hip abducts and adducts during
jumping jacks, the femur rotates about an axis that runs front to back through the hip joint.

Vertical or longitudinal axis

The vertical axis, also known as the longitudinal or long axis, runs straight down through the top of the
head and is at a right angle or perpendicular to the transverse plane of motion. As the head rotates or
turns from left to right when indicating disapproval, the skull and cervical vertebrae are rotating around
an axis that runs down through the spinal column.

Diagonal or oblique axis

FIG. 1.6
The diagonal axis, also known as the oblique axis, runs at a right angle to the diagonal plane. As the
glenohumeral joint moves from diagonal abduction to diagonal adduction in overhand throwing, its axis
runs perpendicular to the plane through the humeral head.

Body regions
As mentioned later under the skeletal system, the body can be divided into axial and appendicular
regions. Each of these regions may be further divided into different subregions, such as the cephalic,
cervical, trunk, upper limbs, and lower limbs. Within each of these regions are many more subregions
and specific regions. Table 1.2 details a breakdown of these regions and their common names, illustrated
in Fig. 1.7.
TABLE 1.2 • Body parts and regions
Region Common Specific Common name
name name Subregion region name for specific region

Cranial Frontal Forehead

(skull) Occipital Base of skull
Orbital Eye
Otic Ear
Cephalic Head
Nasal Nose
Facial (face)
Buccal Cheek
Oral Mouth
Mental Chin
Nuchal Posterior neck
Cervical Neck
Throat Anterior neck
Clavicular Collar bone
Pectoral Chest
Thoracic Thorax Sternal Breastbone
Axial
Costal Ribs
Mammary Breast
Scapula Shoulder blade
Dorsal Back Vertebral Spinal column
Lumbar Lower back or loin
Trunk
Celiac Abdomen
Abdominal Abdomen
Umbilical Navel
Inguinal Groin
Pubic Genital
Coxal Hip
Pelvic Pelvis
Sacral Between hips
Gluteal Buttock
Perineal Perineum
 Region Common Specific Common name
name name Subregion region name for specific region
Acromial Point of shoulder
Shoulder Omus Deltoid
Axillary Armpit
Brachial Arm
Olecranon Point of elbow

Upper Cubital Elbow

limbs Antecubital Front of elbow
Antebrachial Forearm
Carpal Wrist
Palmar Palm
Manual Dorsal Back of hand
Appendicular Digital Finger
Femoral Thigh
Patella Kneecap
Popliteal Back of knee
Sural Calf
Crural Leg
Lower
Talus Ankle
limbs
Calcaneal Heel
Dorsum Top of foot
Pedal Foot
Tarsal Instep
Plantar Sole
Digital Toe

9
 FIG. 1.7 • Body regions. A, Anterior view; B, Posterior view.

10

Skeletal systems
Fig. 1.8 shows anterior and posterior views of the skeletal system. Some 206 bones make up the skeletal
system, which provides support and protection for other systems of the body and provides for
attachments of the muscles to the bones, by which movement is produced. Additional skeletal functions
are mineral storage and hemopoiesis, which involves blood cell formation in the red bone marrow. The
skeleton may be divided into the appendicular and the axial skeletons. The appendicular skeleton is
composed of the appendages, or the upper and lower extremities, and the shoulder and pelvic girdles.
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. Most students of
kinesiology will have had a course in human anatomy, but a brief review is desirable before beginning
the study of kinesiology. Later chapters provide additional information and more detailed illustrations of
specific bones.
 FIG. 1.8 • Skeleton. A, Anterior view; B, Posterior view.

11

**Osteology**

Skeletal functions
The skeleton has five major functions:
1. Protection of vital soft tissues such as the heart, lungs, and brain
2. Support to maintain posture
3. Movement by serving as points of attachment for muscles and acting as levers
4. Storage for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus
5. Hemopoiesis, which is the process of blood formation that occurs in the red bone marrow located in
the vertebral bodies, femur, humerus, ribs, and sternum

Types of bones
Bones vary greatly in shape and size but can be classified in five major categories (Fig. 1.9).
 FIG. 1.9 • Classification of bones by shape.

Long bones: Composed of a long cylindrical shaft with relatively wide, protruding ends; serve as levers.
The shaft contains the medullary cavity. Examples include phalanges, metatarsals, metacarpals,
tibia, fibula, femur, radius, ulna, and humerus.
Short bones: Small cube-shaped, solid bones that usually have a proportionally large articular surface
in order to articulate with more than one bone. Short bones provide some shock absorption and
include the carpals and tarsals.
Flat bones: Usually having a curved surface and varying from thick (where tendons attach) to very
thin. Flat bones generally provide protection and include the ilium, ribs, sternum, clavicle, and
scapula.

12
Irregular bones: Irregular-shaped bones serve a variety of purposes and include the bones throughout
the entire spine and the ischium, pubis, and maxilla.
Sesamoid bones: Small bones embedded within the tendon of a musculotendinous unit that provide
protection as well as improve the mechanical advantage of musculotendinous units. Sesamoid
bones such as the patella may occasionally (1% to 2% of people) be two (bipartite) or even three
(tripartite) separate bones. This is a congenital condition in which the bone has unfused or
incompletely fused secondary ossification centers and is usually an asymptomatic finding. In
addition to the patella, there are small sesamoid bones within the flexor tendons of the great toe and
the thumb. Sesamoid bones are sometimes referred to as accessory bones however, accessory
ossicles have no known function and often originate from unfused ossification centers. Both
sesamoid and accessory bones occur in varying numbers from one individual to the next. They are
most commonly found in smaller joints in the distal extremities of the foot, ankle, and hand but are
not always symmetrical in an individual.

Typical bony features

Long bones possess features that are typical of bones in general, as illustrated in Fig. 1.10. Long bones
have a shaft or diaphysis, which is the long cylindrical portion of the bone. The diaphysis wall, formed
from hard, dense, compact bone, is the cortex. The outer surface of the diaphysis is covered by a dense,
fibrous membrane known as the periosteum. A similar fibrous membrane known as the endosteum
covers the inside of the cortex. Between the walls of the diaphysis lies the medullary or marrow cavity,
which contains yellow or fatty marrow. At each end of a long bone is the epiphysis, which is usually
enlarged and shaped specifically to join with the epiphysis of an adjacent bone at a joint. The epiphysis is
formed from spongy or cancellous or trabecular bone. During bony growth the diaphysis and the
epiphysis are separated by a thin plate of cartilage known as the epiphyseal plate, commonly referred
to as a growth plate (Fig. 1.11). As skeletal maturity is reached, on a timetable that varies from bone to
bone as detailed in Table 1.3, the plates are replaced by bone and are closed. To facilitate smooth, easy
movement at joints, the epiphysis is covered by articular or hyaline cartilage, which provides a
cushioning effect and reduces friction.

FIG. 1.10 • Major parts of a long bone.

FIG. 1.11 • The presence of epiphyseal plates, as seen in a radiograph of a child’s hand, indicates
that the bones are still growing in length.
stockdevil/iStock/Getty Images

13

TABLE 1.3 • Epiphyseal closure timetables

 Approximate
age Bones
7–8 Inferior rami of pubis and ischium (almost complete)
15–17 Scapula, lateral epicondyle of humerus, olecranon process of ulna
18–19 Medial epicondyle of humerus, head and shaft of radius
About 20 Humeral head, distal ends of radius and ulna, distal ends of femur and fibula,
proximal end of tibia
20–25 Acetabulum in pelvis
25 Vertebrae and sacrum, clavicle, proximal end of fibula, sternum and ribs
Source: Adapted from Goss CM: Gray’s anatomy of the human body, ed 29, Philadelphia, 1973, Lea & Febiger.

Additional features of certain bones are apophyses. An apophysis is a bony process with an
independent center of ossification and associated growth plate, which serves as a point of attachment for
a ligament or tendon. These apophyseal growth plates close with skeletal maturity, but are often
inflamed with exercise or forces in adolescence, particularly the tibial tuberosity, calcaneus, medial
humeral epicondyle and numerous locations on the pelvis.

Bone development and growth

Most of the skeletal bones of concern to us in structural kinesiology are endochondral bones, which
develop from hyaline cartilage. As we develop from an embryo, these hyaline cartilage masses grow
rapidly into structures shaped similarly to the bones they will eventually become. This growth continues,
and the cartilage gradually undergoes significant change to develop into long bone, as detailed in Fig.
1.12.

