Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion

UNIT
1 Introduction to Hybrid
ElectrieVehicle
CONTENTS
Part-1: History of Hybrid and 1-2D to 1-4D
Electric Vehicles
Part-2: Social and Environmental 1-4D to 1-7D

Importance of Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles
Part-3 : Impact of Modern Trains 1-7D to 1-7D

on Energy Supply
Part-4 : Conventional Vehicles :......... 1-8D to 1-10D

Basics of Vehicle Performance
Part-5 : Vehicle Power Source 1-10D to 1-12D

Characterization
Part-6 : Transmission Characteristics, e......
1-12D -to 1-17D
Part-7 : Mathematical Models to 1-18D to 1-18D

Describe Vehicle Performance
1-1D (ME-Sem-7)
1-2 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction toHybrid Electric Vehicle
PART-1
History of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Define electric vehicle along with its layout.
Answer
1. Electric vehicles are defined as vehicles which use an electric motor for
propulsion. Electric vehicle is propelled by one or more electric motors,
receiving power from an onboard source of electricity such as batteries,
fuel cells,ultra capacitor, flywheel, etc.
2 The general layout of an electric vehicle is shown in Fig. 1.1.1.
3. When the car pedal is pressed, then:
i Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from batteries and
inverters.
i. With the controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of
electrical energy to the motor (according to the depth of pressure
on the pedal).
ii. Electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
(rotation).
iv
Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission so the wheels
turn and then the car moves.
Battery
Motor/
Generator
Transmission
Fig, 1.1.1. Layout of an electric vehicle.

Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 1-3D(ME-Sem-7)
4. EVs include a large range of vehicles from electric two-wheelers, three
wheelers (rickshaws),cars, buses and trucks.
Que 1.2. Mention advantages and disadvantages of electric
vehicles.
Answer
A Advantages of Electric Vehicle:
1. Mechanically simpler.
2 Running cost per kilometre is extremely cheap.
3 Zero emission vehicles. Also reduces greenhouse emission.
4. They are very quiet in operation. While running, it does not produce
noise vibrations.
5 Easy to drive as there are no gears and clutch in these vehicles.
B. Disadvantages of Electric Vehicle:
1 Vehicle range is limited on one charge. The vehicle can usually run
80-160 km on a single charge.
2 Top speed is limited.
3 It is heavy and bulky.
4 Limited public charging stations.
Que 1.3. Explain in detail the history of hybrid and electric
vehicles. AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
The history of hybrid and electric vehicles is as follows :
i. 1839 : Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric
vehicle.
ii. 1886: Historical records indicate that an electric-powered taxicab, using
a battery with 28 cells and a small electric motor, was introduced in
England.
iii. 1888: Immisch & Company built a
four-passenger carriage powered
by a one-horsepower motor and 24-cell battery for the Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire. In the same year, Magnus Volk in Brighton, England
made a three-wheeled electric car.
iv. 1890 : Jacob Lohner, a coach builder in Vienna,
Austria,
need for an electric vehicle that would be less noisy than foresaw
the
the new gas
powered cars. He commissioned a design for an electric vehicle from
Austro-Hungarian engineer Ferdinand Porsche.
14D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
V. 1900: Porsche showed his hybrid car at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A
gasoline engine was used to power a generator which, in turn, drove a
small series of motors. The electric engine was used to give the car a
little bit of extra power.
vi. 1915:
1 Woods Motor Vehicle manufacturers created the dual power hybrid
vehicle, second hybrid car in market. Rather than combining the two
power sources to give a single output of power, the dual power used an
electric battery motor to power the engine at low speeds (below
25km/h) and used the gasoline engine to carry the vehicle from these
low speeds up to its 55km/h maximum speed.
2 While Porsche had invented the series hybrid, Woods invented the
parallel hybrid.
vii. 1960: Victor Wouk worked in helping ereate numerous hybrid designs
earned him the nickname of the-Godfather of the Hybrid. In 1976 he
even converted a Buick Skylark from gasoline to hybrid.
viii. 1978 : Modern hybrid cars rely on the regenerative braking system.
When a standard combustion engine car brakes, a lot of power is lost
because it dissipates into the atmosphere as heat.
ix. 1997:The Audi Duo was the first European hybrid car put into mass
production and hybrid production and consumer take up has continued
to go from strength to strength over the decades.
X.
2000: Toyota Prius and Honda Insight became the first mass market
hybrids to go on sale in the United States, with dozens of models
following in the next decade. The Honda Insight and Toyota Prius
were two of the first mainstream hybrid electric vehicles and both
models remain a popular line.
PART-2
Social and Environmental Importance of Hybrid and Electric

Vehicles.
Questions-Answers
Que l.4. Explain social and environmental importance of hybrid

and electric vehicles. AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 1-5 D (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
1 The social and environmental impacts of electric and hybrid vehicles
include effects on mobility and travel, electricity supply system operation,
petroleum and other fuel consumption, air pollution and traffic noise.
2. An estimated 80 per cent of average annual vehicle kilometres can be
electrified., Electricity supply systems will not need to expand capacity,
and will benefit from load levelling if overnight recharging of electric
vehicles is encouraged.
3. Petroleum consumption for transportation purposes will decline, but
the benefits are dependent on the type of fuel used to generate recharge
electricity .
4. The fuel mix used by power stations also determines air pollution impacts,
since decreases in vehicle emissions are accompanied by increases in
power plant emissions.
5. Improvements in traffic noise are modest, with 10 per cent electrification
of light vehicles producing a 13 per cent decrease in traffic noise impacts.
6. The economics and environmental impact associated with use of an
electric car depends significantly on the source of the electricity:
i. If electricity is generated from renewable energy sources,the electric
car is advantageous to the hybrid vehicle.
i. If the electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the electric car remains
competitive only if the electricity is generated on-board.
iü. If the electricity is generated with an efficiency of 50-60 %by a gas
turbine engine connected to a high-capacity battery and electric motor,
the electric car is superior in many respects
7 Hybrid and electric vehicles play a critical role in reducing global
greenhouse gas emissions, with transport estimated to contribute to
14 %of CO, produced annually.
Que 1.5. Mention advantages of hybrid vehicle over a
conventional vehicle.
Answer
Advantages of ahybrid over a conventional vehicle are as follows:
a. Regenerative Braking:
1. A hybrid can capture some of the energy normally lost as heat to the
mechanical brakes by using its electric drive motor(s) in generator mode
to break the vehicle.
b. More Efficient Operation of the ICE (Internal Combustion
Engine), Including Reduction of Idle :
1. Ahybrid can avoid some of the energy losses associated with engine
operation at speed and load combinations where the engine is inefficient
1-6D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
by using the energy storage device to either absorb part of the ICE's
output or augment it or even substitute for it.
2. Thisallows the ICE tooperate only at speeds and loads where it is most
efficient.
3. When an HEV is stopped, rather than running the engine at idle, where
it is extremely inefficient, the control system may either shut off the
engine, with the storage device providing auxiliary power (for heating
or cooling the vehicle interior, powering headlights, etc.), or run the
engine at a higher-than-idle (more efficient) power setting and use the
excess power (over auxiliary loads) to recharge the storage device.
4 When the vehicle control system can shut the engine off at idle, the
drive train can be designed so that the drive motor also serves as the
starter motor, allowing extremely rapid restart due to the motor's high
starting torque.
C. Smaller ICE:
1 Since the storage device can take up a part of the load, the HEV's ICE
can be down sized.
2 The ICE may be sized for the continuous load and not for the very high
short term acceleration load.
3. This enables the ICE to operate at a higher fraction of its rated power,
generally at higher fuel efficiency, during most of the driving.
Que 1.6. What are the counter balancing factors reducing hybrid
energy advantages ?
Answer
Counter balancing factors reducing hybrid energy advantage, include :
a. Potential for Higher Weight:
1. Although the fuel-driven energy source on a hybrid generally will be of
lower power and weight than the engine in a conventional vehicle of
similar performance, total hybrid weight is likely to be higher than the
conventional vehicle it replaces because of the added weight of the
storage device, electric motor(s),and other components.
2 This depends on the storage mechanism chosen, the vehicle performance
requirements, and so forth.
b. Electrical Losses :
1. Although individual electric drive train components tend to be quite
efficient for one way energy flows, in many hybrid configurations,
electricity flows back and forth through components in a way that leads
to cascading losses.
2 Further, some of the components may be forced to operate under
conditions where they have reduced efficiency.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 1-7D (ME-Sem-7)
3.
For example, like ICEs,most electric motors have lower eficiency at
the low-speed, low-load conditions often encountered in city driving.
PART-3
Impact of Modern Trains on Energy Supply.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.7. Explain impact of modern drive trains on energy

