PRIYADARSHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to RTMNU, Nagpur

Department of Applied Physics
Question Bank
Q.No Unit 1 -Wave Optics M B C
. ar L O
ks
1 What is meant by interference of light? What are the necessary conditions on the 5 2 1
path difference and phase difference between two waves that interfere (a)
constructively (b) destructively.

Interference is defined as the redistribution of light intensity (or energy) due to the
superposition of light waves coming from two or more coherent sources.

Conditions for constructive interference are:

Phase difference = 0, 2π, 4π…. = 2nπ, where n=0,1,2,3,4….
Path difference = n λ

Conditions for destructive interference are:

Phase difference = π, 3π, 5π …. = (2n+1) π, where, n=0,1,2,3,4…..

Path difference = (2n+1) λ/2

2 Obtain an expression for fringe width and wedge angle in wedge shaped film. 4 2 1

EXPRESSION FOR FRINGE WIDTH (β)

 Let us consider a wedge-shaped film of refractive index ‘μ’ and wedge angle ‘θ’ as
shown in fig.
 A monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ is incident normally (i.e., cos r = 1) on the
wedge.

Fig.1.8: Determination of fringe width

 Let nth dark fringe be formed at point A and consecutive (n+1)th dark fringe at point C.
Let film thickness at point A and C be‘t1’ and ‘t2’ respectively.
 Applying condition of destructive interference,
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
 At point A,
2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑛𝜆 ----------- (1)
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  At point C,
2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 ----------- (2)

 On subtracting eqn. (1) from (2), we get,

2𝜇(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝜆
𝜆
or 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 2𝜇 ----------- (3)
 In Δ ABC,
𝐵𝐶
tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
tan 𝜃 =
𝛽
Here ‘’ is the fringe width i.e., distance between two consecutive dark or bright fringes.
𝑜𝑟 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝛽 tan 𝜃
𝜆
= 𝛽 tan 𝜃 (from equation (3))
2𝜇

𝜆
= 𝛽𝜃 (∵ for small value of θ, tanθ = θ)
2𝜇

𝜆
𝛽= 2𝜇𝜃
----------- (4)
DETERMINATION OF WEDGE ANGLE (𝜃)

Fig : Determination of wedge angle

 Let us consider a wedge-shaped film with very small wedge angle ‘θ’ as shown in fig..
Also assume that nth dark fringe be formed at point ‘A’ and (m+n)th at point ‘B’.
 Hence, at point A, dark fringe is given by,
2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑡1
but, tan 𝜃 =
𝑥1
⟹ 𝑡1 = 𝑥1 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥1 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥1 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 ------------ (1)
 Similarly, at B,
2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜆
𝑡2
but tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2
⟹ 𝑡2 = 𝑥2 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥2 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥2 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜆 ------------ (2)

2
  Subtracting eqn. (1) from eqn. (2), we get,
2𝜇(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝜃= ------------- (3)
2𝜇(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )
 For μ = 1,
𝑛𝜆
𝜃 = 2(𝑥 ------------ (4)
2 −𝑥1 )

Thus, we can calculate wedge angle 𝜃 using above equation.

3 Derive the expression for fringe width (β) in an interference pattern obtained in a 5 3 1
Wedge shape thin film. How it is used for testing optically flat surface?

EXPRESSION FOR FRINGE WIDTH (β)

 Let us consider a wedge-shaped film of refractive index ‘μ’ and wedge angle ‘θ’ as
shown in fig.
 A monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ is incident normally (i.e., cos r = 1) on the
wedge.

Fig.1.8: Determination of fringe width

 Let nth dark fringe be formed at point A and consecutive (n+1)th dark fringe at point C.
Let film thickness at point A and C be‘t1’ and ‘t2’ respectively.
 Applying condition of destructive interference,
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
 At point A,
2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑛𝜆 ----------- (1)
 At point C,
2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 ----------- (2)

 On subtracting eqn. (1) from (2), we get,

2𝜇(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝜆
𝜆
or 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = ----------- (3)
2𝜇
 In Δ ABC,
𝐵𝐶
tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
tan 𝜃 =
𝛽

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 Here ‘’ is the fringe width i.e., distance between two consecutive dark or bright fringes.
𝑜𝑟 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝛽 tan 𝜃
𝜆
= 𝛽 tan 𝜃 (from equation (3))
2𝜇

𝜆
= 𝛽𝜃 (∵ for small value of θ, tanθ = θ)
2𝜇

𝜆
𝛽= 2𝜇𝜃
----------- (4)
2] Testing of optically flat surface:
The flatness of the surface can be inspected easily by keeping an optical flat surface at an angle
on the surface under inspection and illuminating it with a monochromatic light (Fig).

Fig.: Testing of surface finish (a) optically flat (b) concave (c) convex surface

The light will produce one of the following interpretations: -

 An air wedge will produce straight equidistant fringes if surface is flat.
 If the fringes are curved towards the contact edge, then surface is concave.
 If the fringes are curved away from the contact edge, then surface is convex.
 The curved fringes indicate that the surface is not having smooth surface finish.
 The surface under test is then polished and above process is repeated again and again
till straight and parallel fringes are obtained.

4 Derive an expression for wedge angle in case of Wedge- shaped thin film. 4 3 1

DETERMINATION OF WEDGE ANGLE (𝜃)

Fig : Determination of wedge angle

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  Let us consider a wedge-shaped film with very small wedge angle ‘θ’ as shown in fig..
Also assume that nth dark fringe be formed at point ‘A’ and (m+n)th at point ‘B’.
 Hence, at point A, dark fringe is given by,
2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑡1
but, tan 𝜃 =
𝑥1
⟹ 𝑡1 = 𝑥1 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥1 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥1 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 ------------ (1)
 Similarly, at B,
2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜆
𝑡2
but tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2
⟹ 𝑡2 = 𝑥2 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥2 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥2 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜆 ------------ (2)
 Subtracting eqn. (1) from eqn. (2), we get,
2𝜇(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝜃= ------------- (3)
2𝜇(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )
 For μ = 1,
𝑛𝜆
𝜃= ------------ (4)
2(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )

Thus, we can calculate wedge angle 𝜃 using above equation.

5 What is a thin film? Obtain an expression for Fringe width of the interference due 5 2 1
to reflected rays in wedge shaped thin film.
6 How is wedge- shape film experiment used for testing the optically flatness of the 4 3 1
surface?

Testing of optically flat surface:

The flatness of the surface can be inspected easily by keeping an optical flat surface at an angle
on the surface under inspection and illuminating it with a monochromatic light (Fig).

Fig.: Testing of surface finish (a) optically flat (b) concave (c) convex surface

The light will produce one of the following interpretations: -

 An air wedge will produce straight equidistant fringes if surface is flat.
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  If the fringes are curved towards the contact edge, then surface is concave.
 If the fringes are curved away from the contact edge, then surface is convex.
 The curved fringes indicate that the surface is not having smooth surface finish.
 The surface under test is then polished and above process is repeated again and again
till straight and parallel fringes are obtained.

7 In Newton's Ring experiment, why, 5 2 1

(i) The rings get closer away from the centre?
(ii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light?
(iii) Fringes are circular.

(i) Rings get closer away from the center

 Diameter of a dark rings is directly proportional to square root of natural numbers,
while the diameter of the bright rings is proportional to square root of odd numbers.
 Therefore, as the order of rings (n) increases, the diameter does not increase in the
same proportion.
 Therefore, the rings get closer and closer with increasing radii as we move away from
the centre.
 Also, the wedge angle is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases as we
move away from the point of contact on either side.
λ
 So, according to the relation β = , when wedge angle ′θ′ increases, fringe width
2µθ
‘β’ decreases and hence fringes get closer and closer with increasing radii.

(ii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light.

 At the point of contact of the lens and glass plate, the thickness of air film is negligibly
small compared to wavelength of light.
∴t ≅ 0
𝜆
∴path difference ∆ ≅
2
𝜆
 For path difference of , the two interfering rays will always be 180° out of phase with
2
each other.
 Therefore, the two interfering waves satisfy the condition of destructive interference
and produce a dark spot at centre.

3. Fringes are circular.

 When a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on the plane glass
plate, a wedge-shaped thin air film of varying thickness is formed in between these
two surfaces.
 The locus of points where the air film has the same thickness fall on circle with center
as the point of contact.
 Hence, the fringes are circular.

8 In the Newton experiment why: (i) Central fringe is dark in reflected light? (ii) 5 2 1
Plano-convex lens should have a large Radius of curvature iii) Rings get closer
away from the center

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 (i) Central fringe is dark in reflected light.
 At the point of contact of the lens and glass plate, the thickness of air film is negligibly
small compared to wavelength of light.
∴t ≅ 0
𝜆
∴path difference ∆ ≅ 2
𝜆
 For path difference of 2, the two interfering rays will always be 180° out of phase with
each other.
 Therefore, the two interfering waves satisfy the condition of destructive interference
and produce a dark spot at centre.

(ii) Plano-convex lens should have Large Radius of curvature:

 The radius and diameter of dark rings is directly proportional to square root of radius
of curvature of plano-convex lens.
rn α √R
Dn α √R
 Greater the radius of curvature of the lens, larger would be the diameter of the ring.
Hence, the error in the measurement of diameter is minimized.
 Secondly if ‘R’ is large, the angle enclosing the air film ′𝜃′ will become smaller and
λ
hence according to relation β = ,the fringe width ‘β’ will become larger.
2µθ
 Thus, there will be more accuracy in measurement of diameter of rings.
(iii) Rings get closer away from the center
 Diameter of a dark rings is directly proportional to square root of natural numbers,
while the diameter of the bright rings is proportional to square root of odd numbers.
 Therefore, as the order of rings (n) increases, the diameter does not increase in the
same proportion.
 Therefore, the rings get closer and closer with increasing radii as we move away from
the centre.
 Also, the wedge angle is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases as we
move away from the point of contact on either side.
λ
 So, according to the relation β =
2µθ
, when wedge angle ′θ′ increases, fringe width
‘β’ decreases and hence fringes get closer and closer with increasing radii.
9 In Newton’s rings experiment explain why (i) Rings get closer away from the 4 2 1
center (ii) Center fringe is dark in reflected light?