FIG. 1.12 • Major stages a–f in the development of an endochondral bone (relative bone sizes
not to scale).

Bones continue to grow longitudinally as long as the epiphyseal plates are open. These plates begin
closing around adolescence and disappear. Most close by age 18, but some may be open until age 25.
Growth in diameter continues throughout life. This is done by an internal layer of periosteum building
new concentric layers on old layers. Simultaneously, bone around the sides of the medullary cavity is
resorbed so that the diameter is continually increased. New bone is formed by specialized cells known as
osteoblasts, whereas the cells that resorb old bone are osteoclasts. This bone remodeling, as depicted
in Fig. 1.13, is necessary for continued bone growth, changes in bone shape, adjustment of bone to stress,
and bone repair.

14

FIG. 1.13 • Remodeling of a long bone.

Bone properties
Calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, collagen, and water are the basis of bone composition. About
60% to 70% of bone weight is made up of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate, with water making
up approximately 25% to 30% of bone weight. Collagen provides some flexibility and strength in
resisting tension. Aging, particularly when accompanied by reduced activity and exercise, causes
progressive loss of collagen and increases bone brittleness, resulting in increased likelihood of fractures.
Most outer bone is cortical; cancellous bone is underneath. Cortical bone is harder and more compact,
with only about 5% to 30% of its volume being porous, with nonmineralized tissue. In contrast,
cancellous bone is spongy, with around 30% to 90% of its volume being porous. Cortical bone is stiffer;
it can withstand greater stress, but less strain, than cancellous bone. Due to its sponginess, cancellous
bone can undergo greater strain before fracturing.
Bone size and shape are influenced by the direction and magnitude of forces that are habitually
applied to them. Bones reshape themselves based on the stresses placed upon them, and their mass
increases over time with increased stress.
This concept of bone adaptation to stress is known as Wolff’s law, which essentially states that bone
in a healthy individual will adapt to the loads under which it is placed. When a particular bone is
subjected to increased loading, the bone will remodel itself over time to become stronger to resist that
particular type of loading. As a result, the external cortical portion of the bone becomes thicker. The
opposite is also true: when the loading on a bone decreases, the bone will become weaker.

Bone markings
Bones have specific markings that exist to enhance their functional relationship with joints, muscles,
tendons, nerves, and blood vessels. Many of these markings serve as important bony landmarks in
determining muscle location and attachment and joint function. Essentially, all bone markings may be
divided into
1. Processes (including elevations and projections), which either form joints or serve as a point of
attachment for muscles, tendons, or ligaments, and
2. Cavities (depressions), which include openings and grooves that contain tendons, vessels, nerves, and
spaces for other structures.
Detailed descriptions and examples of many bony markings are provided in Table 1.4.

15

TABLE 1.4 • Bone markings

Marking Description Examples Page
Large, rounded projection
Medial or lateral
Condyle that usually articulates 266
condyle of femur
with another bone
Small, flat or nearly flat Articular facet of
Processes that form Facet 331
surface vertebra
joints
Prominent, rounded 220,
projection of the proximal Head of femur, head 222,
Head
end of a bone, usually of humerus 224,
articulating 117
 Marking Description Examples Page
Bend or protruding angular Superior and inferior
Angle 92, 94
projection angle of scapula
Border or Edge or boundary line of a Lateral and medial
92, 94
margin bone border of scapula
Prominent, narrow,
Crest Iliac crest of pelvis 222
ridgelike projection
Medial or lateral
Projection located above a
Epicondyle epicondyle of 150
condyle
humerus
Ridge of bone less
Line Linea aspera of femur 222
prominent than a crest
Acromion process of 92, 94,
Process Any prominent projection scapula, olecranon 117, 118
process of humerus 150
Processes to which Part of an irregularly
muscles, tendons, shaped bone that is thicker
or ligaments attach Superior and inferior
Ramus than a process and forms 221
ramus of pubis
an angle with the main
body
Spine Spinous process of
330,
(spinous Sharp, slender projection vertebra, spine of
331, 94
process) scapula
Sagittal suture
Line of union between
Suture between parietal 16
bones
bones of skull
Greater or lesser 220,
Trochanter Very large projection
trochanter of femur 222
Greater and lesser
Tubercle Small, rounded projection 117
tubercles of humerus
Large, rounded or Radial tuberosity, 150,
Tuberosity
roughened projection tibial tuberosity 266
 Marking Description Examples Page
Intervertebral facets
Flattened or shallow
Facet in cervical, thoracic, 331
articulating surface
and lumbar spine
Rounded hole or opening Obturator foramen in 220,
Foramen
in bone pelvis 221
Hollow, depressed, or Supraspinatus fossa,
Fossa 94, 220
flattened surface iliac fossa
Very small pit or
Fovea Fovea capitis of femur 224
depression
Cavities
(depressions) External auditory
Tubelike passage within a
Meatus meatus of temporal 346
bone
bone
Depression in the margin Trochlear and radial
Notch 150
of a bone notch of the ulna
Cavity or hollow space
Sinus Frontal sinus
within a bone
Intertubercular
Sulcus Furrow or groovelike
(bicipital) groove of 117
(groove) depression on a bone
humerus

16

Types of joints
The articulation of two or more bones allows various types of movement. The extent and type of
movement determine the name applied to the joint. Bone structure limits the kind and amount of
movement in each joint. Some joints or arthrosis have no movement, others are only very slightly
movable, and others are freely movable with a variety of movement ranges. The type and range of
movements are similar in all humans; but the freedom, range, and vigor of movements are limited by the
configuration of the bones where they fit together, and by ligaments and muscles.
Articulations may be classified according to the structure or function. Classification by structure
places joints into one of three categories: fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. Functional classification
also results in three categories: synarthrosis (synarthrodial), amphiarthrosis (amphiarthrodial), and
diarthrosis (diarthrodial). There are subcategories in each classification. Due to the strong relationship
between structure and function, there is significant overlap between the classification systems. That is,
there is more similarity than difference between the two members in each of the following pairs: fibrous
and synarthrodial joints, cartilaginous and amphiarthrodial joints, and synovial and diarthrodial joints.
However, not all joints fit neatly into both systems. Table 1.5 provides a detailed listing of all joint types
according to both classification systems. Since this text is concerned primarily with movement, the more
functional system (synarthrodial, amphiarthrodial, and diarthrodial joints) will be used throughout,
following a brief explanation of structural classification.

TABLE 1.5 • Joint classification by structure and function

Structural classification
Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial
 Structural classification
Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial
Gomphosis
Synarthrodial _____ _____
Suture
Symphysis
Amphiarthrodial Syndesmosis _____
Synchondrosis
Functional classification Arthrodial
Condyloidal
Enarthrodial
Diarthrodial _____ _____
Ginglymus
Sellar
Trochoidal

Fibrous joints are joined together by connective tissue fibers and are generally immovable.
Subcategories are suture and gomphosis, which are immovable, and syndesmosis, which allows a slight
amount of movement. Cartilaginous joints are joined together by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage,
which allows very slight movement. Subcategories include synchondrosis and symphysis. Synovial joints
are freely movable and generally are diarthrodial. Their structure and subcategories are discussed in
detail under diarthrodial joints.
The articulations are grouped into three classes based primarily on the amount of movement possible,
with consideration given to their structure.

Synarthrodial (immovable) joints

FIG. 1.14
Structurally, these articulations are divided into two types:

FIG. 1.14 • Synarthrodial joints.

Suture
Found in the sutures of the cranial bones. The sutures of the skull are truly immovable beyond infancy.

Gomphosis
Found in the sockets of the teeth. The socket of a tooth is often referred to as a gomphosis (type of joint
in which a conical peg fits into a socket). Normally, there should be essentially no movement of the teeth
in the mandible or maxilla.

17

Amphiarthrodial (slightly movable) joints

FIG. 1.15
Structurally, these articulations are divided into three types:

FIG. 1.15 • Amphiarthrodial joints. A, Syndesmosis joint; B, Symphysis joint; C, Synchondrosis

joint.

Syndesmosis
Type of joint held together by strong ligamentous structures that allow minimal movement between the
bones. Examples are the coracoclavicular joint and the inferior tibiofibular joint.

Symphysis
Type of joint separated by a fibrocartilage pad that allows very slight movement between the bones.
Examples are the symphysis pubis and the intervertebral disks.

Synchondrosis
Type of joint separated by hyaline cartilage that allows very slight movement between the bones.
Examples are the costochondral joints of the ribs with the sternum.