supplies.
Answer
1 Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)or hybrid drive train are the combination
of internal combustion engine (ICE) which runs on fuel and an electric
motor (EM) which uses energy stored in batteries.
2 To understand the impact ofhybrid electric vehicles on energy supplies
is mandatory todo energy analysis of these vehicles and to know why
they are beneficial from efficiency point of view.
3 Let us consider a conventionalvehicle which have internal combustion
engine that converts the chemical energy in the fuel to mechanical
energy and this mechanical energy drives the vehicle.
4 On the other hand we have hybrid electric vehicles which consist of
both internal combustion engine and an electric motor.
5. In hybrid electric vehicles total power required to drive the vehicle is
provided by combining the power produced by both internal combustion
engine and electric motor.
6 Hybrid electric vehicles also have regenerative braking mechanism which
converts the kineticenergy of the vehicle intoelectrical energy to charge
the battery and thus boosting its efficiency.
7. The energy stored in the battery can be used later which helps in
improving the overall efficiency of the vehicle.
8. HEV's have smaller internal combustion engine which ensures high
fuel efficiency during driving.
9. Thus, hybrid electric vehicles have a positive impact in terms of fuel
consumption and overall efficiency when compared with a conventional
vehicle.
PART-4
Conventional Vehicles : Basics of Vehicle Performance.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.8. Write short note on conventional vehicles.
Answer
1 In general, conventional vehicles use an internal combustion engine
fueled by gasoline or diesel to power the wheels.
2 Electricity is used for some accessories, but is not used to move the
vehicle.
3 The development of automobiles with internal combustion engines is
one of the greatest achievements of modern technology.
4 However, the highly developed automotive industry and the large
number of automobiles in use around the world are causing serious
problems for society and human life.
5 Deterioration in air quality, global warming, and a decrease in petroleum
resources are becoming the major threats to human beings.
Que 1.9. What do you understand by vehicle performance ?
Answer
1 Vehicle performance is the study of the motion of a vehicle.
2 The motion of any vehicle depends upon all the forces and moments
that act upon it. These forces and moments, for the most part are caused
by interaction of the vehicle with the surrounding medium(s)such as
air or water, gravitational attraction (gravity forces) earth's surface,
and on-board energy consuming devices such as rocket, turbojet, piston
engine and propellers.
3 Consequently, in order to fully understand the performance problem it
is necessary to study and in some way characterize these interacting
forces.
4 Generally speaking, the performance of a vehicle can be evaluated
using following indicators: the maximal speed that can be reached, the
accelerating time from zero to a certain speed, the maximal climbing
angle, the mileage in acertain condition and the hydrogen consumption

in a specificcycle.
Que 1.10. Enumerate vehicle performance parameters ? Explain

any one in brief. AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
Avehicle performance depends upon the following parameters:
Gradeability :
1 Gradeability is usually defined as the grade (or grade angle) that the
vehicle can overcome at a certain constant speed, for instance, the
grade at a speed of 100 km/h (60 mph).
2 For heavy commercial vehicles or off-road vehicles,the gradeability is
usually defined as the maximum grade or grade angle in the whole
speed range.
3. When the vehicle drives on a road with relative small grade and constant
speed, the tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be written as
1
T,d: M,gf, +P.CpA,V' +M,gi ...(1.10.1)
Thus i= (T,ii,n,/r,) - M,sf, - (1/2) p,CpA,V² -d -f,

M,g
...(1.10.2)
Where d= F-F
M,g
(T,ii,n,/r,) -(1/2) p,CpA,V² ...(1.10.3)
M,g
is called the performance factor.
4. While the vehicle drives on a road with a large grade, the gradeability of
the vehicle can be calculated as,
sin a
d-f, 1-d +f² ...(1.10.4)
1+f
b. Maximum Speed ofa Vehicle :
1 The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the constant cruising
speed that the vehicle can develop with full power plant load on a flat
road.
2. The maximum speed of a vehicle is determined by the equilibrium
between the tractive effort of the vehicle and the resistance or the
maximum speed of the power plant and gear ratios of the transmission.
1-10 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction toHybrid ElectricVehicle
3 The tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be expressed as
Tod M.gf, cos a+ 1zP.Cs4,V ...(1.10.5)
4 This equation indicates that the vehicle reaches its maximum speed
when the tractive effort, represented by the left-hand-side term in (1.10.5),
equals the resistance, represented by the right-hand-side terms.
C. Acceleration:
1. The acceleration performance of a vehicle is usually described by its
acceleration time and the distance covered from zero speed to a certain
high speed (zero to 96 km/h or 60 mph, for example) on level ground.
2. The acceleration of the vehicle is given as
a = dV_ F- F, -F,
dt M,8
(T,ji,n,/r)-(1/2p.CpA,V²
=
M,8 -8(d-f)
.(1.10.6)
Where ¿= The mass factor.
3 Considering the equivalent mass increase due to the angular moments
of the rotating components. The mass factor can be written as,
8= ...(1.10.7)
M,r Mr?
Where I. is the total angular moment of the wheels and I is the total
angular moment of the rotating components associated with the power
plant.
4 Calculation of the mass factor, 8, requires knowing the values of the
mass moments of inertia of all the rotating parts. In the case where
these values are not known, the mass factor, 8, for a passenger car
would be estimated using the following empirical relation,
8 =1+6, t 8,7 ...(1.10.8)
Where 6, represents the second term on the right-hand side of equation
(1.10.8), with a reasonable estimate value of 0.04, and 8, represents the
effect of the power plant-associated rotating parts, and has a reasonable
estimate value of 0.0025.
PART-5
Vehicle Power Source Characterization.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions
Que 1.11. Explain in detail about power plant

characteristics.
Answer
1. For vehicular applications, the ideal performance
characteristic of a
power plant is the constant power output over the full speed range.
2 Consequently,the torque varies with speed hyperbolically as shown in
Fig. 1.11.1.
Power
Torque
Speed
Fig. 1.11.1. Ideal performance characteristics for a
vehicle traction power plant.
3. At low speeds, the torque is constrained to be constant so as not to be
At low speeds, torque is kept constant to avoid exceeding
over the maximaadhesion
the maximum limited by the adhesion
between thebetween thethe
tire and tireground.
ground contact
area.
4 This constant power characteristic will provide the vehicle with a high
tractive effort at low speeds, where demands for acceleration, drawbar
pull, or grade climbing capability are high.
5 Since the internal combustion engine and electric motor are the most
commonly used power plants for automotive vehicles to date, it is
appropriate to review the basic features of the characteristics that are
essential to predicating vehicle performance and driveline design.
6 Representative characteristics of a gasoline engine in full throttle and
an electric motor at full load are shown in Fig. 1.11.2 and Fig. 1.11,3,
respectively.
7. The internal combustion engine usually has torque-speed characteristics
far from the ideal performance characteristic required by traction.
8. It starts operating smoothly at idle speed. Good combustion quality and
maximum engine torque are reached at an intermediate engine speed.
1-12 D ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(Nm)
Torque
100 1300
Torque
(kW)
Power
80 |240
60 Power J180 (gkWh)

consumption
Specific
fuel
40
Specific fuel q310
40 consumption 290
270
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Speed (nm)
Fig. 1.11.2. Typical performance characteristics
of gasoline engines.
80 1400
(kW)70
Motor
torque 1350
Motor
(Nm)
torque
Power
60 300
50 250 Z
Torque
40 200
30 150
20 100
Base
10 50
speed
(
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Motor (rpm)
Fig. 1.11.3. Typical performance characteristies
of electric motors for traction.
9 As the speed increases further, the mean effective pressure decreases
because ofthe growing losses in the air-induction manifold and a decline
in engine torque.
10. Power output, however, increases to its maximum at a certain high
speed.
11. Beyond this point., the engine torque decreases more rapidly with
increasing speed. This results in the decline of engine power output.
PART-6
Transmission Characteristics.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.12. Explain the transmission characteristics of avehicle.