Answer in answer to Question no.8

10 In Newton’s rings experiment why: 6 2 1
i) Central fringe is dark in reflected light.
ii) Fringes are circular.
iii) Rings get closer away from centre.

Answer in answer to Question no.8.

11 What is antireflection coating? Obtain an expression for minimum optical thickness 4 2 1
of the film to act an antireflection coating.

A thin transparent film coated on a surface to suppress reflections from it is called

7
 an antireflection film (AR coating).

Fig.: Anti reflection coating

 Consider a thin film coated on a glass surface as shown in fig. The phase condition
requires that the waves reflected from top and bottom (Ray1 and Ray 2) must be
exactly 180o out of phase.
 After reflection both the rays undergo a phase change of 180 0. It means that their
𝜆
optical path difference changes by2.
 Therefore, the equation for optical difference becomes,
𝜆 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2 − 2

where ′𝜇𝑓 ′ is the refractive index of coated film.

or Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟
 For normal incidence, cos r =1
∴ Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡
𝜆
 But for destructive interference, Δ = (2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
 For minimum thickness of the film i.e.,𝑡 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 and n = 0,
𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2
𝜆
or 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4 𝜇𝑓

Therefore, the optical thickness of the film (𝜇𝑓 𝑡) should be equal to one- quarter
wavelength..
12 Explain the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction. 3 2 1

FRESNEL DIFFRACTION FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

1. The source and the screen are both at 1. The source and the screen are both at

8
 finite distances from the obstacle. infinite distances from the obstacle.
2. Lenses are not used to make the rays 2. Lenses are used to make the rays parallel
parallel or convergent. or convergent.
3. The incident wavefronts are either 3. The incident wavefronts are planar.
spherical or cylindrical
13 Differentiate between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction. 4 2 1

Answer is same as that of answer to Question no.12.

14 What is a diffraction grating? Define grating element. 2 2 1

 The diffraction grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque

rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer. Thus, it consists of many equally spaced
parallel transparent spaces called slits.
 Grating element:
 It is defined as the distance between two consecutive slits or rulings. If ‘a’ is the
width of ruling and ‘b’ is the width of slit then grating element ‘d’ = a+b.

15 A soap film of 5000 Ao thickness is viewed at angle of 35o the normal. Find the 4 3 1
wavelength of visible spectrum which will be absent from the reflected light. The
refractive index of the film is 1.33.

Given: t=5000Å
∠i =35°
µ=1.33
Solution: Condition of destructive interference is 2 µ t cos r = n λ

sin 𝑖
By Snell’s law 𝜇 =
sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖 sin 35
∴ sin 𝑟 = =
𝜇 1.33

∴ 𝑟 = 25.54°
For first order, n = 1
λ1=2 µ t cos r
=2×1.33×5000Å× cos (25.54°)
= 12000Å --------- (in IR range)
For second order, n = 2
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ2 = = = 6000 Å -------- (in visible region)
2 2
For third order, n = 3
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ3 = = = 4000 Å -------- (in visible region)
3 3
For fourth order, n = 4
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ4 = 4
= 4
= 3000 Å -------- (in UV region)
Therefore, wavelengths λ2and λ3 will be absent in the visible spectrum.

16 When a wedge- shaped air film is viewed by a monochromatic source of light 4 3 1

9
 incident normally, the interference fringes 0.4 mm apart are observed. If the air
space is filled with the water (µ = 1.33) how far apart the fringes will be observed?

Ans: Given: βair = 0.4mm

𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.33
βwater =?

λ
Solution: Fringe width, β =
2µθ
λ
βair = − − − (1) (as μ = 1 for air film)
2θ
λ
λ 2θ
βwater = = − − − (2)
2μwater θ μwater
λ
Substituting 2θ = βair from eqn. (1) in (2) we get
βair 0.4mm
βwater = = = 0.3m
μwater 1.33
17 Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass wedge of RI 1.52. The fringe 3 3 1
spacing is 0.1 mm; wavelength of light is 5893 Ao Calculate wedge angle.
Ans: Given: µ = 1.52
β = 0.1 mm = 10-4 m
λ = 5893 A0= 5893 ×10-10 m.
𝜃=?

λ
Solution: Fringe width 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃
λ
Wedge angle 𝜃 =
2𝜇𝛽
5893×10−10
=
2×1.52×10−4
= 1.94×10-3rad
18 A glass microscope lens is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ=1.38) film to increase 3 3 1
the transmission of normally incident light of wavelength 6800 Å. What is minimum
film thickness needed for optimum result?

Ans: Given: µf =1.38

λ = 6800Ǻ
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?
λ
Solution: 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 4𝜇
𝑓

6800Å
=
4 × 1.38
= 1231.88 Å

19 A glass microscope lens (µ=1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (µ=1.30) film 3 3 1
to increase the transmission of normally incident light (λ=5800 𝐴𝑜 ). What
minimum film thickness should be deposited on the lens?

Ans: Given: µg =1.5

10
 µf =1.30
λ = 5800Ǻ
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?
λ
Solution: 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓

5800Å
=
4 × 1.30
= 1115.38 Å

20 In the Newton ring experiment the diameter of the 15th dark ring is found to be 0.59 3 3 1
cm and that of the 5th ring was 0.336 cm. If the radius Plano-convex lens is 100 cm.
Calculate the wavelength of light used.

Ans: Given: R = 100 cm = 100×10-2 m,

D15= 0.590 cm = 0.59 ×10-2 m,
D5 = 0.336 cm = 0.336×10-2 m,
(n+p)=15, n = 5, p =10
λ =?
D2n+p −D2n
Solution: λ=
4pR
[(0.59×10−2 )2 −(0.336×10−2 )2 ]m2
=
4×10×100×10−2 m
−7
= 5.8801 × 10 m
=5880.1×10-10 m = 5880.1 Å

Unit 2 -Quantum Mechanics M B C

ar L O
ks
1 What is Compton effect? State the expression for Compton shift. Write the 5 1 2
expression for conservation of energy and momentum in Compton scattering.

When a beam of monochromatic X-rays strikes the loosely bound electrons of

atoms in graphite target, the X-rays are scattered in all possible directions. This
phenomenon is called as “Compton scattering” or “Compton effect” The angle
between direction of incident and scattered ray is called scattering angle (ф).
The scattered radiation consists of two components of
wavelength-unmodified and modified. The component having same wavelength as
that of incident X-rays is called as unmodified component (λ) and the other
component having wavelength slightly higher than incident one is called as
modified component (𝜆′ ).
The difference between modified wavelength (𝜆′ ) and
unmodified wavelength (λ) or the change in wavelength of X-ray photon is known
as Compton Shift. It is given by equation,
ℎ
∆𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cosΦ)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
where λ′ = wavelength of scattered X − ray photon
and λ = wavelength of incident X − ray photon

11
 By the Principle of conservation of energy,
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓
[ ]+[ ]=[ ]+[ ]
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄
+ 𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 = ′ + √𝒎𝟎 𝟐 𝒄𝟒 + 𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐 … … . … … … … … … . . (1)
𝝀 𝝀

According to Principle of conservation of momentum along x-axis and y-axis, total momentum
of photon and electron before collision is equal to that of after collision.

Along X-axis: -
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
[ ]+[ ]=[ ]+[ ]
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝒉 𝒉
+𝟎= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜱 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 …….……………….. (2)
𝝀 𝝀′

Along Y-axis: -

ℎ
0 + 0 = 𝜆′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷 + (−𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) … … . … … … … … … . . (3)

2 What is Compton effect? Write expression for Compton shift. 3 2 2

When a beam of monochromatic X-rays strikes the loosely bound electrons of

atoms in graphite target, the X-rays are scattered in all possible directions. This
phenomenon is called as “Compton scattering” or “Compton effect” The angle
between direction of incident and scattered ray is called scattering angle (ф).
The scattered radiation consists of two components of
wavelength-unmodified and modified. The component having same wavelength as
that of incident X-rays is called as unmodified component (λ) and the other
component having wavelength slightly higher than incident one is called as
modified component (𝜆′ ).
The difference between modified wavelength (𝜆′ ) and
unmodified wavelength (λ) or the change in wavelength of X-ray photon is known
as Compton Shift. It is given by equation,
ℎ
∆𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cosΦ)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
where λ′ = wavelength of scattered X − ray photon
and λ = wavelength of incident X − ray photon

3 Write equations of conservation of energy and momentum in Compton Effect. 4 2 2

12
 By the Principle of conservation of energy,
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓
[ ]+[ ]=[ ]+[ ]
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄
+ 𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 = ′ + √𝒎𝟎 𝟐 𝒄𝟒 + 𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐 … … . … … … … … … . . (1)
𝝀 𝝀

According to Principle of conservation of momentum along x-axis and y-axis, total momentum
of photon and electron before collision is equal to that of after collision.

Along X-axis: -
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
[ ]+[ ]=[ ]+[ ]
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀
+ 𝟎 = 𝝀′ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜱 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 …….……………….. (2)

Along Y-axis: -

ℎ
0 + 0 = 𝜆′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷 + (−𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) … … … … … … … … … . (3)

4 Why free electron cannot absorb complete energy of Photon? 3 2 2

13
 Let us assume that it is possible for a stationary free electron to absorb an incident
photon completely. Then, the energy and momentum of scattered photon will be zero.
Applying the law of conservation of energy, we get

Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision

Energy of Energy of Energy of Energy of

( )+( )=( )+( )
incident Photon electron at rest scattered Photon recoiled electron
hν + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 0 + (𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4 + 𝑝 2 𝑐 2 )1/2

ℎ𝜈 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 0 + √𝑝 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑂2 𝑐 4 … … … … … … … . . . . (1)

Applying the law of conservation of momentum to this system, we get

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

Momentum of Momentum of Momentum of Momentum of

( )+( )=( )+( )
incident Photon electron at rest scattered Photon recoiled electron
ℎ𝜈
+ 0 = 0 + p
𝑐
ℎ𝜈
+ 0 = 0 + 𝑝
𝑐
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑝 𝑐 … … … … … … … . . . . (2)

Substituting eqn. (2) in (1), we get

ℎ𝜈 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 0 + √ℎ2 𝜈 2 + 𝑚𝑂2 𝑐 4
Squaring on both the sides, we get

ℎ2 𝜈 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4 + 2 ℎ𝜈𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 𝜈 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4

∴ 2ℎ𝜈𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 0
Since 2≠ 0 , either hν = 0 or moc2= 0, i.e. Energy of incident photon = 0 or Energy of electron
at rest = 0
This is not possible. Thus, our assumption is wrong. Hence, a free electron cannot absorb a
complete photon.
5 Show that De-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron accelerated through potential 4 1 2
12.26
difference of V volts is 𝜆 = 𝑉 Å
√

Consider an electron of charge ‘e’ and mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ through a region of
potential difference of ‘V’ volts. Therefore, the kinetic energy acquired by the electron is due
to electrical energy,
∴ Kinetic energy = Electrical energy
1
m𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
or m𝑣 2 = 2𝑒𝑉

14
 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2meV

∴ 𝑝 2 = 2meV

∴ p = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 … … … … … … … . . . . (1)

ℎ
By the definition of De Broglie wavelength, λ =
𝑝
∴ Substituting the value of p from eqn (1),
ℎ
λ = … … … … … … … . . . . (2)
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
Equation (2) represents de Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ in terms of potential ‘V’. Since ‘e’=1.602 ×
10-19C, ‘h’=6.63 × 10-34 Js and mass of electron ‘m’ = 9.1×10-31 kg.