Diarthrodial (freely movable) joints

FIG. 1.16
Diarthrodial joints, also known as synovial joints, are freely movable. A sleevelike covering of
ligamentous tissue known as the joint capsule surrounds the bony ends forming the joints. This
ligamentous capsule is lined with a thin vascular synovial capsule that secretes synovial fluid to lubricate
the area inside the joint capsule, known as the joint cavity. In certain areas the capsule is thickened to
form tough, nonelastic ligaments that provide additional support against abnormal movement or joint
opening. These ligaments vary in location, size, and strength depending upon the particular joint.
Ligaments, in connecting bones to bones, provide static stability to joints.
 FIG. 1.16 • Structure of a diarthrodial synovial joint.

In many cases, additional ligaments, not continuous with the joint capsule, provide further support. In
some cases, these additional ligaments may be contained entirely within the joint capsule; or
intraarticularly, such as the anterior cruciate ligament in the knee; or extraarticularly, such as the fibular
collateral ligament of the knee, which is outside the joint capsule.

18

The articular surfaces on the ends of the bones inside the joint cavity are covered with layers of
articular or hyaline cartilage that helps protect the ends of the bones from wear and damage. This
cartilage is quite resilient because it is slightly compressible and elastic, which enables it to absorb
compressive and shear forces. The articular surface, thanks in part to lubrication from synovial fluid, has
a very low amount of friction and is very durable. When the joint surfaces are unloaded or distracted,
this articular cartilage slowly absorbs a slight amount of the joint synovial fluid, only to slowly secrete it
during subsequent weight bearing and compression. Articular cartilage has a very limited blood supply
and as a result depends on joint movement to provide its nutrition through this synovial flow. Therefore,
maintaining and utilizing a joint through its normal range of motion are important to sustaining joint
health and function.
Additionally, some diarthrodial joints have a fibrocartilage disk between their articular surfaces to
provide additional shock absorption and load distribution, and to further enhance joint stability.
Examples are the knee’s medial and lateral menisci and the acetabular and glenoid labrum of the hip
and shoulder joints, respectively. Structurally, this type of articulation can be divided into six groups, as
shown in Fig. 1.17.
 FIG. 1.17 • Types of diarthrodial or synovial joints.

Diarthrodial joints have motion possible in one or more planes. The number of directions that a joint
may move is defined as degrees of freedom. These degrees of angular freedom correspond to the
cardinal planes of motion. Those joints having possible motion in one plane are said to have one degree
of freedom of motion, whereas joints having motion in two and three planes are described as having two
and three degrees of freedom of motion, respectively. Refer to Table 1.6 for a comparison of diarthrodial
joint features by subcategory.

TABLE 1.6 • Diarthrodial joint classification

Degrees
Classification Number of Typical Plane for Axis for
name of axes freedom movements Joint examples examples examples
Elbow joint
Ginglymus Flexion,
(humeroulnar) Ankle Sagittal Frontal
(hinge) extension
joint (talocrural)
Uniaxial One Internal
Proximal and distal
Trochoidal rotation,
radioulnar joint Transverse Vertical
(pivot, screw) external
Atlantoaxial joint
rotation
Condyloidal Flexion, Wrist (radiocarpal)
(ellipsoid, ball- extension, 2nd–5th Sagittal Frontal
Biaxial Two
and-socket, abduction, metacarpophalangeal Frontal Sagittal
ovoid) adduction joints
 Degrees
Classification Number of Typical Plane for Axis for
name of axes freedom movements Joint examples examples examples
Transverse tarsal
Variable Variable
Arthrodial joint Vertebral facets
Frontal Sagittal
(gliding, plane) Flexion, in spine Intercarpal
Variable Variable
extension, joints in wrist
abduction,
Enarthrodial
adduction, Glenohumeral joint Sagittal Frontal
(ball-and- Multiaxial Three
internal Hip joint Frontal Sagittal
socket,
rotation, (acetabularfemoral) Transverse Vertical
spheroidal)
external
rotation Sagittal Frontal
1st carpometacarpal
Sellar (saddle) Frontal Sagittal
joint
Transverse Vertical

Arthrodial (gliding, plane) joint

This joint type is characterized by two flat, or plane, bony surfaces that butt against each other. This type
of joint permits limited gliding movement. Examples are the carpal bones of the wrist and the
tarsometatarsal joints of the foot.

19

20

Condyloidal (ellipsoid, ovoid, biaxial ball-and-socket) joint

This is a type of joint in which the bones permit movement in two planes without rotation. Examples are
the wrist (radiocarpal joint) between the radius and the proximal row of the carpal bones or the second,
third, fourth, and fifth metacarpophalangeal joints.

Enarthrodial (spheroidal, multiaxial ball-and-socket) joint

This type of joint is most like a true ball-and-socket in that it permits movement in all planes. Examples
are the shoulder (glenohumeral) and hip (acetabularfemoral) joints.

Ginglymus (hinge) joint

This is a type of joint that permits a wide range of movement in only one plane. Examples are the elbow
(humeroulnar), ankle (talocrural), and knee (tibiofemoral) joints.

Sellar (saddle) joint

This type of reciprocal reception is found in the thumb at the carpometacarpal joint and permits ball-
and-socket movement, with the exception of slight rotation. Some anatomists also classify the
sternoclavicular joint as a sellar joint.

Trochoidal (pivot, screw) joint

This is a type of joint with a rotational movement around a long axis. An example is the rotation of the
radius on the ulna at the proximal and distal radioulnar joints.

Stability and mobility of diarthrodial joints

Generally, the more mobile a joint is, the less stable it is, and vice versa. This is true when comparing the
same joints between individuals, but also when comparing one joint versus another in the same
individual. Both heredity and developmental factors (Wolff’s law for bone and Davis’s law for soft tissue)
contribute to these variances. In a manner similar to the adaption of bone to loading, as previously
discussed in Wolff’s law, soft tissue also adapts to stress or the lack thereof. This corollary to Wolff’s law
is known as Davis’s law, which essentially states that ligaments, muscle, and other soft tissue when
placed under appropriate tension will adapt over time by lengthening, and conversely, when maintained
in a loose or shortened state over a period of time will gradually shorten.
Five major factors affect the total stability, and consequently the mobility, of a joint (see Fig. 1.18).

FIG. 1.18 • Factors affecting diarthrodial joint stability.

Bones—Although bones are usually very similar in bilateral comparisons within an individual, the
actual anatomical configuration at the joint surfaces in terms of depth and shallowness may vary
significantly between individuals.
Cartilage—The structures of both hyaline cartilage and specialized cartilaginous structures, such as
the knee menisci, glenoid labrum, and acetabular labrum, further assist in joint congruency and
stability. As with bones, these structures normally are the same in bilateral comparisons within an
individual, but may vary between individuals in size and configuration.
Ligaments and connective tissue—Ligaments and connective tissue provide static stability to joints.
As with bones and cartilage, variances exist between individuals in the degree of restrictiveness of
ligamentous tissue. An individual’s amount of hypo- or hyperlaxity is primarily due to the
proportional amount of elastin versus collagen within the joint structures. Simply put, individuals
with proportionally higher elastin-to-collagen ratios are hyperlax, or “loose-jointed,” whereas
individuals with proportionally lower ratios are tighter.

21
Muscles—Muscles provide dynamic stability to joints when actively contracting. Without active
tension via contraction, muscles provide minimal static stability. Consequently, strength and
endurance are significant factors in stabilizing joints, whereas muscle flexibility may affect the total
range of joint motion possible.
Proprioception and motor control—Proprioception is the subconscious mechanism by which the
body is able to regulate posture and movements by responding to stimuli originating in the
proprioceptors embedded in joints, tendons, muscles, and the inner ear. Motor control is the process
by which bodily actions and movements are organized and executed. To determine the appropriate
amount of muscular forces and joint activations needed, sensory information from the environment
and the body must be integrated and then coordinated in a cooperative manner between the central
nervous system and the musculoskeletal system. Muscle strength and endurance are not very useful
in providing joint stability unless they can be activated precisely when needed.
The integrity of any of these structures may be affected by acute or chronic injury. These structures
adapt over time both positively and negatively to the specific biomechanical demands placed upon them.
When any of the above factors are compromised, additional demands are placed on the remaining
structures to provide stability, which in turn may compromise their integrity, resulting in abnormal
mobility. This abnormal mobility, whether hypermobility or hypomobility, may lead to further
pathological conditions such as tendinitis, bursitis, arthritis, internal derangement, and joint
subluxations.