OR
Enlist the different transmission characteristics of conventional
vehicle. AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
Transmission characteristics include all those systems which are
employed for transmitting engine power to move the vehicle forward.
There are two basic types of transmission for automobile applications
they are :
a. Manual Transmission :
1 Manual gear transmission consists of a cluteh, gearbox, final drive. and
drive shaft as shown in Fig. 1.12.1.The final drive has a constant gear
reduction ratio ora differential gear ratio.
Tractive
effort -Ideal tractive effort
1st gear
2nd gear
3rd gear
4th gear
Speed
Fig.1.12.1. Tractive effort characteristics of a gasoline
engine-powered vehicle.
2. The common practice of requiring direct drive (non-reducing) in the
gearbox to be in the highest gear determines this ratio.
3. The gearbox provides a number of gear reduction ratios ranging from
three to five for passenger cars and more for heavy commercial vehicles
that are powered with gasoline or diesel engines.
4. The maximum speed requirement of the vehicle determines the gear
ratio of thehighest gear (i.e., the smallest ratio). On the other hand, the
gear ratio of the lowest gear (i.e., the maximum ratio) is determined by
the requirement of the maximum tractive effort or the gradeability.
1-14 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid ElectricVehicle
5. Ratios between them should be spaced in such a way that they will
provide the tractive effort-speed characteristics as close to the ideal as
possible, as shown in Fig. 1.12.2.
Engine operating speed range
"gear
V
Vehicle
speed 4th
3rd
V,
Engine speed
Fig. 1.12.2. Demon stration of vehicle speed range
and engine speed range for each gear.
6 In the first iteration, gear ratios between the highest and the lowest
gear may be selected in such a way that the engine can operate in the
same speed range for all the gears.
b. Hydrodynamic Transmission :
1 Hydrodynamic transmissions use fluid to transmit power in the form of
torque and speed and are widely used in passenger cars.
2 They consist of a torque converter and an automatic gearbox. The torque
converter consists of at least three rotary elenments knowm as the impeller
(pump), the turbine, and the reactor, as shown in Fig. 1.12.3.
Impeller
(pump)
Turbine
One-way
clutch
Reactor
Output shaft
Fig. 1.12.3. Schematic view of a torque converter.

3 The impeller is connected to the engine shaft and the turbine is connected
to the output shaft of the converter, which in turn is coupled to the input
shaft of the multispeed gearbox.
4. The reactor is coupled to external housing to provide a reaction on the
fluid circulating in the converter.
5. The function of the reactor is to enable the turbine to develop an output
torque higher than the input torque of the converter, thus producing
torque multiplication.
6 The reactor is usually mounted on a free wheel so that when the starting
period has been completed and the turbine speed is approaching that of
the pump, the reactor is in free rotation.
7. The major advantages of hydrodynamic transmission are as follows:
i. When properly matched, the engine will not stall.
It provides flexible coupling between the engine and the driven wheels
ii Together with a sitably selected multispeed gearbox, it provides
torque-speed characteristics that approach the ideal.
8 The major disadvantages of hydrodynamic transmission are its low
efficiency in a stop-go driving pattern and its complex construction.
Que 1.13. Discuss general description of vehicle movement with
the help of diagram.
Answer
1. Fig. 1.13.1l shows the forces acting on a vehicle moving up a grade.
Fw
M.g sina
Fr
Mg cos a
ba IM.L,8
Fig. 1.13.1. Forces acting on a vehicle.

2. The tractive effort, F,, in the contact area between tires of the driven
wheels and the road surface propels the vehicle forward.
3 It is produced by the power plant torque and is transferred through
transmission and final drive to the drive wheels.
4. While the vehicle is moving, there is resistance that tries to stop its
movement.
5 The resistance usually includes tire rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag,

and uphill resistance.
6 According to Newton's second law, vehicle acceleration can be written
as
dV SF - F, ...(1.13.1)
dt EM,
Where, V=Vehicle speed,
SF, = Total tractive effort of the vehicle,
SF, = Total resistance,
M, = Total mass of the vehicle,
and J = Mass factor, which is an effect of rotating
components in the power train.
Que 1.14.Explain in detail about grading resistance and rolling

reistance.
Answer
i. Grading Resistance:
1. When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component,
which is always directed to the downward direction, as shown in
Fig. 1.14.1.
0M.g sin a
H M,g cos a
M,8
Fig. 1.14.1. Automobile climbing a grade.

2 This component either opposes the forward motion (grade climbing) or
helps the forward motion (grade descending).
3 In vehicle performance analysis, only uphill operation is considered.
Thisgrading force is usually called grading resistance.
4 The grading resistance, from Fig. 1.14.1, can be expressed as
F,= M,g sin a .(1.14.1)
5 To simplify the caleulation, the road angle, a, is usually replaced by
grade value when the road angle is small. As shown in Fig. 1.14.1, the
grade is defined as
i= tan a x sin a ..(1.14.2)

L
6. The tire rolling resistance and grading resistance together called road
resistance, which is expressed as
Fd=F+F, = M,gf, cos a +sin a). ...(1.14.3)
When the road angle is small, the road resistance can be simplified as
Fd =F,+ F, =M,gf +i) ...(1.14.4)
ii. Rolling Resistance:
1. The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is primarily caused by
hysteresis in the tire materials.
2 This is due to the deflection of the carcass while the tire is rolling.
3 The hysteresis causes an asymmetric distribution of ground reaction
forces.
4. The pressure in the leading half of the contact area is larger than that in
the trailing half, as shown in Figl.14.2.(a).
5 This phenomenon results in the ground reaction force shifting forward.
6 This forwardly shifted ground reaction force with the normal load acting
on the wheel center creates a moment that opposes the rolling of the
wheel.
7. On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is primarily caused by deformation
of the ground surface as shown in Fig. 1.14.2(b).
P P
Moving direction Moving direction

F
Px
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.14.2. Tire deflection and rolling resistance
on a (a) hard and (b) soft road surface.
1-18 D (ME-Sem-7) Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicle
PART-7
Mathematical Models to Describe Vehicle Performance.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.15. Explain about mathematical vehicle system modelling
Answer
1 Vehicle system modeling represents electric vehicle components and
embedded software in the form of a prototype so that experiment or
simulation can be performed on prototype to get insight about actual
vehicle performance.
2 The vehicle performance is measured in terms of maximum speed, fuel
economy, stability, emissions etc. Vehicle system modelingis also useful
during design and component testing stage of vehicle.
3. The dynamic modeling of vehicle employs physics based mathematical
models using resistive companion form (RCF) modeling technique.
4. In this form of modeling initially empirical data, engineering assumptions
each
and physics based algorithm are used by simulators to model
component of vehicle.
5.
Now connectivity constraints are applied between all the components in
order to connect the various components of vehicle mathematically.
6 Then finally an integrated system model is obtained which is useful for
design stage of vehicle.
7
The general form of RCF model of each component is expressed as
follows,
i(t) = Gt)ult)-b(t-h)
Where, i= Vector of through variables,
G= Jacobian matrix,
U= Vector of across variables,
b= Vector which depends on past history valuesof
through and across variables,
h= Numerical integration time step, and
t= Time instant.
8
The above RCF model can be obtained by integrating differential -
algebraic equations describing the dynamics of each component. The
most common integration method used is trapezoidal rule.
2
UNIT Hybrid Electric
Drive Trains
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Hybrid Electric Drive Trains : 2-2D to 2-6D
Basic Concept of Hybrid Traction
Part-2 : Introduction to Various Hybrid 2-7D to 2-11D
Drive Train Topologies
Part-3 : Power Flow Control 2-11D to 2-16D
Strategies in Hybrid Drive
Train Topologies, Efficiency
Part-4 : Electric Trains : Basic Concept ..... 2-16D to 2-17D
of Electric Traction
Part-5 : Introduction to Various 2-17D to 2-19D

Electric Drive Train Topologies
Part-6 : Power Flow Control in Electric........2-19D to 2-21D
Drive Train Topologies
Part-7: Fuel Efficiency Analysis 2-21D to 2-21D
2-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
2-2 D (ME-Sem-7) Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
PART- 1
Hybrid Electric Drive Trains : Basic Concept of Hybrid Traction.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. Discuss the basic concept of hybrid traction.
Answer
1. Asystem which causes the propulsion of vehicle in which tractive or
driving force is obtained from various devices such as diesel engine
drives, steam engine drives, electric motors, etc. is called as traction
system.
2 The hybrid electric traction system consists of electric motor /generator
and a battery which stores electrical energy, generator and a battery
which stores electrical energy.
3 Battery provides power when excess tractive power is required and
when the requirement of tractive power is less than the engine output
power, the battery stores the generated electrical energy.
4. The generator is used to regain the kinetic energy of the vehicle when
it is slowed down when brakes are applied.
Que 2.2. Discuss concept of hybrid electric drive trains.
Answer
1. Basically, any vehicle power train is required to :
i. Develop sufficient power to meet the demands of vehicle performance.
Carry sufficient energy onboard to support vehicle driving in the given
range.
iü. Demonstrate high efficiency.
iv. Emit few environmental pollutants.
2. Broadly, a vehicle may have more than one energy source and energy
converter (power source), such as a gasoline (or diesel) heat engine
system, hydrogen fuel cell electric motor system, chemical battery
electric motor system, etc.
3. A vehicle that has two or more energy sources and energy converters is
called a hybrid vehicle. Ahybrid vehicle with an electrical power train
(energy source energy converters) is called an HEV.
4 Ahybrid vehicle drive train usually consists of no more than
two power
trains. More than two power train configurations will complicate the
system.
5 AFor the purpose
hybrid of recapturing
drive train typically part
uses of athebidirectional
braking energyenergy
that issorce and
dissipated
in the formto of
converter recover
heat insome of the braking
conventional ICEeither energy that is dissipated
vehicles, a hybrid or
drive train
as heat in
usually hastraditional ICE vehicles
a bidirectional energy sorce and bidirectional
converter. The other one
is either bidirectional or
unidirectional.
6. Fig. 2.2.1 shows the concept of a hybrid drive train and the possible
different power flow routes.
Power train (1)