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34 1
λ = = ×
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.602 × 10−19 √𝑉

12.26 × 10−10 12.26

∴λ = 𝒎= Å
√𝑉 √𝑉
6 What is de-Broglie hypothesis? Obtain an expression for de-Broglie wavelength 4 2 2
associated with an electron accelerated through a potential of “V” volt.

The hypothesis that matter can behave like a wave is called De-Broglie hypothesis.
Just as light shows dual nature, every material particle exhibits wave nature too.

Consider an electron (charged particle) of charge ‘e’ and mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’
through a region of potential difference of ‘V’ volts. Therefore, the kinetic energy acquired
by the electron is due to electrical energy,
∴ Kinetic energy = Electrical energy
1
m𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
or m𝑣 2 = 2𝑒𝑉

𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2meV

∴ 𝑝 2 = 2meV

∴ p = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 … … … … … … … . . . . (1)

ℎ
By the definition of De Broglie wavelength, λ =
𝑝
∴ Substituting the value of p from eqn (1),

ℎ
λ = … … … … … … … . . . . (2)
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉

15
7 State de-Broglie hypothesis? Show that de-Broglie wavelength for an electron 5 2 2
accelerated by an electric field of ‘V’ volts/m is 12.26 / √ V Aº.

The hypothesis that matter can behave like a wave is called De-Broglie hypothesis.
Just as light shows dual nature, every material particle exhibits wave nature too.

Consider an electron of charge ‘e’ and mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ through a region of
potential difference of ‘V’ volts. Therefore, the kinetic energy acquired by the electron is due
to electrical energy,
∴ Kinetic energy = Electrical energy
1
m𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
or m𝑣 2 = 2𝑒𝑉

𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2meV

∴ 𝑝 2 = 2meV

∴ p = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 … … … … … … … . . . . (1)

ℎ
By the definition of De Broglie wavelength, λ =
𝑝
∴ Substituting the value of p from eqn (1),
ℎ
λ = … … … … … … … . . . . (2)
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
Equation (2) represents de Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ in terms of potential ‘V’. Since ‘e’=1.602 ×
10-19C, ‘h’=6.63 × 10-34 Js and mass of electron ‘m’ = 9.1×10-31 kg.

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34 1
λ = = ×
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.602 × 10−19 √𝑉

12.26 × 10−10 12.26

∴λ = 𝒎= Å
√𝑉 √𝑉

8 State the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and prove that an electron cannot be 4 2 2
present inside the nucleus of an atom.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

It is not possible to make simultaneous measurement of both the position and the momentum
of a microparticle with unlimited accuracy.
Mathematically, product of uncertainty in measurement of position (Δx) and momentum (Δpx)
of a microparticle is always greater than or equal to ħ.
Δx. Δpx ≥ ħ
ℎ
where, ħ = 2𝜋

Let us assume that electron exists inside the nucleus. The radius of nucleus of an atom is nearly
10-14 m.
∴ Diameter is 2 x 10-14 m.
16
 If an electron lies inside the nucleus then the maximum uncertainty in the position of an electron
will be the diameter of nucleus.
∴ ∆x = 2 x 10-14 m
According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
ℎ
∆𝑥 ∙ ∆𝑝𝑥 =
2𝜋
ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
∆𝑝𝑥 = =
2𝜋∆𝑥 2 × 3.14 × 2 × 10−14
= 0.527 x 10-20 kg m/s
Thus, if electron is within nucleus then its momentum must be at least equal to ∆𝑝𝑥 .
∴ 𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≅ ∆𝑝𝑥 = 0.527 × 10−20 kg𝑚/𝑠
∴ Total relativistic energy of electron is,

𝐸 = √𝑝 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4
∴ 𝐸 2 = 𝑝 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4
∵ 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4 ≪ 𝑝 2 𝑐 2
∴ 𝐸2 = 𝑝2 𝑐2
𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≈ 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∙ 𝑐
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≈ 0.527 × 10−20 × 3 × 108
≈ 1.58 × 10−12 𝐽
1.58 × 10−12
≈ 𝑒𝑉
1.6 × 10−19
≈ 9.875 × 106 𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≈ 10𝑀𝑒𝑉
That means if free electron exists within nucleus then its minimum kinetic energy will be equal
to 10 MeV.
But, maximum K.E. of electron emitted by radioactive nucleus is of the order of 4 MeV.
10MeV >>>4MeV
Hence our assumption is wrong. Therefore, free electron cannot reside within nucleus.

9 What is Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle? Show that it is insignificant for 5 2 2

macroscopic bodies.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

It is not possible to make simultaneous measurement of both the position and the momentum
of a microparticle with unlimited accuracy.
Mathematically, product of uncertainty in measurement of position (Δx) and momentum (Δp x)
of a microparticle is always greater than or equal to ħ.
Δx. Δpx ≥ ħ
ℎ
where, ħ = 2𝜋

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is not significant in case of macroscopic bodies while it is

significant in case of microscopic particle. This can be explained by considering an example,

17
 CASE (I): Macroscopic body: Example: let us consider a macroscopic body such as football
of mass 0.5 kg in motion. Uncertainty in the position of the ball is say 1 mm= 10-3m. The
uncertainty in its velocity is,
ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
∆𝑣 ≈ ≈ ≈ 10−31 𝑚⁄𝑠
2𝜋 𝑚 ∆𝑥 2 × 3.14 × 0.5 × 10−3
As the uncertainty in the velocity is negligibly small, uncertainty principle is not significant
in case of macroscopic bodies.

CASE (II): Microscopic body: Example: Consider an electron revolving around nucleus in a
hydrogen atom, the uncertainty in its position is 1Ao= 10-10 m Therefore, uncertainty in its
velocity is,

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
∆𝑣 ≈ ≈ ≈ 5 × 105 𝑚⁄𝑠
2𝜋𝑚∆𝑥 2 × 3.14 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 2 × 10−10

This value of uncertainty in velocity of an electron moving in the orbit is significant. Hence,
we can say that uncertainty principle is significant for microscopic bodies.

10 State the Properties of wave function ‘Ψ’. 4 2 2

To get well behaved wave function ‘Ψ’, it should satisfy the following conditions:
(i) Ψ should be single valued function of space and time
The wave function Ψ should be single valued at any point. Since the function is related to
a physical quantity, it cannot have more than one value at the point.
(ii) Ψ must be finite
The wave function must be finite everywhere. Even if 𝑥 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞, 𝑦 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 −
∞, 𝑧 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ the wave function should not tend to infinity. It must remain finite for
all values of x, y, z. Infinite probability has no meaning.
(iii) Ψ and its derivatives must be continuous
𝜕𝛹 𝜕Ѱ 𝜕Ѱ
The wave function Ψ and its space derivatives , and should be continuous across
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
any boundary. Since Ψ is related to a real particle, it cannot be discontinuous at any point.
(iv) Wave function Ψ should be normalized.

11 Write Schrodinger’s Time dependent and Time independent equations in one 4 1 2

dimension.

Time-dependent Schrodinger’s wave equation

One- dimensional Schrodinger’s equation:

−ħ2 ∂2 Ѱ ∂Ѱ
+ VΨ = iħ
2m ∂x 2 ∂t
Time-independent Schrodinger’s wave equation

One -dimensional Schrodinger’s equation:

−ħ2 ∂2 Ѱ
+ VΨ = EΨ
2m ∂x 2
where,

18
 V – Applied Potential
Ψ − wave function associated with the particle of mass ‘m’.
E − is the total energy possessed by the particle.

12 State Schrodinger’s time-independent equation. Derive an expression for the 5 2 2

energy of an electron trapped in an infinite potential well of width L.

Time-independent Schrodinger’s wave equation

One -dimensional Schrodinger’s equation:

−ħ2 ∂2 Ѱ
+ VΨ = EΨ
2m ∂x 2
where,
V – Applied Potential
Ψ − wave function associated with the particle of mass ‘m’.
E − is the total energy possessed by the particle.

PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL WELL OF INFINITE HEIGHT

Fig. 2.15: Potential well of infinite height

Consider an electron confined to one-dimensional potential well of infinite height and
width‘L’.
The electron is trapped inside the potential well. It is free to move in this small region and
reflected back and forth between the walls.
The boundary conditions are,
𝑉(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉(𝑥) → ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿
And as walls are impenetrable,
Ѱ(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0≥ 𝑥≥𝐿
To describe the motion of particle inside the potential well, we use one-dimensional
Schrodinger’s time independent equation which is given by,
∂2 Ψ 8π2 m
+ (E − V)Ψ = 0
∂x 2 h2
Since V=0 inside the potential well, the above equation reduces to
∂2 Ψ 8π2 mE
+ Ψ=0 … … … … … … … … … (1)
∂x 2 h2
8π2 mE
Let 𝑘 2 = 2 h
… … … … … … … … . . (2)
∂2 Ψ
+ k2 Ψ = 0 … … … … … … … … … (3)
∂x 2
19
 General solution of such eqn. (3) is,
Ψ(x) = A sin kx + B cos kx … … … … … … … … … (4)
where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are constants whose values can be obtained by applying the boundary
conditions.
At boundary, i.e., at x = 0 and Ψ= 0, hence equation 4 becomes,
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛0 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠0
∴𝐵=0
∴ 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (4)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 → Ψ(x) = A sin kx … … … … … … … … … (5)

At second boundary, i.e.,at x = L and Ψ = 0,

𝑒𝑞𝑛 (5)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 → 0 = A sin kx

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 = 0

But we know that, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜋 = 0 where n = 1, 2, 3, ……………

∴ 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
𝐿
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝑘2 =
𝐿2
Substituting this value of k in eqn.(2) we get,
8π2 mE n2 π2
= 2
h2 L

n2 h2
En = … … … … … … … … … (6)
8mL2
Where n is called quantum number, given by n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .................
Equation 6 indicates that energy of particle confined in a certain region cannot take any
arbitrary value, it can take only certain discrete set of values, i.e.
ℎ2 ℎ2 9ℎ2
∴ 𝐸1 = , 𝐸2 = , 𝐸 3 = , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . etc.
8𝑚𝐿2 2𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2
E1, E2, E3 ..... En are the allowed values of the energy of the particle. Thus, the energy values
for an electron confined in an infinite one-dimensional potential well are quantized.

13 Show that the energy of the particle confined to move in one dimensional infinite 4 2 2
potential well is quantized.

Answer to this question is same as that for question 12.

14 An electron is confined to move in a one- dimensional potential well of length 5 Å, 4 3 2
find the quantized energy values for the three lowest energy states.

Ans.: Given: L = 5 × 10−10 m

h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
Mass of electron ‘m’ = 9.1 × 10−31 Kg

20
 E1 =? E2 =? E3 =?
n2 h2
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: En =
8mL2
h2 (6.63 × 10−34 )2 −19
2.415 × 10−19
E1 = = = 2.415 × 10 J =
8mL2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (5 × 10−10 )2 1.602 × 10−19
= 1.5 eV

E2 = 4 × E1 = 4 × 2.415 × 10−19 𝐽 = 9.66 × 10−19 𝐽 = 6 eV

E3 = 9 × E1 = 9 × 2.415 × 10−19 𝐽 = 21.73 × 10−19 𝐽 = 13.5 eV

15 X-ray photon of wavelength 0.3Ao is scattered through an angle of 40o by a loosely 3 3 2

bound electron, Find the energy of scattered photon.
Ans: Given: λ = 0.3 Ao
ф = 30𝑜
𝑚𝑜 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
c = 3 × 108 m/s
λ’ = ? , K. E. =?
ℎ
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Wavelength of scattered photon 𝝀′ = λ + (1 − cos ∅)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
= 0.3 + 0.0242Å(1 − cos 300 ) = 0.3032 Å
= 0.3032 × 10−10 𝑚
ℎ𝑐 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
Energy of scattered photon = 𝐸 ′ = = = 6.56 × 10−15 𝐽
𝜆′ 0.3032 × 10−10

16 A beam of X-rays are scattered by loosely bounded electrons at 45 0 from the direction 3 3 2
of the beam. The wavelength of the scattered X-rays is 0.22 A0. What is the wavelength
of incident X-rays.

Ans: Given:𝜆′ = 0.22 Ao

ф = 45𝑜
𝑚𝑜 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
c = 3 × 108 m/s
λ =?
ℎ
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Wavelength of incident X − Ray λ = 𝝀′ − (1 − cos ∅)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
6.63 × 10−34
𝜆 = 0.22Å − (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠45°)
9.1 × 10−31 × 3 × 108

. Å
= 0.22Å – 0.0248 Å (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠45°) = 0.212

17 A bullet of mass 45 gms and an electron both travel with velocity of 1000m/s. What 4 3 2
wavelength can be associated with them?

21
 Ans: Given: For electron:
h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
m = 9.1 × 10−31 Kg
v = 1000 m/s
λ =?
ℎ ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: λelectron = = = = 7.285 × 10−7 𝑚
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 9.1 × 10−31 × 1000
For bullet:
h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
m = 45 gm = 45 × 10−3 Kg
v = 1000 m/s
λ =?
ℎ ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: λbullet = = = = 1.473 × 10−35 𝑚
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 45 × 10−3 × 1000

18 Find the lowest three energy of an electron confined to move in a one-dimensional 3 3 2

box of length 5 Ao

Ans.: Given: L = 5 × 10−10 m

h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
Mass of electron ‘m’ = 9.1 × 10−31 Kg
E1 =? E2 =? E3 =?
2 2
n h
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: En =
8mL2
h2 (6.63 × 10−34 )2 −19
2.415 × 10−19
E1 = = = 2.415 × 10 J =
8mL2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (5 × 10−10 )2 1.602 × 10−19
= 1.5 eV

E2 = 4 × E1 = 4 × 2.415 × 10−19 𝐽 = 9.66 × 10−19 𝐽 = 6 eV

E3 = 9 × E1 = 9 × 2.415 × 10−19 𝐽 = 21.73 × 10−19 𝐽 = 13.5 eV

19 A proton is confined to a nucleus of radius 10 -14 m. Calculate minimum uncertainty in 3 3 2

its momentum.

Ans.: Given: h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js

mass of proton ′m′ = 1.67x10−27 kg
Radius of nucleus ′r ′ = 10−14 m
minimum uncertainty in Momentum = m ∆vx =?

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Since Radius of nucleus ’r’ = 10−14 m, Δx = 2r = 2 × 10−14 m

h 6.63 × 10−34
∆vx = = = 3.14 × 106 m/s
2πm∆x 2 × 3.14 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 2 × 10−14
Minimum uncertainty in its momentum = m ∆vx = 1.67x10−27 kg × 3.14 × 106 m/s
= 5.2438 ×10-21 kg m/s

22
 Unit 3 -Semiconductor Physics M B C
ar L O
ks
1 Explain the formation of energy bands in solids. 4 2 3

FORMATION OF ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

 A single isolated atom has discrete energy levels.

 When two identical atoms are very far apart from each other, the electron energy levels
in an individual atom are not affected by the presence of the other.

 When two identical atoms are brought closer, they begin to interact strongly and as a
result, each isolated energy level splits up into two energy levels.

 When three identical atoms are brought closer, each energy level splits up into three
energy levels.
 Similarly, if we consider N atoms, each energy levels will be split into N energy levels.

 Therefore, when atoms are brought together to form a solid, their energy levels split
up and form a group of closely space allowed energy levels of same energy value.
This group of closely spaced energy levels of same energy is called Energy band.

 The concept of energy level splitting and formation of valence band and conduction
band is illustrated in Fig.

 The degree of splitting of energy levels depends on the depth in an atom.

 The energy levels of core electrons belonging to inner shells split to a lesser degree
and hence they form a narrow core band. They are always full and do not take part in
the conduction process.

 The energy levels occupied by valence electrons split more and form wider bands.

23
  Energy levels above the valence levels also split though they are not occupied.

 While occupying a band, electrons start from lowest energy level and fill the levels in
the ascending order of energy (Aufbau’s Principle).

2 Discuss energy band structure of conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the basis 4 2 3
of Band Theory of solids with necessary energy band diagrams.

 Solids can be classified into conductors, semiconductors or insulators depending upon

width of Energy gap.

 The energy band diagram of conductors, semiconductors or insulators is shown in

figure.

Conductors:
 The solids in which conduction and valence band overlap each other are called
conductors. Therefore, the energy gap between valence band and conduction band is
zero.

 Electrons can easily jump from lower energy band to higher one and become available
for conduction.

 An application of a small amount of voltage leads to generation of large amount of

current.

 Hence these solids are good electrical conductors. For e.g. Lithium, Berylium and
sodium.

Semiconductors:

 The solids in which the conduction and valence bands are separated by a small energy
gap of less than 2eV are called semiconductors.

 For e.g. Semiconductors like Silicon has Energy gap of 1.12 eV and Germanium has
Energy gap of 0.72 eV.

 The semiconductors behave like insulators at 0K.

 If the temperature is increased, valence electrons acquire sufficient energy to jump into
the conduction band.

 Therefore, the conductivity of semiconductors increases with the increase in

temperature.

Insulators:
 The solids in which the conduction band and valence bands are separated by a large
energy gap of ≥ 3 eV are called insulators.

24
  At room temperature, the valence electrons do not have enough energy to jump into
the conduction band, therefore insulators do not conduct current.

 Thus, insulators have very high resistivity and extremely low conductivity at room
temperatures. For e.g. Diamond and glass.

3 Explain the classification of solid on the basis of energy band diagram. 3 2 3

Ans to this question is same as answer to question no.2.

4 What is N-Type semiconductor. Draw energy band diagram for N-type 4 2 3

semiconductor at 0 K and T K

 An n-type semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is doped with a

pentavalent impurity (having 5-electrons in the outermost orbit) such as Phosphorus,
Arsenic or Antimony.

 In N type semiconductor, electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority
charge carriers.

5 Explain the process of formation of p-n junction. 5 2 3

25
 FORMATION OF POTENTIAL BARRIER IN PN JUNCTION DIODE

Fig.2.2: Illustration of depletion region in P-N junction diode

 A PN junction is formed when P-type and N-type semiconductor are joined

metallurgically. The boundary between P-region and N-region is called PN junction.

 In P-region, holes are majority charge carriers and in N-region, electrons are majority
charge carriers. This creates concentration gradient near the junction.

 Therefore, the holes from P-region move towards N-region and electrons from N-
region moves to P-region when PN junction is formed due to concentration
gradient.

 When the hole from P-region enters the N-region, it combines with electron over there
and electron -hole pair disappears, this is called recombination process.

 Similarly, when electron from N-region enters the P-region, it is surrounded by large no.
of holes, which leads to recombination process.

 Further, the holes coming out of P-region leave behind negative acceptor ions and
electrons from N-region leaves behind positive donor ions near to the junction.

 This leads to the formation of depletion region. Thus, depletion region is a narrow
region of oppositely charged ions on either side of PN junction which is depleted of
mobile charge carriers (Fig.1).

 These oppositely charged ions produce an electric field E directed from N region to
P region at the junction.