Open packed vs. close packed

Any diarthrodial joint may have more or less stability depending upon the position it is in related to its
full range of motion. Joints are most stable to translatory movement when in a close-packed position,
which is typically maximal extension for most joints. The close-packed position is named such as this is
minimal joint volume and maximal congruency and area of surface contact between the joint surfaces.
In this position, the ligaments and capsular structures are farthest apart and taut. In consideration of
each of these factors, the joint is mechanically compressed and is at its least distractible point. Examples
include full extension of the knee, hip and elbow.
By contrast, open- or loose-packed positions are those where the ligaments and capsular structures
are in their slackest position, and there is minimal joint surface contact and congruency with maximal
joint volume. This positon has minimal stability and allows maximal distraction of the joint surfaces. For
most joints, the open-packed position is typically midway between the extremes of a joint’s range of
motion. Examples include approximately 70 degrees of elbow flexion, 25 degrees of knee flexion and 30
degrees of flexion and abduction for the hip.

Movements in joints
In many joints, several different movements are possible. Some joints permit only flexion and extension;
others permit a wide range of movements, depending largely on the joint structure. We refer to the area
through which a joint may normally be freely and painlessly moved as the range of motion (ROM).
The specific amount of movement possible in a joint or range of motion may be measured by using an
instrument known as a goniometer to compare the change in joint angles. The goniometer has a
moving arm, a stationary arm, and an axis or fulcrum. Measuring the available range of motion in a joint
or the angles created by the bones of a joint is known as goniometry.
The goniometer axis, or hinge point, is placed even with the axis of rotation at the joint line. The
stationary arm is held in place either along or parallel to the long axis of the more stationary bone
(usually the more proximal bone), and the moving arm is placed either along or parallel to the long axis
of the bone that moves the most (usually the more distal bone). The joint angle can then be read from
the goniometer, as shown in Fig. 1.19. As an example, we could measure the angle between the femur
and the trunk in the anatomical position (which would usually be zero), and then ask the person to flex
the hip as far as possible. If we measured the angle again at full hip flexion, we would find a goniometer
reading of around 130 degrees.

FIG. 1.19 • Goniometric measurement of knee joint flexion.