(unidirection al)
Energy Energy
Source Converter
(1) (1)
Load
Power train (2)
(bidirection al
Energy Energy
Source
Converter
(2) (2
Power flow while propelling

Power flow while charging power train (2)
Fig. 2.2.1. Conceptual illustration of a hybrid
electric drive train.
Que 2.3. What do you understand by micro hybrid

Mention its advantages, disadvantages and technology ?
applications.
Answer
Á. Micro Hybrid Technology :
1. Micro
hybrid technology is the lowest level of vehicle hybridisation.
2 It contains mainly start stop technology. Here, energy
stored in
auxiliary battery is used toquickly start a vehicle at the traffic signal.an
3 In this system the starter and the
alternator are replaced with an
electrical machine. The internal combustion
the vehicle stops. engine switched off when
4 When the vehicle sets off again it is quietly accelerated to idle speed by
the electrical machine, and then the ignition is activated.
Wheel Power
from
IC
Engine
DC
Transmission
motor
Power
Charging harnessed
Battery circuit from
Engine
regenerative
breaking
Wheel
Fig. 2.3.1. Block diagram of a micro hybrid.

B. Advantages :
1. Fuel consumption is reduced from 5 to 10 %.
2 CO, emission is reduced.
Engine restarts in milliseconds.
4 Noise and vibrations are suppressed.
5. Implementation cost is not very high.
C. Disadvantages :
1 High maintenance cost
2. Some vehicle functions (air conditioner, etc) may not run when engine
is off.
D. Application: In India, a common example of micro hybrid is the
Mahindra Scorpio. Tata motors introduced this technique in Tata ACE.
BMW, Fiat, Honda, Volkswagen and many other automobile
manufacturers use this technology.
Que 2.4. What do you understand by mild hybrid technology ?
Also write down its advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Mild Hybrid Technology :
1. The next level of hybridisationis the mild hybrid where electrical energy
is used for start stop and also for driving vehicle for short distance at low
speed or to aid in acceleration.
2. A mildbhybrid motor is only able to assist the engine; it is not
enough to drive the car independently, hence the word 'mild'. potent
Power
Wheel harnessed
Battery . Charging
circuit from
regenerative
breaking
Transmission
Power
from
IC
Large
DC Engine
Motor
Wheel
Fig. 2.4.1. Block diagram of a series mild hybrid.

3. The electric motor can be directly flanged to the crankshaft in a mild
hybrid.
4. In mild hybrid, additional electrical energy of up to 20 kW is
the electric traction accumulator (battery).
provided by
5. Unlike a full hybrid system the electric motor of a mild-hybrid system
never propels the car on its own, with the motor lgenerator only delivering
power for starting off and accelerating at low engine rpm.
6. As wellas providing a boost to the engine, mild hybrids cut the ignition
when engine power isn't needed such as when stationary, rolling or
when braking -a system more commonly known as engine start-stop.
7. Some also capture energy using regenerative braking which converts
the cars kinetic energy when decelerating and stores it as electrical
energy in the batteries.
B. Advantages :
1. Improve efficiency by up to 15 %.
2 Weight savings.
3 Smoother starting.
C. Disadvantages :
1 Not able to run on electric power alone.
2 Higher C0, emissions than conventional hybrids.
Que 2.5. Explain full hybrid technology.
Answer
1 Afull hybrid (HEV), sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is driven
over longer distances with the electric drive alone.
2 The internal combustion engine does not function during electric driving.
As strong hybrids can travel considerable distance using electrical energy
only, zero emissions can be achieved.
The accumulator of these systems is more powerful than those of the
above mentioned micro hybrid and mild hybrid variants.
4 The voltage of the traction electrical system or the battery usually ranges
between 200 and 350 V.
5. It has a typical output of about 25 to 50 kW.
Power
Wheel Charging harnessed
Battery circuit from
regenerative
breaking
Transmission Power
from
IC
IC Large Engine
Engine DC
Motor
Wheel
Fig. 2.5.1. Block diagram of a full bybrid.

6. The full hybrid can be classified as a parallel hybrid or a series hybrid.
7. The fuel savings of a full hybrid can be up to 30 %.
PART-2
Introduction to Various Hybrid Drive Train Topologies.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.6. Classify various hybrid drive train topologies with block
diagram.
Answer
Series hybrid Parallel hybrid

Fuel 1C Fuel IC
tank engine tank engine
Gen Trans Trans

erator mission mission
Power Electric Power Electric

Battery Battery
converter motor converter motor
Series-parallel hybrid Complex hybrid

Fuel IC Fuel IC
tank engine tank engine
Gen Trans Electric Electric Trans

erator mission motor motor mission
Battery
Power Electric
Battery
Power |Electric
converter motor converter motor
Fig. 2.6.1. Classification of hybrid electrie vehicles.
Que 2.7. Deseribe series hybrid topology along with its

application.
Answer
A Series Hybrid Topology :
1 The power sources are connected in series (Fig. 1.7.1), hence the name
series hybrid.
2 In a series configuration, only the electric motor with power from the
battery or generator is used to drive the wheels.
3. The internal combustion engine is not connected to the drive.
4 The engine never drives the car; it only produces energy for the electric
motor.
5 The internal combustion engine is maintained at its most efficient and
lowest emission operating points to run the generator and charge the
storage batteries.
6. All of the energy that is needed to move the vehicle is therefore
transmitted to the drive shaft by the electric motor.
7 This type of hybrid is also referred to as range extender hybrid.
Steering
Motor
Propeller shaft
CEngine Generator Transm ission Differential

Batteries
Front wheels Rear wheels
Fuel Engine
Generator Battery Motor Wheel
Fig. 2.7.1. Series hybrid.

B. Applications:
1 Buses (Toyota Coaster) and diesel trains. The BMW i3 with range
extender is one of the most popular examples.
2 The Honda Jazz hybrid also uses an electric motor to help their relatively
small conventional engines when required.
Que 2.8. Describe parallel hybrid topology along with its
applications.
OR
Explain the working of parallel hybrid electric vehicle drive with
block diagram of different component.AKTU 2021-22, Marks 10|
Answer
A. Parallel Hybrid Topology :
1
These are the most common type of hybrid. The cars wheels can be
powered in three different ways: either directly by the engine, by the
electric motor alone, or by both power sources working together.
2 In a parallel hybrid electric vehicle the single electric
motor and the
internal combustion engine are installed todeliver power in parallel to
drive the wheels.
3 As both the engine and electric motor connected to the
drive shaft
through amechanical coupling, they can propel the vehicle by the engine
alone, by the motor alone, or by both together.
4 The electric motor can be used as a generator to charge the energy
storage devices (battery or ultra capacitors by regeneration braking or
by extra power from the engine.
Steering
Motor
CEngine H= Propeller shaft
Transmission Differential
Front wheels
Rear wheels
Fuel Engine
Transmission Wheel
Battery Motor
Generator
Fig. 2.8.1.Parallel hybrid.
5. As the engine is connected to the wheels via mechanical coupling, it
makes this type hybrid quite efficient on the highway.
6. In addition, a parallel hybrid vehicle only needs two propulsion devices -
engine and electric motor, which makes the system very compact.
7. The result is that a parallel hybrid has fewer components than a series
hybrid which makes the system more cost effective.
8. The battery is big enough that the electric motor can power the car for
up to 200kms.
B. Applications :
1. Toyota Prius is the most widely known example.
2. Toyota also uses this system in the Yaris and Auris hatchbacks and
Prius+ MPV hybrids,while cars from Audi, BMW, Citroen, Land Rover,
Lexus, Mercedes-Benz, Peugeot, Porsche and Volkswagen work on the
same basis.
2-10 D (ME-Sem-7)
Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
Que 2.9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of series

and parallel hybrid topologies ?
Answer
A Advantages of Series Hybrid Configuration :
1. Can be operated within its optimum
2
efficiency range.
Efficient optimised power plant.
and
3 Possibilities for modular power plant.
4 Optimised drive line.
5 Possibility of swift 'black box' service exchange.
6. Long lifetime.
7 Mature technology.
8 Fast response.
9. Capable of attaining zero emission.
B. Disadvantages of Series Hybrid Configuration :
1. Large traction drive system.
2 Requirement of proper algorithms.
3 Multiple energy conversion steps.
4 About 30 %total loss of efficiency is observed due to multiple energy
conversions.
C. Advantages of Parallel Hybrid Configuration :