 The electric field establishes potential difference Vo at the junction, which act as a
barrier for majority charge carriers to cross the junction, hence called as potential
barrier.

6 What is LED? Draw and explain its V-I characteristics. 3 2 3

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED)

26
  LED is a specially made forward biased P-N junction diode, which emits light due to
electron-hole recombination, when energized.

 This works on the principle of electroluminescence, the process in which electrical

energy is converted into light energy.

 It is operated only in forward bias.

 The symbol of LED is shown in Fig. .

Fig.: Symbolic representation of LED

V-I CHARACTERSTICS AND WORKING OF LED

Fig. (a): Working of LED diode Fig. (b): V-I characteristics of LED

 When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from N-side
and the holes from P-side move towards the junction as shown in fig.(a)
 Like ordinary diode, the forward current is negligible up to a certain value of forward
applied voltage due to the potential barrier across the PN-junction.
 When free electrons reach the junction, they overcome the potential barrier and
recombine with the holes.
 In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the depletion region.
 The recombination of free electrons and holes leads to generation of light.
 The wavelength of light emitted and its color depends on Energy Gap (Eg) of material
used in making of LED.
 The V-I characteristics of LED is shown in fig. (b).

27
  When the voltage applied is less than cut in voltage, LED does not conduct.

 When the voltage applied becomes greater than or equal to cut in voltage, current
increases rapidly as more number of charge carriers cross the PN junction.

 The voltage above which the diode start conducting is called cut-in voltage of LED.

 The voltage after cut-in value remains almost constant once LED starts conducting
like ordinary diode, but current increases rapidly.

7 Draw the symbols of Zener diode and LED. 2 3 3

Zener Diode LED

8 Discuss the reverse bias characteristics of Zener diode. 2 2 3

V-I CHARACTERSTICS AND WORKING OF ZENER DIODE

Fig.: V-I Characteristics of Zener diode.

 The Forward bias characteristics of Zener diode are same as that of normal PN
Junction diode.
 In reverse bias mode, current is due to minority charge carriers.
 Since the P and N-regions are heavily doped, the depletion layer at the junction will
be very narrow.
 The reverse bias voltage set up a strong electric field across the narrow depletion layer.
This field is strong enough to cause rupture of covalent bonds of atoms. Therefore,
there is a generation of a large number of electron-hole pairs, leading to a sharp
increase in the reverse current.
 When reverse bias is increased, a voltage is reached when the diode starts conducting
heavily and the reverse current increases sharply. This voltage is called Zener
breakdown voltage(Vz).

28
9 What do you mean by forward bias and reverse bias of a diode? 2 2 3

Forward biasing:
When the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P-region and negative terminal of the
battery is connected to the N-region, the diode is said to be forward biased.

(2) Reverse biasing:

When the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P-region and positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the N-region, the diode is said to be reverse biased.

10 Explain the function of emitter, base and collector in a transistor. 3 2 3

FUNCTIONS OF THREE REGIONS IN TRANSISTOR:

Emitter, Base and Collector are three regions in a transistor.
Emitter:
 It emits the charge carriers.

 It is heavily doped and has moderate size.

Base:
 The base controls the flow of charge carriers from emitter to the collector.
 It is lightly doped and is smallest in size.
Collector:
 It collects the charge carriers coming from the base.

 It is moderately doped and has largest size.

11 Draw the symbols of NPN transistor and PNP transistor. 2 3 3

12 In a transistor explain why 4 2 3

(i)Base region is narrow and lightly doped.
(ii) Collector is larger in size.

Base region is narrow and lightly doped:

29
  The main function of the base is to control the number of charge carriers from
emitter to collector and hence offers easy and quick diffusion of carriers into
collector region.

 If the width of the base is more and is heavily doped, then it would lead to more
number of recombination of charge carriers causing an increase in base current.

 But in transistor circuits, more collector current and less base current is required.

 Hence to offer quick diffusion of charge carriers and to keep base current to a
minimum amount, the base region is made narrow and is lightly doped.

Collector is larger in size:

 The main function of collector is to collect all the charge carriers coming from base.

 Due to the movement of minority charge carriers across the reverse biased collector
base junction, large amount of heat is produced as the minority charge carriers
acquire large amount of kinetic energy.

 Hence to collect all the charge carriers and to dissipate away the heat, the collector
is made larger in size.

13 In an NPN transistor in a common base configuration emitter current is 2mA and base 3 3 3
current is 20μA.What are the values of collector current and current gain?

Given: IE = 2mA,

IB = 20μA =20×10-3mA = 0.02mA,

(1) IC =? (2) α =?

Solution: (1) IC = IE - IB = (2-0.02) mA

= 1.98 mA
I 1.98mA
(2) α = IC = 2mA
= 0.99
E

14 Find d.c. current gain for a NPN transistor in a common emitter mode if the 2 3 3
collector current is 2mA and base current is 20µA.

Given: Ic = 2mA,
IB = 20μA,
β =?
IC
Solution: β=
IB

2mA
=
20µA

30
 2×10−3
= 20×10−6 = 100.

15 For a transistor working as a common base amplifier, current gain is 0.96. If the emitter 3 3 3
current is 7.2 mA, then calculate the base current.

Given: Current gain α = 0.96

IE = 7.2mA
IB =?

Solution: Current gain α = IC / IE

Therefore IC = αIE = 0.96 x7.2 = 6.91 mA

IB = IE – IC

IB = 7.2 mA - 6.91 mA = 0.29 mA.

16 Calculate the dc current gain for a PNP transistor in a common emitter mode if collector 3 3 3
current is 2mA and base current is 20µA.

Given: Ic = 2mA,
IB = 20μA,
β =?
I
Solution: β = IC
B

2mA
= 20µA

2×10−3
= = 100.
20×10−6

17 Determine the probability of an electron thermally excited into the conduction band 3 3 3
in germanium at 27oC, if the band gap is 0.72 eV.
Given: T= 27oC =273+27=300K
Energy Gap Eg= 0.72 eV
Boltzmann’s constant K= 8.6x10-5eV/K

Solution:
1 1
f(E) = 𝐸𝑔 = 0.72 = 8.7× 10−7
( )
(2𝐾𝑇) 1+𝑒 2×8.6×10−5×300
1+𝑒
Unit 4 -Lasers M B C
ar L O
ks
1 With the help of a well labeled diagram explain the terms 3 2 3
(i) absorption (ii) spontaneous emission and (iii) stimulated emission.
I) Stimulated Absorption/Absorption
When an atom in ground state E1 absorbs an incident photon of energy hν = E2-E1, it
jumps to upper excited state E2 then such a transition is called Stimulated absorption or
absorption.

31
The process can be represented by equation A + hν →A*and is shown in figure1.

Figure1: Absorption process

The number of absorption transitions taking place (Nabs.) in time interval ∆t is given by,
N abs. = B12 N1 Q ∆t
where N1= number of atoms in the ground state,
Q = photon density of the incident beam and
B21 = Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emission.

II) Spontaneous emission: When an atom in the excited state E2 returns to the lower state
E1 by emitting a photon of energy hν = E2 -E1, on its own without the need of any external
force then such a process is called spontaneous emission.
This process can be written as A* →A + hν and shown in figure2.

Figure 2: Stimulated emission

The number of spontaneous transitions (Nsp) in time interval ∆t is given by,
Nsp =A21 N2 ∆t.
where N2 = number of atoms in the excited state E2 and
A21 = Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous emission.
III) Stimulated Emission
When an atom in the excited state E2 interacts with an incident photon of energy hν = E2
- E1, the atom makes a downward transition to ground state E1 by emitting another
photon. The incident photon is not affected by the presence of emitted photon. Such a
process is called Stimulated Emission.

Figure 3: Stimulated emission

This process can be represented as A + hν → A + 2hν.
*

The number of stimulated transitions (Nst) in time interval ∆t is given by,

32
 Nst =B21 N2 Q ∆t
where N2 = number of atoms in the excited state E2
Q = Photon density of the incident beam and
B21 = Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emission.
2 What is the difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission process? 4 2 4

S. Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

No.

1. It is a random process. It is not a random process.

2. It cannot be controlled from outside. It can be controlled from outside.

3. The light beam is non-directional. The light beam is highly directional.

4. The emitted beam of light is highly Te emitted beam of light has negligible
divergent. divergence.

5. The emitted beam of light is not The emitted beam of light is highly
coherent. coherent. Coherent length is of few kms.

6. No multiplication of photons takes Multiplication of photons leads to

place and hence no amplification of amplification of light.
light takes place.
The intensity is remains constant over
7. The intensity of light decreases with
large distances.
distance.

8. The beam of light is unpolarized. The beam of light is highly polarized.

3 Explain the term: (i) Stimulated Emission (ii) Metastable state. 2 2 4

Stimulated Emission
When an atom in the excited state E2 interacts with an incident photon of energy hν = E 2 - E1,
the atom makes a downward transition to ground state E1 by emitting another photon. The
incident photon is not affected by the presence of emitted photon. Such a process is called
Stimulated Emission.
Metastable state:
1. An excited energy state of atom having lifetime is of the order of 10-6 to 10-3sec, is called
metastable state.
2.Without metastable states, no population inversion condition and hence no lasing action can
take place in a material medium.
4 Define (i) Population Inversion 2 1 4
(ii) Metastable state.

Population inversion:
1. Population inversion is the condition of the active medium, in which number of atoms
in excited state is very much greater than number of atoms in the ground state.
2. It is a non-equilibrium state.