R.T. Floyd

22

Depending on the size of the joint and its movement potential, different goniometers may be more or
less appropriate. Fig. 1.20 depicts a variety of goniometers that may be utilized to determine the range of
motion for a particular joint. Inclinometers may also be used to measure range of motion, particularly in
the spine.
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then there appears jealousy and discord. A little slave of Selim
Capitan’s begged to be allowed to throw into the water the other boy,
who was not, like himself, a Tshièrr, but a Liènn, because he dwelt
on the other side of the river. In other respects both these tribes live
in peace; and yesterday a Tshièrr brought us a young slave-girl
purchased from the Liènns, and she was bought in exchange by
Suliman Kashef. We have already become too intimate with the
natives by our two days’ abode for the Turks not to commence
civilising them after their manner. At the head stands Selim Capitan,
who is really earnest about the matter; at his side, Suliman Kashef,
who is not behind the worthy son of Crete in cultivation, and likes
laughing and amusement. The thermometer had this morning 20°,
noon until three o’clock, 27° to 29°, and after sunset 27° Reaumur.
9th February.—At half-past seven o’clock this morning we leave
our encampment, and go by the rope E.S.E., and soon S.E. A
summer village lies at the right shore, and an island in the water,
which is low and covered with green vegetables. Two tokuls are
upon it, surrounded with high fish-baskets and hedges of cut simsim,
which appears to be dried in this way. I remark on the island as well
as on the steep disrupt shores, that the lower thick layer of earth
consists of black mould, whilst the middle stratum is red with iron
particles, and the upper one strongly impregnated with sand. The
arable land here appears not to arise from a general deposition, but
has its commencement from the slime of a lake, and the remains of
a subjacent vegetation for its formation. The north wind has set in,
and we navigate round the island in S.W., S.E., and S., and sail at
eight o’clock S. by E. Immediately afterwards S.S.W., a small island
before the forest on the left shore. Eight o’clock, S.E. Here the island
will soon end. Then to S.; solitary farm-yards on the right and left on
the low shores; cultivation before the rising Haba. A quarter before
nine o’clock, S.S.W. The left shore is covered with young dome-
palms, and a large widely scattered village ascends gradually with
the shore to the height of the Haba, in which we remark a number of
large dome-palms. The margin of the shore stretches flat along the
river, and before it lies a completely shallow island, or peninsula,
whereon a quantity of fishing implements are lying about. Nine
o’clock S., then S.S.E., and S.E. Right and left, the level land is well
cultivated with durra, simsim, and especially lubiën.
The wind changes after nine o’clock to E. We furl the sails, and
halt at half-past nine o’clock, at the left shore, after we had first gone
a short tract to E. by the rope. There is a very little isle in the river,
and near the trees on the left shore a hamlet, under which the edge
of the shore is also cultivated. From deck we perceive five other
villages, of which one is large, at a slight distance from the water.
The Haba retreats for an hour. At the right shore are two villages,
and the Haba is still further distant.
The people of the Lienns are, on the whole, poor in ornaments
and weapons, although individuals carry two or three spears, and a
bow with arrows, without quivers, in the left hand. They have the
heads of the spears generally turned towards the ground, which was
not the case further up. This is perhaps rather a sign of friendly
sentiments than their usual custom. They fear, as I saw yesterday
and the day before, even the smacking of the great, long whips, that
the sailors have made from bark for their amusement. They like to
look at the beating of the palm-leaves, and then the sailors cannot
forbear dealing cracking blows right and left, with the dome-leaves,
and running after them. The Liènns understand a joke, and laugh,
run away, and return immediately again to let themselves be
cudgelled anew. They are great children, who are happy at seeing us
and our doings, and playing with the soldiers, although the jests of
the latter are often rude, and at times even end with plunder.
Ten o’clock.—We proceed with the libàhn E. by S. Half-past ten
o’clock. From S.E. to S.W. At the left lie four villages, tolerably close
together, and on the right rises, at a quarter of an hour distant, a
considerable village between trees, on the gentle height of the Haba;
before it a large level field descends to the edge of the river. Soon
again to the left round to S. by E. A crowd of natives, amongst whom
are also some coloured red, welcome us from all sides. Our gohr is
not above fifty paces broad, but has a strong fall. Nothing is yet to be
discovered of the main stream, and we begin now to doubt in our
very tedious voyage, whether we did see on the 6th instant our old
anchorage at the island of Buko. A quarter before eleven o’clock,
S.E. by S. Not far from the right shore, a large village, near which we
hear the lowing of herds. The shore is cultivated, and we see there
some magazine tokuls, and whilst we are going S. by E., we
perceive from the deck another large city in the Haba. Opposite, on
the left shore, some tokuls, and a numerous herd of cows.
Eleven o’clock. From S.S.W. to S.E. and E.S.E. Half-past eleven.
From E.N.E. to S.E. At twelve o’clock we stop near some tokuls on
the right shore, to allow the crew to eat. The upper boundary of the
Bodshos, who follow the before-mentioned Kikins, is in the
neighbourhood, and the Karboràhs begin here, who also belong,
with the first named tribe, to the nation of the Liènns. They dwell on
both sides of the river, and live at war with each other. In a quarter of
an hour we move on again, and go in short bends S. by E., E.S.E.,
S.E., and S.S.W. From the deck—four villages on the right, and three
on the left. Half-past twelve o’clock. For a finger’s length to S.E., and
then S and S.W.; a quarter before one to S. One o’clock, S.S.E. On
the left two villages seen from the deck; on the right an island,
covered with high grass. We must think no more of an island of
Buko, for this gohr is said by the negroes to lead up to the
mountains; and I had therefore heard quite correctly, at the very
beginning, near the Kofon of the Elliàbs and Bohrs, where this very
same thing was said plainly enough.
If we suppose that we shall again be connected with other arms
of the Nile, for we were near such a one on the 6th inst., which I still
hold to be that of the island of Buko, our return voyage, with the
present waste of time, might become more difficult than is expected.
We should be obliged to wait for the commencement of the hariff
(rainy season), or to seek to regain King Làkono’s sympathy, which
we have forfeited. The want of good bread-corn, already beginning
to be felt, is the only thing that makes me fear the crew would not
then be induced to follow further the White Stream beyond Bari.
 The Abu Hashiff of Suliman Kashef proclaimed this morning a
punishment of five hundred blows of the cudgel to any soldier or
sailor who should be found to have delayed slaughtering his goats or
sheep till to-morrow. They had collected together at different times,
by purchase, theft, and robbery, several beasts, whom they were
fattening with durra, to sell them in Khartùm.
Sand-banks also appear with the increase in width of the gohr,
and render the navigation difficult. A quarter before two o’clock, a
short tract, S.S.W. and W.S.W. Two o’clock, W. by S. A broad gohr
flows here from our arm to S.E., and makes the land at our left a
large island. We go, however, up the stream, and wind W.S.W.,
where we halt at the right shore. It is asserted very positively that we
have navigated up and down that broad gohr flowing from here, and
that therefore the continued ascending in the gohr, in which we are
at this moment, and which also is becoming broader, has no object.
It matters not, however, whether we are blind and do not see, or
whether we see as we wish, so that we only go again downwards.
Our river arm has suddenly here again a width of three hundred
paces. This, as well as the depth of the water, speaks, certainly, in
favour of the sailors’ opinion, that we are again on the main stream.
The supreme council would fain, of course, assent to this opinion,
but, to my great astonishment, I hear it is very much feared that we
shall lose our way in another stream territory, and not come out at all
by Khartùm. In order to prevent our returning by the very same road
in our gohr, I propose to navigate up even as far as the mountains, to
set ourselves right, or at least to find some memorials, such as a
village or natives that we had seen previously. Our men, however,
put no more confidence in what the latter say, and the crocodiles and
hippopotami give us no intelligence. The blue-green broken corals
which we had found already in the kingdom of Bari, are still the same
here, and are preferred by far to those of a white colour.
At half-past two o’clock a north-east wind set in, which blew the
wise council asunder. A short tract to E.S.E. by the rope, and we sail
then S.W. by S. in a flat arch to S.W. with two miles’ course. The
shores are low and only three to four feet high. The green forest
developes itself behind the slender, half-dried reeds. A quarter after
three o’clock. From S.W. with a short bend to E.S.E.; at half-past
three o’clock E. by N., and at four o’clock S.W. by W. The shores
have been for a long time without cultivation, and only here and
there we see some negroes, but yet there are two large villages, a
quarter of an hour distant from the left shore.
It is scarcely four o’clock when Fadl tells me from the mast that
he sees a high mountain W.S.W. I remark its peak also immediately
from the deck. To judge by the outline of it, it appears to be the
Nerkanjin, but I do not wish it, as I would rather see another beautiful
mountain country. Whilst we are sailing S.S.W. a gohr issues on the
right from our mysterious river to W.N.W., and makes, therefore, the
land at our right, a large island. What a happy combination of natural
canals, and what nations may be still drinking of this water! A quarter
after four o’clock, S.E. by S. Right and left a village on the shores.
There are low tokuls with clay walls and square doors: the roof
consists of leaves of the dome palm. Their large baskets are also
composed of the hearts of these trees. The village of the right shore
has many open tokuls or cattle-stalls, and enters tolerably far into the
land, where we observe several herds. Half-past four o’clock. From
S.E., with the broad beautiful bend of the river to S. by E. At five
o’clock we stop opposite a large village on the right shore, where
many natives are collected. The thermometer, 20°, 28°, 30°, and 27°
Reaumur.
10th February.—At the first sight of the morning dawn we heard
the great wooden kettle-drum (nogàra) sounding opposite in the
large village of Karborah, which instrument is beaten for amusement,
as well as for driving out the cattle. The watch-houses of the cow-
herdsmen stand in the centre of the enormous herd; the employment
of these men may be taken in turns like that of the night-watch. The
tribe of the Karboràhs, who, as I have said before, are a branch of
the Liènns, and independent, is here likewise not entirely stippled on
the forehead. Yesterday evening we traded with them, and I received
many a pretty thing, principally of iron; for they dwell nearer the
mountains, the source of iron wealth. Thus, I purchased ivory
bracelets, with black streaks; bows of bamboo, with iron ends, and
narrow bands of iron; ropes of bark, which, according to Mariàn, are
from the muddus-tree, and the strongest; some hair-lines, said to be
made from giraffes; thin iron chains, which they sling round their ribs;
but I could neither see a kettle-drum nor an antelope-horn for
blowing. It was with much trouble that I got a surprisingly beautiful
little he-goat, with a head like a gazelle, although the other little
goats have compressed noses. Selim Capitan was looked upon here
also as our matta; and they wanted to take by force a large
elephant’s tooth, which I had already bought, to present to him, not
returning, however, my thick glass beads. Several Nile buffaloes are
found in the river—a sign in the present season of the year, that
agriculture is diligently attended to in the vicinity.
At eight o’clock, we set off from S. to S.W.; a quarter before nine
o’clock, from S.E. by S. to S.S.E.; on the left a hamlet. A quarter
after nine o’clock, S.E.; and we sail with the good east wind
immediately again S. and S.S.W., and make three miles. Half-past
nine o’clock, S.E. Cultivation at the right side, and a watch-house in
the tobacco plantations. It seems as if tobacco were considered, in