1. Capable of attaining zero emission.
2 More flexibility.
3 Motor is also a generator to charge the batteries from regenerative
braking or from engine power.
4. Efficient design for highway applications.
5 Compact system design.
6 Fewer components than a series hybrid results in a more cost effective
solution.
D. Disadvantages of ParallelHybrid Configuration:
1. Expensive.
Complex control.
Requirement of proper algorithms.
4. Need of high voltage to ensure efficiency.
Que 2.10. Describe split-power hybrid along with its advantage

and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Split-Power Hybrid:
1
Split-hybrid provides the advantages of both the systems but is more
costly and complicated.
2. The transmission (planetary gear system) splits some of the
power from
engine to be transferred directly to the drive whereas the other part is
converted into electrical energy by means of an alternator and stored in
the high-voltage (HV) battery.
3 Both the electric motor and the internal
combustion engine can also
provide their power simultaneously for propelling the vehicle.
4. It is also possible to use electricity only.
B. Advantages :
1 Has a direct mechanical path for the internal
combustion engine which
isvery efficient in steady operating conditions like cruising.
2. Has an electro-mechanical path which allows for efficient
the IC engine in unsteady driving, such as speed variationsoperation
of
seen in city
driving.
C. Disadvantages :
1. More complexity and cost.
PART-3
Power FlowControl Strategies in Hybrid Drive
Train Topologies, Efficiency.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer TypeQuestions
Que 2.11. Explain control strategies of series hybrid drive train

topologies.
Answer
1.
The purpose of the control strategy is to maintain the state-of-charge of
the energy storage unit within a prescribed range regardless of the
driving cycle and the resultant power demand on the driveline.
2. This should be done so that the onboard electrical generator (engine/
generator or fuel cell) is operated at high efficiency and low emissions.
3. This is done more easily when the energy storage capacity is reasonably
large as with a battery than when it is small as using ultra capacitors.
4 The strategy used for vehicles having a significant all-electric range isand
to
dischargethe battery to a prescribed state-of-charge (20 to 30 %)
then to turn on the engine to maintain the battery within 10 to 20
percent of that condition.
5 Electrical energy is generated at a rate slightly greater than the average
power demand of the vehicle to account for losses associated with storing
the energy.
that
6. In the case of an engine/generator, a minimum power level is set so
the engine is never operated below it.
Que 2.12. Explain control strategies of parallel hybrid drive train
topologies.
Answer
complicated
1. The control strategies for parallel hybrid vehicles are moredependent on
than those for series hybrids primarily because they are
both vehicle speed and state-of-charge of the energy storage unit and
driveling torque between the
should include criteria for splitting the
engine and the electric motor.
2. The purpose of the strategy is to permit the engine to provide the torque
and permit the engine
if it can at vehicle speeds below a prescribed value
to provide the torque at higher speeds.
mode, the motor provides
3. If the vehicle is operating in the all-electric regardless of the torque
turned on
the torque and the engine is not
demand or vehicle speed.
usually less than 80 km,
4. Since the all-electric range of a hybrid vehicle is
automatically to the hybrid mode
operation of the vehicle should change
when the all-electric range is exceeded.
be either charge sustaining
5. The control strategy in the hybrid mode can
or charge depleting.
the battery state-of-charge is maintained
In the case of charge sustaining,control
6.
strategy using electrical energy
at a near constant value by a as a generator and
produced by the engine and the motor acting the wall plug.
consequently little electrical energy is used from
strategy permits the battery
7. For the charge depleting case, the control and the battery is
state-of-charge to decrease as the vehicle is driven
then recharged from the wall plug at night.
transmission so the control
Parallel hybrids usually have a multi-speed
8
algorithm that depends on
strategy must also include a gear shiftingproducing torque.
whether the motor or engine or both are
9 A continuously variable transmission (CVT)
attractive for use in a parallel hybrid driveline. would particularly
be
Que 2.13. Explain control strategies of split power hybrid

drive
train topologies.
Answer
1 The control strategies for dual mode hybrid vehicles are a
of those used for series and parallel combination
hybrids.
2 There are so many possible hardware arrangements and
associated
control strategies, it is not possible to summarise them ina simple
as was the case for series and parallel hybrids. manner
3. The objective of the dual mode
operation is to use the possibility of
battery charging simultaneously with theuse of the engine and electric
motor to power the vehicle as a means of maintaining engine
at high efficiency at all times.
operation
4 At highway speeds, the engine can be used directly to power the
vehicle
with the engine operating at high efficiency. This mode of operation is
essentially that of aparallel hybrid.
5 At low vehicle speeds, when the battery does not need charging
(state
of-charge greater than a specified value), the driveline would operate in
an electric-only mode ifthe electric motor can provide the power
required
by the vehicle.
6. If the power demand is greater than that available from the electric
motor, the engine is turned on to assist the electric motor.
7 At low speeds when the battery
requires charging, the engine output is
split between powering the generator and the vehicle.
8 The possibility of splitting the engine output in this way at low vehicle
speeds is the distinguishing feature of the dual mode hybrid
configuration.
This permits the engine to be operated near its maximum efficiency at
all times and the battery to be recharged, when needed, regardless of
the vehicle speed and power demand.
10. The dual mode arrangement also reduces the need for on-off engine
operation as required in the series and parallel control strategies.
Que 2.14. Describe power flow control in series hybrid.
Answer
In the series hybrid system there are four operating modes based on the
power flow :
i. Mode l :During startup (Fig. 2.14.1(a)), normal driving or acceleration
of the series HEV, both the ICE and battery
deliver electric energy to
the power converter which then drives the electric motor and hence the
wheels via transmission.
F E F E
T G T
B P
M B P
(a) Mode l, normal driving or acceleration (b) Mode 2, light load
F F
G T G T
B P M B M
(c) Mode 3, braking or deceleration (d) Mode 4, vehicle at stop

B: Battery G: Generator Electrical link
E: ICE M: Motor Hydraulic link
F: Fuel tank P: Power converter Mechanical link
T:Transmission (including brakes, clutches and gears)
Fig. 2.14.1.
ii. Mode 2:Atlight load (Fig. 2.14.1(b), the ICE output is greater than that
required to drive the wheels. Hence, a fraction of the generated electrical
energy is used to charge the battery. The charging of the batter takes
place tillthe battery capacity reaches a proper level.
iii. Mode 3 : During braking or deceleration (Fig. 2.14. 1(c)), the electric
motor acts as a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the
wheels into electricity and this is used to charge the battery.
iv, Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by the ICE via the generator
even when the vehicle comes to a complete stop (Fig. 2. 14.1(d)
Que 2.15. Describe power flow control in parallel hybrid.
Answer
The parallel hybrid system has four modes of operation. These four
modes of operation are as follows:
Mode 1 : During start up or full throie acceleration (Fig. 2.15.1(a):
both the ICE and the EM share the required power to propel the vehicle.
Typically, the relative distribution between the ICE and electric motor is
80-20 %.
F E
B P M B
HP M
(a) Mode 1, start up (b) Mode 2, normal driving

F F
T T
B P M B
PM
(c) Mode 3, braking or deceleration (d) Mode 4, light load
B: Battery G: Generator Electrical link
E: ICE M: Motor Hydraulic link
F: Fuel tank P: Power converter Mechanical link
T:Transmission (including brakes, clutches and gears)
Fig. 2.15.1.
ii. Mode 2 :During normal driving (Fig. 2.15.1(b)), the required traction
power is supplied by the ICE only and the EM remains in off mode.
ii. Mode 3 : During braking or deceleration (Fig. 2.15.1(c), the EM acts as
a generator to charge the battery via the power converter.
iv. Mode 4: Under light load condition (Fig. 2.15.1(d), the traction power is
delivered by the ICE and the ICE also charges the battery via the EM.
Que 2.16. Describe fuel efficiency of hybrid vehicle. Also define
tractive effort.
Answer
A. Fuel Efficiency :
1 Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the ratio of
effort to result of a process that converts chemical potential energy
contained in a carrier (fuel) into kinetic energy or work.
2 Overall fuel efficiency may vary per device, which in turn may vary per
application, and this spectrum of variance is often illustrated as a
continuous energy profile.
3. In the context of transport, fuel economy is the energy efficiency of a
particular vehicle, given as a ratio of distance traveled per unit of fuel
2-16D ME-Sem-7) Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
consumed. It is dependent on several factors including engine efficiency,

transmission design, and tire design.
B. Tractive Effort:
1. The tractive effort developed by a traction motor on driven wheels and
the vehicle speed are expressed as,
...(1.16.1)
F, =
And V= Neml s),