33
 3. Without population inversion, no metastable state can exist and no lasing action can take
place.
ii) Metastable state:
1. An excited energy state of atom having lifetime is of the order of 10-6 to 10-3sec, is called
metastable state.
2.Without metastable states, no population inversion condition and hence no lasing action can
take place in a material medium.
5 Define: (i) Spatial coherence and (ii) Temporal coherence 2 1 4
Spatial coherence
If the phase difference between any two fixed points does not vary with time in the plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, then the wave exhibits spatial
coherence.
(ii) Temporal coherence
If the phase difference between any two points does not vary with time in the plane parallel to
the direction of propagation of the wave, then the wave exhibits temporal coherence.
6 Distinguish between Three-level and Four level laser. 3 2 4

S. No. Three level laser Four level laser

1 Lasing transition takes place Lasing transition takes place between
between ground state and metastable metastable state and lower excited
state. state. Ground state is not involved.
2 Population inversion condition is Population inversion condition is easy
difficult to achieve therefore a pump to achieve therefore a pump of low
of high pumping power is required. pumping power is required.
3 Population Inversion condition Population Inversion condition is
cannot be maintained continuously. maintained continuously. Therefore,
Therefore, three level laser operates four level laser operates in continuous
in pulsed mode. wave mode.
4 Three level laser has low output and Four level laser has high output and
low efficiency. high efficiency.
5 For example, Ruby laser For example, He-Ne Laser
7 Write a short note on (i)Three level pumping scheme. 4 2 4
(ii)Stimulated emission of radiation.

1] THREE LEVEL PUMPING SCHEME

1. The three-level pumping scheme, as shown in figure.
2. Level E1 is ground state, E2 is metastable state and E3 is excited state (Pumping level).
3. When light of suitable energy ℎ𝜈= E3 - E1, is incident on atoms in energy level E1, they
jump from E1 to E3.
4. Since E3 is a normal excited state, some of the atoms make non- radiative transition from
E3 to E2.

34
5. As pumping continues, condition of population inversion is achieved between E2 to E1.
6. Now a spontaneously emitted photon of energy ℎ𝜈′ = E2 - E1, starts the stimulated emission
and lasing action starts.
7. Population inversion requires more than half the number of atoms should be present in
upper state. This condition is difficult to achieve. Thus, a pump of high pumping power is
required.
8. The laser working on three level pumping scheme. It has pulse output and less efficiency.
For Example: Ruby Laser.

Figure: Three level pumping scheme.

II) Stimulated Emission
When an atom in the excited state E2 interacts with an incident photon of energy hν = E2
- E1, the atom makes a downward transition to ground state E1 by emitting another
photon. The incident photon is not affected by the presence of emitted photon. Such a
process is called Stimulated Emission.

Figure: Stimulated emission

This process can be represented as A + hν → A + 2hν.
*

The number of stimulated transitions (Nst) in time interval ∆t is given by,

Nst =B21 N2 Q ∆t
where N2 = number of atoms in the excited state E2
Q = Photon density of the incident beam and
B21 = Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emission.

35
8 Explain the working of a He-Ne laser with a energy level diagram. 5 2 4

He-Ne laser was the first successful gas laser. It was built by Ali Javan and his co-workers in
1961.
Helium atoms are inert and neon atoms are active centres.
WORKING

Fig.: Energy level diagram of He –Ne Laser

1.The energy level diagram of He-Ne laser is as shown in figure. It works on four level
pumping scheme.
2. When an electric discharge passes through the mixture of gases, electrons with high
velocity collides with
He and Ne atoms.
3.Due to the light weight, He atoms get excited first to metastable states F2 and F3 which lies
at 19.81eV
and 20.61eV respectively.
4.In He-Ne laser, Ne atoms are the active centers and the role of He atoms is to excite Ne
atoms and cause
population inversion.
5.The F2 and F3 levels are metastable states. Therefore, Helium atoms transfer their energy to
Neon atoms
by collisions and return to ground state.
6. E4 and E6 are metastable states are at 18.71eV and 20.66eV respectively. The kinetic
energy of accelerated helium atoms provides extra 0.05eV required to excite Neon atoms
to E6 state.
7. At ordinary temperatures, level E5 and E3 are virtually empty. Thus, the condition of
population inversion is easily achieved between E6 and E5, E6 and E3 and E4 and E3.
8.There are three laser transitions:
E6 →E3: Generates red colour beam; λ = 6328Ao

36
 E4 →E3: Generates IR beam; λ = 1.15μm
E6 → E5: Generates Far IR beam; λ = 3.39μm
9.From level E5 and E3 Neon atoms make spontaneous transition to E2.
10. E2 is a metastable state where atoms tend to accumulate. The only way of bringing
these atoms to ground state is through collisions with walls of discharge tube. Hence, the
discharge tube is made narrow.
11. He-Ne laser operates in CW (continuous wave) mode, less pumping power is required and
does not require a coolant.

9 Explain the construction and working of He-Ne laser 4 2 4

HELIUM-NEON LASER
He-Ne laser was the first successful gas laser. It was built by Ali Javan and his co-workers in
1961.
Helium atoms are inert and neon atoms are active centres.
CONSTRUCTION

Fig.: Schematic diagram illustrating the construction of He-Ne Laser

1.It consists of a long discharge tube of length about 50cm and diameter 1cm. The tube is filled
with a mixture of helium and neon gases in the ratio 10:1.
2. Pumping process is electrical discharge.
WORKING

37
 Fig.: Energy level diagram of He –Ne Laser

1. The energy level diagram of He-Ne laser is as shown in figure. It works on four level
pumping scheme.
2. When an electric discharge passes through the mixture of gases, electrons with high
velocity collides with
He and Ne atoms.
3.Due to the light weight, He atoms get excited first to metastable states F2 and F3 which lies
at 19.81eV
and 20.61eV respectively.
4.In He-Ne laser, Ne atoms are the active centers and the role of He atoms is to excite Ne
atoms and cause
population inversion.
5.The F2 and F3 levels are metastable states. Therefore, Helium atoms transfer their energy to
Neon atoms
by collisions and return to ground state.
6. E4 and E6 are metastable states are at 18.71eV and 20.66eV respectively. The kinetic
energy of accelerated helium atoms provides extra 0.05eV required to excite Neon atoms
to E6 state.
7. At ordinary temperatures, level E5 and E3 are virtually empty. Thus, the condition of
population inversion is easily achieved between E6 and E5, E6 and E3 and E4 and E3.
8.There are three laser transitions:
E6 →E3: Generates red colour beam; λ = 6328Ao
E4 →E3: Generates IR beam; λ = 1.15μm
E6 → E5: Generates Far IR beam; λ = 3.39μm
9.From level E5 and E3 Neon atoms make spontaneous transition to E2.
10. E2 is a metastable state where atoms tend to accumulate. The only way of bringing
these atoms to ground state is through collisions with walls of discharge tube. Hence, the
discharge tube is made narrow.

38
 11. He-Ne laser operates in CW (continuous wave) mode, less pumping power is required and
does not require a coolant.
10 Explain the construction and working of Ruby Laser 4 2 4

Ruby laser was built by T. H. Maiman in 1960; Ruby laser is a solid-state laser. Ruby is
basically Al2O3 crystal doped with 0.05% of chromium atoms. Cr3+ ions are the active centres.

CONSTRUCTION

Fig.: Schematic of Ruby laser

1. Ruby is taken in the form of rod of about 4 cm in length and 1 cm in diameter. Its end faces
are polished flat and made parallel.
2. Its rear end is 100% silvered to make it fully reflecting and front end is 90% silvered to make
it semi-transparent.
3. The ruby rod is surrounded by a helical -flash discharge lamp filled with Xenon gas, which
provides pumping energy.
4. The whole system is cooled with the help of coolant around the ruby rod.

WORKING

39
 Fig.: Energy level diagram of ruby laser

1.The energy levels of Cr3+ ions are shown in figure. Ruby laser follows three level pumping
scheme.
2.The Xenon discharge generate flashes of white light, which excite the Cr3+ ions from ground
state E1 to
E3 and E3ˈ bands.
3.From the excited levels, Cr3+ ions undergo non-radiative transition to the Metastable state E 2.
4.As the pumping goes on, population inversion condition is achieved between state E2 & E1 .
5.A spontaneously emitted photon having energy ℎ𝜐 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 starts the stimulated emission
of
photons.
6.Photons are repeatedly reflected between two mirrors and necessary amplification is
achieved.
7. A strong laser beam emerges out of the semi-transparent mirror.
8.The beam of laser light is red in colour having wavelength 6943Ao.

11 White light has a frequency range from 0.4 x 1015 Hz to 0.7 x 1015 Hz. Find the 3 3 4
coherence time and coherence length.

Solution: Bandwidth v = (0.7 – 0.4) x1015 = 0.3 x 1015 Hz

tcoh  ?
lcoh  ? t coh 
1

1
 3.33  10 15 sec
 0.3  1015
lcoh  c  t Coh  3  10 8  3.33  10 15  9.99  10 7 m
12 A ruby laser produces light of wavelength 6943 A° in 10-12 sec pulse duration at 27 4 3 4
°C. Calculate the coherence length and bandwidth.

Ans. Given: speed of light ‘c’=3x108 m/s

40
 Coherence time = t coh=10-12s
Wavelength ‘λ’ = 5893 Å =5893×10-10 m,
coherence length 𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ =?
bandwidth ∆λ =?
Solution: 𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ = 𝑐 × 𝑡𝑐𝑜ℎ = 3×108×10-12 = 3×10-4 m

𝛌2 (6943×10−10 )2
∆λ = 𝑙 = = 1.6 × 10−9 m
𝑐𝑜ℎ 3×10−4

13 Calculate number of photons emitted per second by a 3mW laser emitting radiation 4 3 4
of wavelength 6943 Ao.

Solution: Wavelength ‘λ’ = 6943Å=6943×10-10m.

Power P= 3mW= 3x10-3W = 3×10-3Joules/sec
Time t= 1sec
Planck’s constant ‘h’= 6.63×10-34Js,
No. of photons emitted per second = ?
Ptλ 3 × 10−3 × 1 × 6943 × 10−10
n= = = 1.047 × 1016
hc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

14 If a light of wavelength 6600 Ao has wavetrain 20λ long, then what is its coherence 3 3 4
time?

Solution: λ = 6600A0 = 6600 x10-10 m

l coh = 20λ
lcoh=?
tcoh=?
lcoh  20    20  6600  10 10  1.32  10 5 m

lcoh 1.32  10 5
t coh    4.4  10 14 s
c 3  10 8

15 A typical He-Ne laser emits radiation of λ=6328Ao. How many photons per second 3 3 4
could be emitted by a one milliwatt of He-Ne laser.

Solution:  6328
p  1mW  1x10-3 W
n =?