the opinion of our people, an article of luxury which may be taken
whenever they like, without injustice. The tobacco plantations are
sheltered here also with reed-mats erected on sticks three feet high,
as a protection against the scorching solar rays. Immediately again
S. Dancing, clapping, huzzaing, and young girls and women singing
on the right shore.
A quarter before ten o’clock. From S.S.W. to S.E. The wind is
very contrary, and drives us together to the right shore, where we
make use of the rope for a short time. The merry girls and women
are adorned with rings and necklaces; only the head is shaved, as in
the other places, and they wear no rings in their ears. They have the
sitting-skin already mentioned behind, and the narrow rahàt before.
Moreover, most of them are armed with bows and arrows, probably
for self-defence in the absence of the men. A quarter after ten
o’clock. We sail again to S. We remark no villages, and yet there are
several people on the right shore; the habitations seem, therefore, to
be up the country in the Haba. It was not till after a quarter of an hour
that a large village appeared: soon afterwards a second, the
inhabitants of which have collected on the right shore. About eleven
o’clock we double a little island on the right, and at the left a broad
gohr, with a strong fall, flows in from S.E.; near it lies a still smaller
island, like a grass-shield, bulging out in the middle, which we also
leave on the left. Half-past eleven o’clock. From S. Libàhn, E.S.E.
Herds right and left; shady roofs on four stakes. My men have
bought a large wooden drum for me, and throw it down the shore;
but several natives, who are against the sale, jump after it, and take
it back by force; it seems to be the property of the community.
Twelve o’clock. From E.S.E to S.S.W. In the background an island
ascends.
The negroes wear frequently small animals’ skins on their heads,
which hang down over the nape of their necks. The sun has as
injurious an effect here on the former as on the vertebral columns of
the latter. A quarter of an hour later to S., and our corpulent friend,
Mount Nerkanjin, steps forward from S.W., blue and boldly, from the
background over the above-named island, near which a gohr flows
from W.S.W. At half-past twelve o’clock we lie to at the right shore,
near the same, to let the men rest and eat. I could not tell what made
me so hot, but the thermometer shews just 33°, although this
morning it was only 20°, as usual. We only stop twenty minutes, and
the poor crew must again to the rope, S.S.E. After one o’clock, we
halt a second time near a little island, the narrowest arm of which we
soon follow, on account of the greater depth. The current in this
canal, which has fifty to sixty paces, is uncommonly strong. Two
o’clock.—From S.S.E. to S.W. by S., and immediately to the left S.
by E., and right S.S.W. A quarter after two o’clock.—A magnificent
east wind: we shall make four miles to S. by W. and S.S.W.; but it
slackens immediately after casting out the log, and only refreshing
breezes breathe through the windows. In order to get from this place,
we assist the hoisted sails by libàhn. A small island before us closes
the narrow reach of our course, which our ship, until half-past two,
nearly fills up. Three o’clock, S.E. by S, and on the right round a
corner S.S.W., a few paces, then immediately left to S., where we
stop a moment. “El Bah’r kebir!” our people are shouting on all sides;
for they take the broad stream, wherein we are now sailing, for the
White Nile itself. An arm separates from it to N.N.W.; the last land on
the right is therefore also an island. We go by the left shore of the
main stream, where it winds from S.S.W. to E.N.E. It is called here,
as up the river, Kirboli, and both sides of it are inhabited by the
Elliàbs; therefore there is no doubt that it is the main stream. The
great island just mentioned is called Tui. We proceed at four o’clock
to S.S.W., and Mount Nerkanjin remains in a south-westerly direction
as previously. Half an hour later, we go from S.S.W. to S.; still no
village, nor familiar tree appears; even the sailors begin again to
doubt—for aught I care,—only forward; so that at last it must be
resolved to wait for the rainy season. At half-past four o’clock S.S.E.;
we halt on the sand, and no one appears to be sure of his point,
least of all Arnaud, who cannot comprehend his own journal.
Every doubt is removed, after considerable questioning of the
natives; we return a quarter before five o’clock from this ascent, and
stop above the Kièhr, which we had come up from the White Nile, in
order to examine it, even to its issue, and had taken hitherto for an
independent mountain stream. At six o’clock we go to the
neighbouring island, between the Nile and the gohr Kièhr. At sunset
29°; this will be a hot night.
11th February.—We remain near the large island of Tui, make a
section of the Nile, and find the main stream below the bay, where it
divides into three arms, a hundred and twenty-eight mètres broad. It
is called here Landofò; the Kokis inhabit its left shore. The Liénns
possess the right, together with our island, and the shores of the
gohrs, between which is the island of Tobo. Only a few of the latter
tattoo the forehead; some, the shoulders, as far as the upper part of
the arm; and others, the upper part of the back: some have also
coloured themselves with ochre.
12th February—Observations are to be made also to-day, in
order to start in the afternoon. I purchase for a few large glass
beads, the first fine elephant’s tooth, and I design it, being the largest
of all, as a cabinet specimen for my country. Now, at last, it is evident
to every one, that we are navigating back our old road. It is fortunate
for me that I am able to set up continuously and write my journal,
affected as I am with fever all the day after the hot nights. At half-
past two o’clock we bear off, and reach at half-past four the end of
the island of Tobo, near which we land at sunset by the left shore,
having made four miles and a half with a strong current, and the
stroke of the oar. Thermometer, in the morning, 20°; noon, 32°;
evening, 30°.
13th February.—We are to set out half an hour after sunrise; in
the meantime the men are slaughtering in haste some cows, which
natives of uncommon size have brought us. We do not proceed,
therefore, till seven o’clock, in a north-westerly direction. The river
makes such short bends that we bound every moment against the
shore, notwithstanding the very strong fall, and we tear off also a
corner of the loose earth. This, as well as the carelessness in
steering, causes the vessel to draw water continually. Nine o’clock.
We stop at the left shore, near some dome-palms; the water is a little
deeper here, as if a broad arm of the Nile, from E.S.E., joins with our
narrow one, or we with it. Here also they bring us cotton for sale.
Eleven o’clock. We go on with a favourable east wind. The tokuls for
dwellings are the peristyles already described. At noon we see
several hippopotami, some of them real monsters; these may remain
here pretty constantly, being perhaps their hunting district, because
the river is, on the whole, of great depth in this place.
We get on a sand-bank, close to which several crocodiles are
encamped. The first of these beasts (in truth a fearful leader) attacks
the men who are pushing the vessel off the sand-bank; then a
soldier jumps overboard, armed only with a hatchet (Chadàn), boldly
meets it, and really drives it back into the water. At this moment
shots were fired by the soldiers on board the vessels at the whole
congregation, but so badly aimed that not one remained dead on the
spot; they all made a slow retreat into the water, and we found
afterwards, in the moist sand on the shore, fifty-three of their eggs
lying together all of a layer. The shells were a little broken, as if
cracked, which may be caused by the sun and the humid sand. At
first I thought, indeed, that these eggs might be near hatching; but I
was persuaded of their freshness, when the crew eat them, roasted
in ashes, with much goût. I tried also a little one, and found the usual
taste of eggs, only it seemed to me particularly dry, and the white
was more spongy and not compact. My servants had preserved
eight of the eggs, which I put among those found in the
neighbourhood of the crocodile shot by Suliman Kashef. I see that
the latter are smaller, but thicker and rounder than the first-named. In
general they do not exceed the size of a goose’s egg, and differ from
birds’ eggs, especially by both ends being uniformly arched. When I
compared these eggs subsequently, in Khartùm, with another one,
found by me lying openly in the sand of the shore of the united
stream, on our journey to Sennaar, I found the latter to be
considerably larger than those of the White Stream. Without wishing
to decide by this on the different species of crocodiles, I remark that
the people here well know that there are such distinctions. At one
o’clock, we halt at the right shore, near a pastoral village, but do not
find the expected oxen. About five o’clock we push off again, and a
Nile arm divides to N.E.; then comes another from S.E., and winds
E.S.E. This is the arm, according to the general assertion, which we
previously ascended.
14th February.—We at eight o’clock, navigate, the gohr, which is
new to us, and goes from N. to N.W. Right and left dwell the Elliàbs;
also on both shores of the gohr from whence we came. The Tshiérrs
follow the Elliàbs; their boundary is determined by some dome-
palms. The former made, yesterday, a marauding and murderous
attack on the island-land enclosed by the gohr, and killed several
men; they were, however, put to flight by the Elliàbs, who hastily
collected, and were driven over the water, by which they left three
dead. The Elliàbs mean now to make a great war against them, and
would not, on that account, sell us any of the few spears which these
poor pastoral people possess. The Kièhrs dwell, according to the
inquiries made by Selim Capitan over the island, on the right shore
of the Nile arm, which we ascend, the river being also called there
Kièhr, as we have already mentioned. This circumstance may have
led Selim wrong, for the Bohrs dwell there, as I ascertained with the
assistance of my Jengàh. After a quarter of an hour, we again stop
close to the left shore, where our river-arm, called here the Kir, flows
to N.W. Hardly any people come to us, and the few we see are dirty,
covered with ashes, and without ornaments. Their spears, small in
number, are however kept polished, as the negroes generally clean
carefully every thing pertaining to weapons, and iron decorations,
except when they have coloured red with ochre their entire bodies,
and then every thing they carry on them and with them is dyed with
the same colour. We see clouds, foreboders of rain, almost
uninterruptedly in the sky. Thermometer, at sunrise, 21°; from twelve
to three o’clock not more than 30°, at sunset 29°. The Frenchmen
add still more degrees, and see also more, in order to frighten their
readers at such a country.
We go, after a short halt, to the right shore, where there is a large
cattle village, with many sleeping-places and plastered bee-hives, or
tokuls, their tops being lightly covered with straw or reeds: large
herds there. We navigate, with the stern of the vessel foremost,
although the captain is on deck, towards N.N.W., and shall halt
immediately at the left shore near a little pastoral village. The red
colour of the large heaps of ashes arises only from the burnt cows’
dung. 3 o’clock. Selim Capitan has just returned after a long voyage
downwards. No water; therefore libàhn again, back into the gohr
traversed previously. I procured to-day, from the herdsmen, four
heavy breakers of beads or hassaeis of ebony, without ornament;
and I see also here old woollen morions, of which I possess already
one specimen. The Frenchmen still keep their windows hung with
curtains or closed, so as not to be disturbed by the exterior world. At
half-past four o’clock we are so fortunate as to enter our old gohr
E.S.E., and come soon to the old encampment (I am again ill, as I
was then,) turn the bow foremost, go N.W., and stop at sunset to N.
at the left shore. I purchase a miserable little stool, which is rare
here, from the Elliàbs.
 15th February.—I have received, from Selim Capitan, a Bohr, as
drogman, but he will do nothing at first, for he is too hungry. The river
flows at half-past six, and up to seven o’clock, continually to N., with
declinations to N.W., where a small island appears on the right.
Again N.; on the left a large pastoral village of the name of Uadir,
belonging to the Elliàbs, or as our Bohrs call them, Alliababe. The
Bohrs possess the right shore, between whom and the Elliàbs
eternal war prevails. N.N.W.: on the left a little island. Half-past
seven o’clock. Over the dry straw of the shore on the left green
copse is sprouting, the tree-tops of the neighbouring forest. Some
drops of rain fell to-night on Feïzulla Capitan’s fiery brandy-nose, as