30i,o
...(1.16.2)
Where T and N = The motor torque output and speed in rpm,

respectively,
The gear ratio of transmission,
I, = The gear ratio of final drive,
n, = The efficiency of the whole driveline from the
motor to the driven wheels, and
r, = The radius of the drive wheels.
PART-4
Electric Trains : Basic Concept of Electric Traction.
Questions-Ánswers
Que 2.17.Explain electric traction systems and theiradvantages

and disadvantages. AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
A. Electric Traction System:
1. The traction system in which driving force is achieved from electric
motors for its location is called electric traction.
2. Following are requirements ofelectric traction system:
Maximum tractive effort should be exerted at starting so that rapid
acceleration may be attained.
Equipment should be capable of withstanding overloads for short periods.
iüi. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the
shoes and if possible the energy should be brake
the supply
during braking period.
regenerated and returned to
iv. Easy speed control.
V
Equipment required should be minimum, of high efficiency and low
initial and maintenance cost.
3.o Three main types of
electrictraction systems are:
i DC electric traction
system,
: AC electrictraction system, and
ii. Composite system.
B. Advantages of Electric Traction:
1 It is cleanest and healthier from hygienic
point as compared to allother
system of traction.
2 It can be put into service without any loss of
time.
3
Maintenance cost and running cost is comparatively low.
4 Electric traction is most economical in high traffic density areas
particularly, if the electrical energy is cheap.
5. The vibrations in electrically operated vehicles are less as the
exerted by electric motor is continuous. torque
6 No difficulty is being experienced during the period of
sudden and
temporary overloading as the system is capable of drawing more energy
from the supply network.
C. Disadvantages of Electric Traction :
1 High initial expenditure is involved for power system, if electric traction
is involved.
2 Failure of power supply for a few minutes paralyses the whole system.
3. Additional equipment required for regeneration adds to the overall cost.
PART-5
Introduction to Various Electric Drive Train Topologies.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.18. Explain various electric drive train topologies in detail.

Answer
There are two configuration for electric vehicle drive train topologies,
they are front wheel drive and rear wheel drive which are discussed as
given below:
1. In the case of front-wheel drive, the electric motor drives the gearbox
which is mounted on the front axle, as shown in Fig. 2.18.1. This
configuration is for an EV using a single propulsion moto.
2. The single motor drives the trans axle on a common axis, delivering
power to the two wheels differentially through a hollow motor shaft.
The use of two motors driving two front wheels simplifies the
transmission and eliminates the differential.
3. Several configurations are possible with two propulsion motors driving
two wheels. In one arrangement, the motors, mounted to the chassis,
can be connected to the wheels through two short half-shafts.
4 The suspension system of the vehicle isolates the wheels and its
associated parts from the rest of the components of the vehicle for
easier handling of the vehicle, depending on roadway conditions. The
wheels are able to move freely without the weight of the motors when
they are mounted on the chassis.
5. In an alternate arrangement, the motors are mounted on the half
shafts with the motor drive shaft being part of the half-shaft. The half
shafts connect the wheels on one side and the chassis through a pivot on
the other side. In-wheel mounting of motors is another arrangement
possible in EVs.
6 The difficulty in this case is that the unsprung weight of the vehicle
increases due to motors inside the wheels, making traction control more'
complex.
7.
The transmission is more complex in the case of a rear-wheel drive,
which requires a differential to accommodate unequal speeds of the
inside and outside wheels of the rear axle during vehicle cornering. A
typical rear-wheel drive transmission configuration is shown in
Fig. 2.18.2.
Electric
Half shaft motor
Wheels Gear box
Half shaft
Fig. 2.18.1. Typical front-wheel drive.

Rear
wheels
Electric Gear
motor Differential
box
Drive shaft
Fig. 2.18.2. Typical rear-wheel drive.
PART-6
Power Flow Control in Electric Drive Train Topologies.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.19. What are different considerations on which design of

power control strategies depends ?
Answer
The design of power control strategies for EVs involves different
considerations such as :
i. Optimal ICE Operating Point : The optimal operating point on the
torque speed plane of the ICE can be based on maximization of fuel
economy, the minimization of emissions or a compromise between fuel
economy and emissions.
ii. Optimal ICE Operating Line : In case the ICE needs to deliver
different power demands, the corresponding optimal operating points
constitute an optimal operating line.
ii. Safe Battery Voltage:The battery voltage may be significantly altered
during discharging, generator charging or regenerative charging. This
battery voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage limit nor should
it fall below the minimum voltage limit.
Que 2.20. Discuss about power flow control in electric drive
trains.
2-20 D ME-Sem-7) Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
Answer
due the variations in electric
There are many possible EV configurations control is based on these six
propulsion and energy sources. Power flow
configurations. These six alternatives are:
configuration with gearbox (GB) and a
1 In Fig. 2.20.1(a) a single EM connection or disconnection of
clutch is shown. The clutch enables the
consists of a set of gears
power flow from EM to the wheels. The gear
and gearbox, the driver
with different gear ratios. With the use of clutch to the wheels can be
going
can shift the gear ratios and hence the torque and
changed. The wheels have high torque low speed in the lower gears
high-speed low torque in the higher gears.
C
MHHGB D MFGD
I---------t-
(a) (b)
-
I--
G
M
D FG
(d)
(c)
FG MJ
M
M
--RG-!
(e) (f)
C: Clutch GB: Gearbox
D: Differential EM:Electric motor
FG:Fixed gearing
Fig.2.20.1.
2 In Fig.2.20.1(b) a single EM configuration without the gearbox and the
clutch is shown. The advantage of this configuration is that the weight
of the transmission is reduced. However, this configuration demands a
more complex controlof the EM to provide the necessary torque to the
wheels.
3 Fig. 2.20.1(c) shows aconfiguration ofEV using one EM. It is a transverse
front EM front wheel drive configuration. It has a fixed gearing and
differential and they are integrated into a single assembly.
4. In Fig. 2.20.1(d) a dual motor
the differential action of anconfiguration
is shown. In this configuration
EV when cornering can be electronically
provided by two electric motors.
5. Fig. 2.20.1(e) shows this configuration in which fixed
is employed toreduce the motor speed to the planetary gearing
6 In Fig. 2.20.1(f) an EV configuration without any desired wheel speed.
mechanical
By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing, the in-wheel drivegearing is shown.
can be
by installing a low speed outer-rotor electric motor inside a wheel. realized
PART-7
Fuel Efficiency Analysis.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.21. Explain about fuel efficiency analysis of electricvehicle.

Answer
1 The electric vehicles (EV's) are powered by electricity generated by
coal
powered plants. The electric vehicles release less amount of CO, emissions
ascompared with conventional vehicles.
2 The efficiencies of electric vehicle and petrol driven vehicle can be
compared.
3 Petrol has acalorific value of 34.3 MJ/Nitre or 9.5 kWh/litre.
4. In other Words, to travel a distance of 1 km, a small petrol vehicle must
expend 3.45 MJ or 955 Wh of energy. Whereas to travel a distance of
1km, a small electric vehicle must expend 1.35 MJ or 3.75 Wh of energy.
5. Hence an electric vehicle is more than 2.5 times efficient than an
equivalent petrol vehicle.
6 The carbon footprint of any vehicle can be understood from the amount
of CO, emissions.
7 Load is 23.8 grams of carbon per mega-joule and oil is 19.9 grams of
carbon per mega-joule. The vehicle efficiency can be obtained from
carbon content levels. Therefore for 1 km of driving,
i Carbon footprint of a small petrol vehicle
= 3.45 MJ/km x 19.9 g/MJ = 68.66 g/km
i. Similarly carbon footprint of a small electric vehicle
= 1.35 MJ/km x 23.8 g/MJ =32.13 g/km
8. Hence use of electric vehicles has significantly reduced oil dependence
as it operates vehicles more efficiently and reduces carbon emissions.
9. In order to improve the efficiency of vehicle system the focus is to
overcome technical barriers such as battery.
3 UNIT
Electric Propulsion
Unit
CONTENTS
Part-1: Introduction to Electric 3-2D to 3-3D
Components used in Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles
Part-2 : Configuration and Control of DC 3-4D to 3-10D

Motor Drives
Part-3 : Configuration and Control of ........ 3-10D to 3-16D

Induction Motor Drives
Part-4 : Permanent Magnent 3-16D to 3-20D

Configuration and
Control of Motor Drives
Part-5 : Configuration and Control of.... 3-20D to 3-23D

Switch Reluctance Motor Drives,
Drive System Efficiency
3-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
3-2 D (ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
PART- 1
Introduction to Electric Components used

in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. Explain the working of the different electric components
used in hybrid electric vehicles. AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
Major components of an electric vehicle are shown in Fig. 3.1.1 and are
discussed below:
Auxiliary Batteries
power supply
Electronic Powers Electric Transmission

Drivers motor
controller converter unit
Fig.3.1.1. Major components in an electric vehicle.

i. Power Pack(Battery):
1 Automobile manufacturers use three types of rechargeable battery for
electric car use. There are lead-acid batteries, nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries,
2 The space occupied by these heavy batteries is large.
3. Operational problems include the limited range of the vehicle and its
comparatively low maximum speed.
4. Currently the main advantage oflead-acid batteries is the existing mature
technology, which is accepted by the motor industry.
ii. Motor :
1. The primne mover in electric vehicle is the high-torque electric motor.
2. The motor converts the energy stored in the power pack into mechanical
motion.
3. The high torque electric motor ensures a quick acceleration.