Ptλ
n=
hc
Ptλ 1 × 10−3 × 1 × 6328 × 10−10
n= = = 3.18 × 1015
hc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

Unit 5 -Electron Optics M B C

41
 ar L O
ks
1 State Bethe’s law of electron diffraction. 2 1 5

BETHE’S LAW (ELECTRON REFRACTION)

Bethe’s law states that when an electron beam travels from a region I of lower potential
V1to a region II of higher potential V2, it accelerates and bends towards the normal to the
boundary separating the two regions. It is expressed as
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝑉2
=√
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑉1

where θ1 and θ2 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction with respect to
the normal drawn to the equipotential surface.

2 Explain Bethe’s law. In what way is differ from Snell’s law? 3 2 5

Bethe’s law states that when an electron beam travels from a region I of lower potential
V1to a region II of higher potential V2, it accelerates and bends towards the normal to the
boundary separating the two regions. It is expressed as
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝑉2
=√
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑉1
where θ1 and θ2 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction with respect to the normal
drawn to the equipotential surface.

S.No. BETHE’S LAW SNELL’S LAW

1. When the electron beam travels from
a region of lower potential to higher
potential, its velocity increases on
entering the region of higher
potential.
2. In terms of velocities, Bethe’s law can
sinθ v written as
be written as sinθ1 = v2
2 1
Bethe's law deals with refraction of
3.
electron beam at the boundary
between two regions with different
potentials.
When the light beam enters from rarer to
denser medium, its velocity decreases on
entering the denser medium
In terms of velocities, Snell’s law can be
sini v
= v1
sinr 2
Hence the order of velocities is reversed.
Snell’s law deals with refraction of light
beam at the boundary between two media
with different refractive indices.

Refractive index of electrostatic field Refractive index of medium depends

4. 𝒗
𝑽
depends upon √𝑽𝟐i.e., potential in upon ratio of 𝒗𝟏 i.e., velocities in two
𝟐
𝟏
regions.
two regions.
3 What is Bethe’s Law? Give its mathematical expression. 2 2 5
42
 Bethe’s law states that when an electron beam travels from a region I of lower potential
V1to a region II of higher potential V2, it accelerates and bends towards the normal to the
boundary separating the two regions. It is expressed as
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝑉2
=√
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑉1

where θ1 and θ2 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction with respect to the normal
drawn to the equipotential surface.
4 Draw block diagram of CRO, explain time base circuit. 4 2 5

Block diagram of CRO:

Time base circuit: - The

time base circuit is a variable frequency oscillator that produces time base voltage or sweep
voltage. Time base circuit produces the true shape of the signal on the screen of CRO.
5 Draw block diagram of CRO. 3 2 5

6 Explain the role of aquadag coating in Cathode Ray Tube. 2 2 5

Aquadag Coating:
 Aquadag coating completes the electrical circuit between the fluorescent screen and
cathode and keeps the screen in an electrically neutral condition.

43
  Electrons striking the screen tend to charge it negatively and repel the electrons
arriving afterwards. The collection of these secondary electrons on the screen
decreases the intensity of spot on the screen.
 Since the electrons are continuously emitted by the cathode, the cathode slowly gains
a positive charge. This leads to decrease in the intensity of spot on the screen.
 An aqueous solution of graphite called Aquadag is coated inside the envelope of CRT.
It is connected to the positive anode A3.
 Secondary electrons are attracted by the aquadag coating and made to reach the
cathode through ground via anode A3. Thus, the cathode is replenished with electrons.
 In this way, the intensity of the beam is continuously maintained on the screen and the
cathode continues to emit electrons.

7 Explain construction and working of Bainbridge mass spectrograph with suitable 5 3 5

diagram.

Fig.: Bainbridge Mass Spectrograph.

Construction: As shown in Fig., Bainbridge mass spectrograph consists of:

1] Velocity selector-
 Positive ions of variable speeds and mass enter the velocity selector through the
collimating slits S1 and S2 where crossed electric and magnetic fields are set up.
 The electric field of strength E is produced between parallel plates P and Q.
 The magnetic field of strength B is produced by electromagnet. (shown by dots in
Fig.).
 The monovelocity ion beam obtained is collimated by passing it through Slit S 3.
2]Analyzing Chamber-
 A photographic plate is mounted in the analyzing chamber in line with the slit S3.
 Magnetic field acts perpendicular to the plane of the chamber.

Working:
 An element under study is taken in the form of gas which is ionized.

44
 Positive ions of variable speeds and mass enter the velocity selector through the slits
S1 and S2 where crossed electric and magnetic fields are set up.
 The values of electric field ‘E’ and magnetic field ‘B’ are adjusted such that only those
ions having same velocity v = E/B, enter the analyzing chamber through the slit S 3.
 Those ions having velocities v ≠ E/B, get deflected away and are absorbed by the walls
of the slit.
 A strong uniform magnetic field of strength B acts perpendicular to the path of ions in
the analyzing chamber.
 The magnetic field deflects the ions into circular paths of different radii depending on
their masses.
 Monovelocity ions having same mass get focused at the same point on the
photographic plate mounted in line with the slit S3.
 Consider a singly ionized ion of mass ‘M’ and charge ‘q’ entering the transverse
magnetic field ‘B’ with the velocity ‘v’. It is deflected in a circular path of radius ‘R’.
 The radius ‘R’ of the circular path is given by,
𝑀𝑣
𝑅= 𝑞𝐵
----------- (1)

𝐸
Substituting 𝑣 = 𝐵 in equation (1), we get
𝑀𝐸
𝑅= ------------- (2)
𝑞𝐵 2

 As the values of q, E and B are fixed, R ∝M Thus the ions of different masses are
focused at different positions on the photographic plate.
 Let ‘x’ the distance of any line on the photographic plate from the centre of slit S 3.
Thus
𝑥
x =2R or R= ----------- (3)
2
Substituting equation (3) in equation (2), we get,
𝑥 𝐸
= 𝑀
2 𝑞𝐵2

2𝐸
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑀 ----------- (4)
𝑞𝐵 2
𝑞𝐵 2
𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 𝑥 ----------- (5)
2𝐸
 If M1 and M2 are the masses of two isotopes and 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are their distances from slit
S3, then using equation (4) we can find 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 as

2𝐸
𝑥1 = 𝑞𝐵2 𝑀1 -----------(6)
2𝐸
and 𝑥2 = 𝑀2 ----------- (7)
𝑞𝐵 2
 Subtracting eqn. (6) from eqn. (7), line separation or linear separation is obtained
as,
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
2𝐸
𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑥 = (𝑀2 − 𝑀1 )-----------(8)
𝑞𝐵 2

45
8 Determine the velocity of ions that pass undeviated through a velocity selector 3 3 5
having electric field E= 7.7 kV/m and magnetic field B=0.14 T.
Ans. Given: B = 0.14T,
E = 7.7kV/m= 7.7×103 V/m

𝐸
Solution: 𝑣 = 𝐵

7.7x103
= 0.14
= 5.5 × 104 m/s

9 Electrons accelerated under a potential of 250V enters the electric field at an angle 2 3 5
of incidence of 500 and gets refracted through an angle of 30 0, find the potential
difference between the two regions.
Ans. Given: V1=250V
θ1=500
θ2=300
V2=?
Sinθ1 V2
Solution: =√
Sinθ2 V1

Sinθ1 V2
=√
Sinθ2 250
⇒ V2 = 586.8V

∴ Potential difference = V2 − V1 = 586.8 − 250 = 336.8V

10 The electric field between the plates of a velocity selector in Bainbridge mass 3 3 5
spectrograph is 1200 V/cm and magnetic field in both regions is 0.6 T. A stream of
singly charged Neon ions moves in a circular path of 7.28 cm radius in the magnetic
field. Determine the mass number of Neon isotope.

Ans. Given: E = 1200 V/cm =1.2 ×105 V/m

B = 0.6T
R = 7.28 cm = 7.28 × 10-2 m
Solution:
𝑀𝐸
𝑅=
𝑞𝐵2

𝑅𝑞𝐵2
⟹𝑀=
𝐸

7.28 × 10−2 × 1.602 × 10−19 × 0.62

= = 3.49 × 10−26 kg
1.2 × 105
3.49 × 10−26
= = 20.89amu = 21
1.67 × 10−27

11 In a Bainbridge mass spectrograph, the electric field used is 25kV/m, the magnetic 3 3 5
field is 0.2 Wb/m2. The element Tin is being analyzed having isotopes of masses

46
 116 and 120. Find linear separation between the lines produce on the photographic
plate by singly charged ions of Tin 116 and 120.
Ans. Given: E = 25 KV/m = 25 × 103 𝑉/𝑚
B = 0.2 Wb/m2
M1 = 116 × 1.67 x10-27Kg
M2 = 120 × 1.67 x10-27Kg
q =1.609 × 10-19C
∆x=?
2𝐸(𝑀2 −𝑀1 )
Solution: 𝛥𝑥 = 2 𝐵 𝑞
2 × 25 × 103 × (120 − 116) × 1.67X10-27
= = 0.052m
(0.2)2 × 1.602x 10-19

Q.No Unit 6 -Optical Fibers Mar B C

. ks L O
1 Write short note on Total Internal Reflection. 2 1 6

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

 Whenever a ray of light travels from optically denser medium to rarer medium, it bends
away from the normal to the boundary separating two mediums.

 At a certain value of angle of incidence, angle of refraction will be 90o (∠𝑟 = 90o).

 The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90o is known as critical
angle 𝜙𝑐 .

 When light is travelling from an optically denser to rarer medium and is incident at an
angle greater than critical angle 𝜙𝑐 , it reflects back into the denser medium without
refraction.

 This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.

 Optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection.

2 What is total internal reflection? 2 2 6

47
 Ans is same as answer to Question 1
3 What is Acceptance angle? Derive the expression for acceptance angle. 3 2 6

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE ( 𝜃𝑜 )
The maximum angle of incidence that a light ray can have with the axis of the fibre for
which light undergoes total internal reflection within a fibre is called acceptance angle. It
is denoted by 𝜃𝑜 and is given by,

𝜽𝒐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (√𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 )

Derivation:
 Consider light entering an optical fiber as shown in the figure.

 Let n1 and n2 be the refractive index of core and cladding, n1 must be greater than
n2

 no be the refractive index of the surroundings (launching medium).

  i be the angle of incidence with the axis of optical fiber.

  r be the angle of refraction and let  be the angle of incidence at core-cladding

boundary with normal.