if on a hot stone, while he was sleeping on deck; now, also, I feel
some drops on my cool, pale nose. A fine prospect! for neither are
our corn magazines well covered, nor our cabins air-tight above,
thanks to Selim Capitan’s negligence. From N.N.E. immediately
again N.N.W. Eight o’clock. Right and left a forest, preceded by a
narrow border of the shore. A little island on the right displays its
green margin of reeds and creepers, as we see in all of them. We
halt at the sandy right shore: the left is fertile soil, which is also the
case on the right, though only for a short tract. Suliman Kashef’s
mallem was buried here the preceding year, and Suliman visited now
his grave under the trees. Opposite to us lies the tolerably large
pastoral village of Kelagò, a portion of which only I draw, because it
is like all the others. Thibaut also has applied himself to the ivory
trade; he has just acquired three elephants’ teeth. Half-past nine
o’clock. Away to N. and N.W.; at ten o’clock, a small pastoral village
on the left, with ash-grey people. The forest extends at one side, and
was refreshing to us, with its various tints of green. Here and there
the sun breaks through the clouds, and casts picturesque gleams of
light around; I can even enjoy it, for I feel myself again better after
the very strong perspiration I had in the night.
The Bohrs have lines on their foreheads like the Elliàbs, not
waved, however, like the latter, but straight, and also broader. The
drogman has five, which appear to consist of double lines. A quarter
after ten o’clock, N.N.W.; to the left an islet, with flowering creepers
and reeds. We are welcomed with a song, for this is the usual
custom with the tribes below Bari. One leads the choir, and the
chorus joins continually with “jok, jok, are o jok;” but they have
several refrains, among which their “abande jok” should not be
forgotten. At eleven o’clock N., uninterruptedly, like our direction,
with the former deviations to W. and E., the eternal enumeration of
which would only be tiresome. I know enough of the previous ascent
to be able to control my French companions. We stop at half-past
twelve o’clock at the right shore by the Haba, and push off at half-
past one again to N.N.W. The nation of the Bors, or Bohrs, is
likewise poor, and nothing was to be purchased from them but some
teeth, which Matta Selim Capitan appropriated to himself. The tribes
hitherto seen have, on the whole, the same sort of weapons,
although some arms are only similar; everywhere we see solitary
spears, similar to those of Bari. It seems generally that all iron work
is manufactured in that country, according to the taste of the different
tribes, which is frequently indeed very bad, and sent away from
thence; many, however, may have been introduced by intercourse
with nations dwelling at their side. It is a cool north-west wind.
Thermometer, Sunrise 23° to 24°. Noon 27°. A quarter of an hour
later an island five minutes long shews itself to the left in the middle
of the river. We go N.N.W. At the foot of this island, another one,
small and low, and, as it appeared to me at first, cultivated; but this,
however, was not subsequently confirmed. Our course passes
between yellow and light-green copse and other trees. Only here
and there, there is still a dome-palm, quite small or young; yet they
probably serve for the canoes here, for I observed several of these
boats on the shore. Two o’clock. N.W. An island in the centre of the
river which we leave at our right; then N.N.W. I have convinced
myself, by new ant-hills, that these insects, which are somewhat
larger here than the common ant, raise the earth from a depth where
it is entirely wet, black, and without admixture of sand (such as on
the level of the Nile, and in its neighbourhood), to make their
buildings durable. On the other hand, I remember the fallen-down
craters of the ant-hills among the Dinkas. It is now evident to me that
they openly seek a protection against the weather by getting under
the trees when there are any in their neighbourhood. The shores
shew here already a little oxyde earth. Half past two o’clock. From
N.N.E. to N., whereupon we halt at the right shore; for the
Frenchmen want to go hunting.
16th February.—Thermometer yesterday evening, 24°; this
morning, 19°. I made an excursion into the interesting forest: it lies
upon slightly-elevated sandy bottom, on which the dome-palms do
not grow so luxuriantly as in the country of the Tshièrrs, where I
counted sixty lances on one leaf, whilst here there are only from
forty-two to forty-six. I had preserved previously a vegetable, though
not knowing the nature of its root: here the sailors grubbed up some
of the same sort, and I saw tubers on them three feet and a quarter
thick, running towards the upper part to a round form, but appearing
to branch out below like enormous roots. Slender roots shoot from
these main tubers, and on them rises an insignificant-looking
vegetable, a foot high, covered at the top with small oval pale-green
leaves, like those of the box-tree: the clusters of gossamer-flowers
are of a yellowish colour. It is called “Irg-el-moje” (water-root)—in
Nuban, “Otto;” is very full of juice, but of a nauseous, sweet taste,
and is sold in Kahira. The suckers, properly speaking, must by virtue
of the soil here, go to a great depth. Our liquorice tastes perhaps
better, owing to its dryness. The large specimens were cut to pieces
and torn, by reason of their softness, and in consequence of the
greediness of our crew, who are like children, and yet laugh at the
blacks. I took a specimen for myself. The beautiful red peas or
vetches were also found. This vegetable was gathered; but no one at
first knew the foliage, until I discovered at last a few slender tendrils
of vetches, which were still green, and hung together with the dry
peas in the pods, which were burst open. The blacks and men of
Belled Sudàn make use of them as an ornament. They are small,
hard, and rough, like beads, have a black eye, with a white and
scarcely visible line, and are called hap-el-arùss (bride-grain). I have
in my possession several of them. The anduràb or enderàb, a large
tree with willow-like laciniated bark, is very common here: it has little
green clusters of flowers on its lower branches, hanging in wild
disorder; small round fruit, at present green, and willow-like, yet
truncated leaves. Besides many other trees, such as talles, geïlids,
and others, there is also a very large tree, now thoroughly leafless,
deserving notice, from its short prickles, and little apples. Mariàn tells
me that it has small round leaves, which make their appearance in
the hariff, together with a white flower, and that it is called, in the
Nuban language, dakuin. The fruit is not eaten, but gathered green,
and strung round the necks of children, as a preventive against fever
and other diseases.
We do not perceive grass anywhere, and therefore there are not
any cattle or human beings; but there may be, perhaps, many wild
beasts. Wild buffaloes, as I had been assured previously in the
upper Haba, and several of which animals Suliman Kashef and
Capitan Mohammed Agà, the Arnaut, with the halberdiers of the
former, pretend to have seen, are said to be frequently found here,
and larger than those of Egypt. We are more inclined to believe this
assertion, because it is well known to all our blacks that such beasts
often appear among the Shilluks, Hassanïes, and elsewhere. This
animal is called “Gamùs el galla.”
This morning, unfortunately, a soldier was stabbed by a Bohr with
a spear, because, as I suspect, he was about to take it away from
the latter according to the favourite Belesh manner, that is, without
paying for it. We were magnanimous, and did not take any revenge
on another Bohr, who was dragged to us instead of the proper
criminal. So likewise I see the voluntary slaves of Selim Capitan
chained together on the shore. At one o’clock we leave our beautiful
landing-place. On the left a little village appears, then also a Haba;
but it is too scantily furnished with trees, and soon retreats ashamed
before the magnificent forest opposite. After some minutes a reed
island divides the river. Then we proceed with W.N.W., our sails
swollen by the east wind, and leave it to the right whilst we go more
westerly, but soon again N. The burning of the reeds has an
unpleasing effect to the eye, but the country rises new-born like a
phœnix from the ashes. The island is fifteen minutes long. Half-past
one o’clock. From N.E. by E. to W. by S. A hamlet in the Haba to the
right of the shore, which is here high and precipitously disrupt, owing
to the narrow pass, lies picturesquely. A quarter before two o’clock,
N.W., on the right a little island. At two o’clock from N.E. to N.W. in
the bend, but the Haba has disappeared. A quarter after two o’clock
N.N.E.; on the right an island ten minutes long. At the end of it N.E.;
on the left an old village containing tokuls with six to seven
indentations on the roofs. The Haba, with several dhellèbs, has
approached us on the avulsed high shore; it shews the genuine
marks of the ancient or high shores. Half-past two o’clock, near the
bend to N.W.; on the right many dhellèbs, which are not, however, of
remarkable appearance, especially as the lower dry branches are
upon them. A quarter before three o’clock. From the short E.N.E.
tract to N.N.W. The forest on the right rises upon sandy deposits of
downs, somewhat in the form of a hill. The sand was once
deposited, perhaps, by an unusual inundation, on the underwood,
and has remained there since that time. The shores are still
intermixed with ochre here and there. A glistening long course before
us towards N.N.W., such as we had not had for a long time, with the
exception of the small inlets right and left; also a little island there.
Thermometer 19° and 29° to 30°. Three o’clock. The Haba has
retreated, yet N.N.W. On the left a small tokul village as before;
immediately under it to the right E.N.E. and W.N.W., again a forest,
the only break of the monotonous shores, islands, and villages. A
quarter after three o’clock. From a short westerly direction to N.N.W.
We halt at the right shore; perhaps Selim Capitan’s vessel draws
water—yet, no; the French gentlemen had not come up.
A quarter after four o’clock: off again, and we go N.E. On the right
side Bohrs, and on the left Elliàbs. Half-past four o’clock, N.W. The
Haba on the right rises on downs; we see dome-palms also on it, but
upon firm, dark earth, whilst the sand lies only on the surface.
Moreover, these dome-palms are considerably higher than the
dhellèbs. Violent storms cannot take place in these regions; I have
never seen a single tree torn up by the wind. A quarter before five
o’clock, from N.E. to N.N.W. The Haba remains and consoles us
more than sufficiently for the arid shore, although green reeds and
weeds struggle up here and there, and strike the roots deep into the
vivifying water.
To N.N.W., a long row of tokuls appears in parade before us,
without any other background than the horizon. On the right a narrow
arm goes to E., and places the barren tokul-city on an island. In the
bend from N.W. to W. The tokuls have, in part, the screen mentioned
before, as the entrance; the sleeping-places in the neighbourhood
are built of new reeds, and sixty tokuls without sleeping-places, and
huts join them. This place, inhabited by Bohrs, is called Jemàhl.
Immediately to the left also, by N.W, a tokul-village opposite; the
lower walls, being proportionably high, are partly plastered with Nile
slime. The knowledge of my drogman Joi is already at an end: he
does not know the name of this long village, lying on the margin of
the river like a crescent. Five o’clock from S.W. to N.E. by N. I
remark the circumference of a red cone of ashes in the centre part of
the broken shore: the reeds brush the vessel, and some of them fall
on the plank before my window.
That custom of dung-fires for the encampment of the herds
already mentioned, appears very ancient; for the earth deposited by
the river lies from three to four feet high near them. About sunset we
stop, on account of good neighbourhood, near a pastoral village on
the right shore, where the river winds to N. The goats and sheep
jump from the vessels with delight to the green grass on the shore.
We hoped to get some oxen here, but not any were brought us.
 CHAPTER VII.
THE BOHR “JOI.” — HIS TREATMENT ON BOARD THE VESSEL. — HIS
ESCAPE. — WOMEN’S VILLAGE. — FELT CAPS. — SONGS OF THE
BOHRS. — TUBERS SIMILAR TO POTATOES. — THE BUNDURIÀLS. — THE
TUTUIS AND KÈKS. — AN ELEPHANT ATTACKED AND KILLED. — TASTE
OF THE FLESH OF THIS ANIMAL. — CHEATING OF THE NATIVES IN
BARTER. — WINTER TOKULS OR WOMENS’ HUTS. — MANNER OF
MAKING A BURMA OR COOKING-VESSEL. — “BAUDA” AGAIN. —
FEÏZULLA-CAPITAN’S INDUSTRY IN SEWING. — THE KÈKS LIVE BY
FISHING. — DESCRIPTION OF THE WOMEN. — SERIOUS ACCIDENT TO
THE VESSEL. — OSTRICHES AND APES. — FOGS ON THE WHITE
STREAM. — WATCH-TOWERS. — SALE SHOOTS A GIGANTIC CRANE. —
IS PUNISHED. — THE NUÈHRS.