4 The power from the motor is delivered to the wheels directly or through
the trans axle that propels the vehicle.
5 While braking, the motor acts like a generator (regenerative braking)
and recharges the batteries.
6. There are several choices of the type of drive motor. The basic choice is
between an ACand a DO motor.
7. The AC motor offers many control advantages but requires the DC
produced by the batteries to be converted using an inverter.
8. A DC shunt wound motor rated at about 50 kW is a popular choice for
the smaller vehicles but AC motors are likely to become the most popular.
iii. Charger :
1. Charger is a battery charging device.
2. Chargers get electricity from outside sources, such as the utility grid or
solar power plants.
3. ACelectricity is converted into DC electricity and then stored in the
battery.
4. The smart charger's output is connected to the power pack and ensures
that optimum current and voltage is maintained at all times.
iv. Controller :
1. EVs have a computerised motor controller.
2. The electric vehicle controller is the electronics package that operates
between the batteries and the motor to control the electric vehicles
speed and acceleration much like a carburettor does in a gasoline
powered vehicles.
3.
This regulates the flow of energy from the power pack to the motor in
direct relation to pressure applied on the accelerator.
4. It ensures perfect speed control and optimum use of energy in both
forward and reverse directions.
5 Speed controllers are rated according to the voltage and amperage ranges.
V. DC/DC Converter:
1. The DC/DC converter changes DC power from an on-board 200-800 V
high voltage battery into lower DC voltage to recharge the auxiliary
battery.
2. A 12 V auxiliary battery is normally used in an electric car to power all
12 V accessories such as lights, wiper and window motors, pumps horn
and so on.
3. There is no alternator in EVs to keep this battery charged.
4. If the DC/DC converter fails at night or the battery pack falls below the
low voltage shut-off of the converter, the auxiliary battery will have
enough charge to bring the car home.
34D (ME-Sem-7)
Electric Propulsion Unit
PART-2
Configuration and Control of DC Motor Drives.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.2. Discuss in brief operation principle of a DC motor.

Answer
1. The operation principle of a DC
motor is straightforward.
2. When a wire carrying electric current is placed in a magnetic field, a
magnetic force acting on the wire is produced.
3. The force is perpendicular to the wire and the magnetic field as shown
in Fig. 3.2.1.
4. The magnetic force is proportional to the wire length, magnitude of the
electric current, and the density of the magnetic field; that is,
F= BIL. ..(3.2.1)
5. When the wire is shaped into a coil, as shown in Fig. 3.2.1, the magnetic
forces acting on both sides produce a torque, which is expressed as
T= BIL cos a, ...(3.2.2)
Slip rings Coil

Brush
Fig. 3.2.1. Operation principle of a DC motor.

3-5D (ME-Sem-7)
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion
Where a= Angle between the coil plane and magnetic field as shown in
Fig. 3.2.1.
6. The magnetic field may be produced by a set of windings or permanent
magnets. The former is called wound-field DCmotor and the latter is
called the permanent magnet DC motor.
7. The coil carrying the electric current is called the armature. In practice,
the armature consists of a number of coils.
8. In order to obtain continuous and maximum torque, slip rings and
brushes are used to conduct each coil at the position ofa = 0
Que 3.3. What are various types of wound-field DCmotors ?
Answer
1. Typically, there are four types of wound-field DC motors, depending on
the mutual interconnection between the field and armature windings.
2. They are separately excited, shunt excited, series excited, and compound
excited as shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
A, A F
+
V -000
A F A, F,
(a) Separately excited (b) Shunt excited
V
+
000
(c) Series excited Ag (d) Compound excited

Fig. 3.3.1. Wound-field DC motors.
3 In the case of a separately excited motor, the field and armature voltage
can be controlled independently of one another. In a shunt motor, the
field and armature and connected in parallel to a common source.
4. Therefore, an independent control of field current and armature or
armature voltage can be achieved by inserting a resistance into the
appropriate circuit.
5. This is an inefficient method of control.
3-6D (ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
6. The efficient method is to use power electronics based DC-DCconverters
in the appropriate circuit to replace the resistance.
7. The DC-DCconverters can be actively controlled to produce proper
armature and field voltage.
8 In the case ofa series motor, the field current is the same as the armature
current; therefore,field flux is a function of armature current.
9 In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetomotive force (mmf) of a
series field is a function of the armature current and is in the same
direction as the mmf of the shunt field.
Que 3.4. Explain how speed and torque of DC motor can be

controlled.
Answer
Speed and torque of DC motor can be controlled by using following
methods:
i. Armature Voltage Control Method :
1. The speed of DC motor can be controlled by using voltage variation by
reducing the voltage rated value.
2. Consider a separately excited DC motor as shown in Fig. 3.4.1.
Hw
Ia
V,
Fig. 3.4.1.
3 We know that the standard speed equation is,
)=
V, -1
4. In this method we do not add any external resistance in series with
armature or field circuit. Hence the only drop in resistance is I, r, drop.
5. As the value of r, is small hence I, r, drop can be neglected,
)= V,
6. Therefore when voltage reduces below rated value then speed also
reduces below base speed.
ii. Field Flux Control Method :
1. This method is used to control the speed of motor above rated value. In
this method additional resistance is connected in series with field circuit
as shown in Fig. 3.4.2.
ex
I, V,
Fig. 3.4.2.
2. When r is added then due tothe additional resistance the field current
I,will decrease. When field current (I) decreases, then field flux ((¢) also
decreases.
3 The basic speed equation of DC motor is,
4. When field flux (¢) decreases then speed o will increase i.e., speed
becomes more than base speed.
Que 3.5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of DC

motor ?
Answer
A. Advantages of DC Motor :
1 DC motors are smaller in size.
2 DCmotors are suitable for traction systems for driving heavy loads.
3. DCseries motors have high starting torque.
4. Wide range of speed control.
5. DC Shunt motors are best suited for armature control and field control.
6 DC motors have quick starting, stopping, reversing, and fast acceleration.
7. DC motors are free from harmonics.
3-8D (ME-Sem-7)
B. Disadvantages of DC Motor :
1 DC motors have a high initial cost.
2 Maintenance cost is high and increased operation due to the presence of
brushes and commutator.
3. Due to sparking at brush, DC motors cannot operate in explosive and
hazardous conditions.
4 As the speed increases, the shaft gets vibrated and the armature gets
damaged.
5 We need converters to supply power to the motor.
Que 3.6. Discuss in brief chopper control of DC motor.
Answer
1. Choppers are used for the control of DC motors because of a number of
advantages such as high efficiency, flexibility in control, light weight,
small size, quick response and regeneration down to very low speeds.
2. Presently, the separately excited DC motors are usually used in traction
due to the control flexibility of armature voltage and field.
3 For a DC motor control in open-loop and closed-loop configurations, the
chopper offers a number of advantages due to its high operation
frequency.
Torque
Power
Armature current
Base speed Maximum speed