Fig.5.4: Propagation of light through optical fibre

 When  is greater than critical angle c then the light undergoes total internal
reflection since, n1>n2.
 By using Snell’s law,
Sin i n1

Sin r n0
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 … … … … … … … (1)
𝑛𝑜
In ABC 𝜃𝑟 = (90 − ∅)

𝑛1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 = sin(90 − ∅)
𝑛𝑜

48
 𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 = cos ∅ … … … … … … … (2)
𝑛𝑜

For 𝜃𝑖 = [𝜃𝑖 ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 , ∅ = ∅𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (2) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 →

𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛[𝜃𝑖 ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐 … … … … … … … (3)
𝑛𝑜

We know that critical angle is given by,

𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑐 =
𝑛1
√𝑛12 − 𝑛12
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐 =
𝑛1

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑒𝑞𝑛 (3)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 → 𝑠𝑖𝑛[𝜃𝑖 ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑛𝑜

By the definition of acceptance angle, [𝜃𝑖 ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 = θo

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = … … … … … … … (4)
𝑛𝑜
For air medium, 𝑛𝑜 = 1

 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

 𝜽𝒐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (√𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 ) … … … … … … … (5)

This is the expression for acceptance angle for the light ray travelling through optical fibre
by successive total internal reflection.

4 Deduce the expression for the acceptance angle of an optical for an optical fibre 3 2 6

Ans is same as answer to Question 3.

5 Define(i) Numerical Aperture 2 1 6
(ii) Fractional Refractive index change

(i) NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA)

The Numerical Aperture [NA] is defined as the sine of acceptance angle. It is a measure of
the amount of light that can be accepted by a fibre.

𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒐 = √𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

(ii) FRACTIONAL REFRACTIVE INDEX CHANGE (Δ)

The fractional difference between the refractive indices of core and cladding is known as
fractional refractive index change, denoted by Δ.
Difference between refractive indices of core and cladding 𝑛1 −𝑛2
Δ =
refractive index of core 𝑛1

49
6 Explain: i) Step index fiber ii) Graded index fiber 3 2 6

CLASSIFICATION OF OPTCAL FIBER

(a)The optical fibre can be classified on the basis of their index profile of core material.
Accordingly, there are two types of optical fibre.
 Step Index Fibre (SIF)
 Graded Index Fibre (GRINF)
The step index fibre then classified into two types:
 Single mode Step Index Fibre (SMSI) Fibre
 Multimode Step Index Fibre (MMSI) Fibre

SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBRE (SMF)

Single mode step index fibre consists of core of very small diameter with uniform refractive
index of higher value (n1) surrounded by cladding of lower refractive index (n2). The
refractive index changes abruptly at core-cladding interface and hence, called as step index
fibre as shown in figure.

MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBER

Multimode step index fibre (MMSIF) is similar to that of single mode step index fibre
(SMSIF) except core diameter of MMF is very large as compared to SMSIF which is of the
order of 100µm. The light follows Zig-Zag path while propagating through the optical fibre
as shown in figure.

(b) GRADED INDEX FIBER

Graded index fibre is similar to that of MMSIF with core of concentric layer of different
refractive indices. In this type of fibre, refractive index of core varies with distance which
has higher value at centre and decreases outwards. The light continuously reflects in curve
path while propagating through the optical fibre as shown in figure. The signal losses and
light distortion in graded index fibre are minimum.

50
 Fig.:R.I. profile and modes of propagation of light in graded index fibre

7 Differentiate between step index fiber and graded index fiber. 3 2 6

S.
Step Index Fiber Graded Index Fiber
N.
The refractive index of core region The refractive index of core region is not
is uniform. uniform but decreases while moving from
1
centre to the core-cladding boundary.

The propagation of light is in the The light propagation is in the form of skew
form of Zigzag rays in a multimode rays (or helical rays) due to periodic
2
Step index fiber focusing of light rays.

Intermodal dispersion is present in Intermodal dispersion is very small due to

3 step index multimode fiber. periodic focusing of propagating light rays.

The values of Numerical aperture
(NA) and fractional refractive index
4 change (Δ) are constant for the core
region.
The number of modes of
propagation of light rays is very
5
large in step index multimode fiber.
The values of Numerical aperture (NA) and
fractional refractive index change (Δ) are not
constant for the core region.
The number of modes of propagation are
half the number of modes in step index
multimode fiber of same core diameter.

8 Define: (i) Critical angle (ii) Single mode fiber 2 1 6

(i) Critical Angle: The angle of incidence for which the angle of
refraction is 90o is known as critical angle 𝜙𝑐 .

(ii) Single Mode Fibers: It has a very small core diameter and can
support only one mode of propagation. The light rays travel only
along axis.
9 Explain any one application of optical fiber as sensor. 4 2 6

TEMPERATURE SENSOR

51
 Fig.: Optical fibre as temperature sensor

 Optical fibre as temperature sensor is based upon 1µm wavelength light absorption
of characteristics of silicon as a function of temperature.

 Temperature sensor with multimode optical fibre is as shown in figure.

 One end of optical fibre is coated with a thin layer of silicon which is in turn coated
with reflecting material.

 The light launched in the fiber from one of its ends passes through the silicon layer
twice and returns to the detector.

 The absorption of light by the silicon layer varies with the temperature and the
variation changes the intensity of the light received by the detector.

 Temperature measurements can be made with a sensitivity of 0.001°C with this

sensor.

10 Explain optical fibre as temperature sensor. 3 2 6

Ans is same as answer to Question 9.
11 What is attenuation? State the different mechanism that contribute to 3 2 6
attenuation.

ATTENUATION:
Attenuation is the decrease in the intensity of the light signal or loss in its optical power
when it travels through optical fibre. It is measured in decibel/kilometers (dB/km).
It can be expressed as,
𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝒊
𝜶= 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
𝑳 𝑷𝒐
Where, 𝑃𝑖 → Power of optical signal at launching end.
𝑃𝑜 → Power of optical signal at receiving end
L → length of optical fibre in kms.
DIFFERENT MECHANISM OF ATTENUATION
There are three fundamental mechanisms responsible for attenuation (losses) in optical
fibre.
1. Material absorption
2. Rayleigh Scattering
3. Geometric effect

52
 1. Material absorption
Intrinsic Absorption:
 Fibres are generally made up of glass.
 When light signal travels through the optical fibre, there is losses in optical signal
due to absorption in UV region and in IR region.
 These absorption losses are inherent property of glass and are called intrinsic
absorption.
Extrinsic Absorption:
 Impurities in optical fibre such as Hydroxyl radial ions (OH) and transition metals
ions absorb light signal in the visible range of spectrum.
 These impurities should be kept away as far as possible from the fibre.

2. Rayleigh Scattering
 Glass is a disordered structure having microscopic variations in density. This leads
to variation in its refractive index which acts as an obstacle for incident light.
 When the optical signal is incident on these obstacles, it suffers scattering losses.

Fig: Attenuation due to Rayleigh Scattering in optical fibre.

 This type of scattering is known as Rayleigh scattering.
 According to Rayleigh, the intensity of scattered light is given by,
1 k
Is  
 4
4
where Is is intensity of scattered light,  is the wavelength of light and k is
constant.
 Rayleigh scattering becomes higher at lower wavelength.

3. Geometric Defect
These are the fibre losses introduced during manufacturing or installation process.
Microscopic bends are produced during the manufacturing process and macroscopic
bends are produced during the installation process. Such fibre deformations cause radiation
of light away from the fibre into the core-cladding boundary. Hence causes loss of power.

Fig.: Attenuation due to geometric defects in optical fibre

12 Calculate numerical aperture and acceptance angle for an optical fibre from the 3 3 6
following data n1 (core) 1.55 and n2 (cladding) 1.50.
Solution: n1 = 1.55,
n 2 = 1.50
𝑁𝐴 =? , 𝜃0 =?

53
 𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = √(1.55)2 − (1.50)2 =0.3905
𝜃0 = sin−1(√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) = sin−1 (√(1.55)2 − (1.50)2 )) = 22.980

13 Calculate the refractive indices of the core and cladding material of a fibre from 3 3 6
the following data: NA=0.22, Δ=0.012
Solution: NA=0.22
Δ=0.012
n1=?
n2=?
NA  n1 2  0.22  n1 2  0.012
0.22
 n1   1.42
2  0.012
𝑛1 −𝑛2
∆=
𝑛1

1.42−𝑛2
0.012 = 1.42

𝑛2 = 1.42 − 1.42 × 0.012 = 1.402

14 The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.5 and the core refractive index is 3 3 6
1.54. Find the refractive index of cladding.
Solution: NA = 0.5
n1 = 1.54

𝑵𝑨 = √𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

𝟎. 𝟓 = √𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

 n2  1.54 2  0.52  1.45

15 What is the numerical aperture of a cable with cladding index of 1.55 and core index 3 3 6
of 1.61?
Solution: n1= 1.61
n2= 1.55

NA  n1  n2  (1.61)  (1.55)  0.4354

2 2 2 2

16 Calculate (i) numerical aperture (ii) acceptance angle for a fibre cable with core 3 3 6
index of refraction of 1.45 and cladding index of refraction of 1.30.
Solution: n1 = 1.45
n2 = 1.30
NA = ?
θ0 = ?

NA  n1  n2  (1.45) 2  (1.30) 2  0.4125  0.642

2 2

54
  0  Sin1 NA  Sin1 0.642   39.94 0
17 An optical signal has lost 85%of its power after traversing 500 m of fibre. What is 3 3 6
the loss in dB/Km of this fibre?
Solution: Pi =100%
Po =100-85%= 15 %
L=500 m =0.5 km
10 𝑃𝑖 10 100
𝛼= 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 16.47 dB/km
𝐿 𝑃𝑜 0.5 15

18 What is the attenuation in dB/km of this fibre, if 15% of power fed at a launching 3 3 5
end of 1/2 km is lost during propagation.
Solution: L= ½ km= 0.5km,
Pi =100,
Po =100 – 15=85,
𝛼 =?
10 P 10 100
Solution: 𝛼 = log i  log = 1.41dB/km.
L Po 0.5 85

55