17th February.—The thermometer, hanging in the window,

which is always open, had, at about half-past eight o’clock yesterday
evening, 25½°, and this morning before sunrise 23°. The sky is
cloudy, and it seems as if it would rain; the east wind abates the
sultriness a little. At seven o’clock, from N.E. to E. by S., and
immediately northerly. A quarter after seven o’clock, W.N.W., N.E.,
and then in a bend to N.N.W. The Bohr Joi was extremely happy
yesterday evening; he had eaten so much that he could not move: I
had repaired the broken bowl of his pipe, and he smoked my
tobacco and said, “affat” (good). Feïzulla Capitan has given him the
usual slave name of “Bachit,” by which he is called and teazed on all
sides. The Dinkaui Bachit, a young soldier, who might speak to him,
will have nothing to do with him; therefore the fellow finds himself
deserted, and cannot answer by words the crew, who are always
laughing at him. Even yesterday he hung down his head the whole
day, and looked on the ground, and I could not help feeling pity for
the otherwise free negro, separated as he was from his friends. He
had a handsome head, something of a Roman nose, large eyes, a
mouth only protruding a little, and all his teeth, except the four lower
ones; in other respects he was thin, seemed in grief, and almost
starved to death. This might have induced him perhaps to come on
board Selim Capitan’s vessel, who bound a piece of linen as an
ornament round his neck, but retained him as a slave. Awakened
from my sleep, I heard him speaking and singing, looking with
passionate affection towards both shores. I think the poor creature is
taking leave of his country, or he is home-sick, and owing to that
cannot sleep. At midnight he woke me a second time, and screamed
Bohr, Bohr, Bohr! and then, Elliàb, Elliàb, Elliàb! adding clearly
thereto individual names, whilst he turned himself to those regions.
He sang loud, melancholy songs, and what appeared from the
melody to be the camel-song of the Bisharis, and then shouted wildly
and loudly. They tried to hold him fast, but he was as strong as a
lion. Subsequently he complained of pains in the body, which
perhaps arose from his dreadful gluttony, and he gazed continually
at the shores as if assistance would come to him from thence. I
suppose that he wants to escape, and therefore I made him take off
the linen decoration, as it might be an obstacle to him in so doing;
but I got him first to rub his stomach with it, during which operation
he roared and groaned like a wild beast, and stretched himself with
both hands on the lowered mast. Scarcely, however, was he relieved
from the attack of colic than he made a tremendous spring over the
heads of the crew right away into the water. It was with difficulty that
I prevented them from firing at him. Feïzulla Capitan did not say a
word, but put on a melancholy face, because he feared possibly
Selim Capitan’s reproaches.
Eight o’clock, N.N.W., and after fifteen minutes with a short
course to S.S.E. and again N.W. and N.N.W. On the right, a village,
with numerous light-coloured cows and open sleeping-places;
between them, little huts for women and children, formed like a
basket, plastered with slime, and covered at the top with entangled
couch-grass, which may serve as a covering against the weather, or
as a chimney. The north wind, which has set in, is contrary to us, and
we are, at a quarter before nine o’clock, when we are going to the
north, scarcely five minutes from the last villages. We continually run
aground, and spin like a top from one shore to the other, on account
of the north wind, which is blowing stronger and stronger: the ashes
of the burnt grass are carried up by the wind, and the air all around is
obscured by them. The river winds from N. towards N.E., and at the
corner on the right is a large pastoral village, with several lowing
herds; on the left, a tokul village, in which, on account of the north
and east wind, we do not see any of the oval doors turned towards
the Nile. A number of ugly and dirty women with leather aprons, also
boys, but no girls, stand collected there. Above this women’s village
a gohr disembogues from S.W. by S., and this is the same arm of the
Nile that Selim Capitan navigated for three hours, above, near the
Elliàbs, and found unfit for our voyage. We stop at half-past nine
o’clock at the lower end of the long pastoral village extending along
the shore. An old man seizes the rope by which we have lately been
pulled, and makes us understand that he is going to kill some cows
for us. We move on, however, for they did not come before eleven
o’clock, to N.W.
The village is called Dirèk, also Aderèk. Three natives were on
board our vessel: their felt morions were covered over and over with
sea-shells (Cypræa moneta), and the inside so entwined with their
hair, that they could not take them off without cutting off the hair
itself; therefore we could not persuade any of them to sell us their
caps. At last one man asked a large shellful of glass beads for it.
Another fellow was brought to Selim Capitan, but he would not
resign his morion for any price, and said that he purchased it for
eight cows, and that it came from the very distant country of Kekèss.
Hence it follows that there is a connection here with the sea. Eleven
o’clock; a little to N.E. by N. A quarter after eleven o’clock, with a
short bend to N.W. by W., and N. by E. In the angle of this second
sharp bend, on the left a small pastoral village; then N.E. The
reddish-colour of the ashes seems to arise from the natural
admixture of the clayey soil, as I convinced myself to-day, when the
men were piling together the dung of the herds. Half-past eleven
o’clock. From N.E. to N.W.: then a Nile arm shews itself in the bend
to E., and flows southerly. The smell of fire from the black and
scorched shores is very unpleasant, on which, however, there are
still green spots and tracts. The disrupt and higher old shore