Armature Field control
voltage control
Fig, 3.6.1. Torque and power limitations in combined
armature voltage and field control.
4. High operation frequency results in high-frequency output voltage ripple
and, therefore, less ripples in the motor armature current and a smaller
region of discontinuous conduction in the speed-torque plane.
5. Areduction in the armature current ripple reduces the armature losses.
6 Areduction or elimination of the discontinuous conduction region
improves speed regulation and the transient response of the drive.
Que 3.7.
Explain in brief two quadrant control of forward
motoring and regenerative braking.
Answer
1. Atwo-quadrant operation consisting of forward motoring and forward
regenerative braking requires a chopper capable of giving a positive
voltage and current in either direction.
2. This two-quadrant operation can be realized in the following two schemes:
i. Single Chopper withaReverse Switeh:
1 The chopper circuit used for forward motoring and forward regenerative
braking is shown in Fig. 3.7.2, where S is a self-commutated
semiconductor switch, operated periodically such that it remains closed
for a duration of 8T and remains open for a duration of (1 - S)T. Cis the
manual switch.
D,
+
1, R
V
V.a
D, A
Fig. 3.7.1. Forward motoring and regenerative braking

control with a single chopper.
when C is
2 Regenerative braking in the forward direction is obtained of the
with the help
opened and the armature connection is reversed negative.
reversing switch RS, making terminal b positive and terminala
current flows through
3 During the on-period of the switch S, the motor
a path consisting of the motor
armature, switch S, and diode D, and
circuit inductance. When S
increases the energy stored in the armature
armature diode D,, source V,
is opened, the current flows through the energy into the source.
diode D, and back to the armature, thus feeding
is done in the following
4. During motoring, the changeover to regeneration
Cis opened. This forces the
steps. Switch S is deactivated and switch V, and diode D,.
armature current to flow through diode D,, source
circuit is fed back to the source and
5. The energy stored in the armature
zero.
the armature current falls to
that the current has indeed become
After an adequate delay to ensurereversed
6. and switch Sis reactivated
zero, the armature connection is
with asuitable value of d to start regeneration.
3-10 D (ME-Sem-7)
iü. Class C Two-Quadrant Chopper :
1 In some applications, a smooth transition from motoring to braking and
vice versa is required.
2. For such
applications, the class Cchopper is used as shown in Fig. 3.7.2.
3. The
self-commutated semiconductor switch S, and diodeD,
one chopper and the self-commutator switch S, and diodeconstitute
D, form
another chopper.
4. Both the choppers are controlled simultaneously, both for motoring and
regenerative braking.
5. The switches S, and S, are closed alternately. In the choppingperiod T,
S, is kept on for a duration 8T,and S, is kept on from 8T to T.
6 To avoid a direct short-circuit across the
source, care is taken to ensure
that S, and S, do not conduct at the same time.
7 This is generally achieved by providing some delay between the turn off
of one switch and the turn on of another switch.
içi S
A D
S
D,4 v,
Fig. 3.7.2.
PART-3
Configuration and Control of Induction Motor Drives.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.8. What are the requirements of electric vehicle motor ?
Answer
The requirements of the EV motors are as follows :
1. High torque at low speeds and climbing as well as high speed at low
torques for eruising.
3-11D (ME-Sem-7)
2. Very wide speed range including constant-torque and constant-power
regions.
3 Fast torque response.
4 High efficiency for regenerative braking.
5. High reliability and robustness for various vehicle operating conditions.
6 Reasonable cost.
Que 3.9. Discuss in brief about induction motor.
Answer
1 Induction motor drives are the mature technology among
commutatorless motor drives. Compared with DC motor drives, the AC
induction motor drive has additional advantages such as lightweight
nature, small volume, low cost, and high efficiency. These advantages
are particularly important for EV and HEV applications.
wound-rotor and
2. There are two types of induction motors, namely,
squirrel cage motors. Because of the high cost, need for maintenance,
attractive
less
and lack of sturdiness, wound-rotor induction motors are
electric propulsion
than their squirrel-cage counterparts, especially for motors
in EVs and HEVs. Hence, squirrel-cage induction are loosely
termed as induction motors.
shown in Fig. 3.9.1.
3. A cross section of a two-pole induction motor is
phase
4. Slots inthe inner periphery of the stator are inserted with three
windings.
that the current in the
5. The turns of each winding are distributed such
distributed flux density
winding produces an approximate sinusoidally
around the periphery of the air gap.
showm in Fig. 3.9.1.
6. The three windings are spatially arranged by 120° as
a'l
-Stator
-Statorslot and windings
120° Rotor bar
E l120 -Rotor
Fig, 3.9.1. Cross-section of an induction motor,

Que 3.10.Explain operation principle of induction motor.

Answer
1. Fig. 3.10.1 shows, schematically, a cross section of the stator of a
three-phase, two-pole induction motor.
2 Each phase is fed with a sinusoidal AC current, which has a frequency
of o and a 120° phase difference between each other as shown in
Fig. 3.10.1.
3. Current i.,i,, and i.. in the three stator coils a-a', b-b, and c-c'
produce alternative mmfs, Fo,FhsF, and Fhswhich are space vectors. The
resultant stator mmf vector FS, constitutes a vector sum of the phase
mmfvectors.
4 The mmfs produced by the phase currents can be written as
F=F. sin ot, ...(3.10.1)
F.= F., sin (ot - 120°),
as
..(3.10.2)
F. = F. sin (ot 240°), ...(3.10.3)
a
Las bs les
C
O)a
(b)
(a)
Fig. 3.10.1. Induction motor stator and stator winding current.

(a) spatially symmetric three-phase stator windings; (b) phase currents.
5. The resultant stator mmf vector, F, is expressed as
Fi= Fe00 +Fel20"+Fe40
6 Assuming that the magnitude of the three phase mmfs are identical,
equal to F, eq. (3.10.3) can be further expressed as
3
Fi -Felot - 90)
2 ...(3.10.4)
7.
Eq. (3.10.1) indicates that the resultant stator mmf vector is rotating
with a frequency of the angle velocity of o, and its magnitude is (3/2)F,
8 The reaction between the rotating stator mmf and the rotor conductors
induces a voltage in the rotor, and hence electric current in the rotor.
9. In turn, the rotating mmf produces a torque on the rotor, which is
carrying the induced current.
3-13 D (ME-Sem-7)
10 It is clear that the induced current in the rotor is essential for producing
relative
the torque, and in turn the induced current depends on the
movements between the stator mmf and the rotor.
11. This is why there must exist a difference between the angular velocity
of the rotating stator mmf and the angular velocity of the rotor.
Que 3.11. Describe torque-slip characteristics of induction motor.

Answer
1 The relationship between torque and slip can be obtained from torque
equation, ie., T < ol, cos ,
2. At stand still, rotor emf, E, is proportional to stator flux,
Ta E,l, cos ,
T =kE,l, cos 2
T= hsR, E,
R; (SX,}
sE, R,
l,= cos , =
JR, + J(sX,
Where, = Stator flux (Wb)
L,= Rotor current (A)
cos , = Rotor power factor
R, = Rotor resistance (2)
X, = Rotor reactance (2)
to slip
3 For slip values, s from s = 0 to s-s,m, the torque, T is proportional
i.e., R, is constant and the term sX, is small compared to R, value. Then,
To s
4 Thisregion is shown by curve AB in Fig. 3.11.1.
Reverse Forward motor region (T(N-m)
breaking B
Generating region
region Maximum
torque Torque,
D A
Slip 's'
1 Sn
Fig. 3.11.1.
3-14 D (ME-Sem-7)
5 For values of slip, s beyond the
proportional to slip. value s = s., torque T is inversely
6 Here, R, value is small compared to sX,
thereby,
To
Tor
(for constant X, value)
7
Therefore, for an induction motor torque-slip
rectangular hyperbola for slip values in betweens=scharacteristics
and s = 1 as
are
in Fig. 3.11.1 by the curve BC. shown
8 The region between 0 < s <l is
9 When slip s > 1
known as forward motoring region.
from Fig. 3.11.1 it is seen that the rotor
decreases with increase of slip. In this region the speed istorque further
this region is known as reverse braking negative and
region as shown by curve CD.
10. When slip is negative i.e., when s > 0
then
than synchronous speed then the motor the rotor speed is greater
produces a negative torque.
Que 3.12. Discuss in brief about
constant volt/hertz control of
induction motor.
Answer
1 For traction application, the torque-speed
motor can be varied by simultaneously characteristic of an induction
controlling the voltage and
frequency, which is known as constant volt/hertz control.
2 By emulating a DCmotor at low speed, the flux may be kept
Also the field current I, should be kept constant and constant.
value. That is, equal to its rated
E
..(3.12.1)
where I._ is the rated field current, and E.and o, are the rated mmf
and frequency of the stator, respectively.
3 To maintain the flux at constant, Elo should be kept
constant and equal
to Erated,
4 Ignoring the voltage drop in the stator impedance Z, results in a constant
Vlo until the frequency and voltage reach their rated values.
This
approach is known as constant volt/hertz control.
5 The rotor current can be calculated as,
I,= (o/o,)Eatel.
jL,o +R,ls ...(3.12.2)
6 The torque produced can be obtained as,
3| (o/o,} EnR,s
IE,/s= ...(3.12.3)
o (R/s +(L,o?
7. The slip s, corresponding to the maximum torque is
S, =t
R
...(3.12.4)
L,o
And then, the maximum torque is
T max 3 Eted
...(3.12.5)
2 2L,o
8. Eg. (3.12.5) indicates that with the constant E/o, the maximum torque is
constant with varying frequency. Eq. (3.12.4) indicates that so is
constant, resulting in constant slip speed, o,.
9. In practice, due to the presence of stator impedance and the voltage
drop, the voltage should be somewhat higher than that determined by
constant Elo, as shown in Fig. 3.12.1.
10. When motor speed is beyond its rated speed, the voltage reaches its
rated value and cannot be increased with the frequency.
T Pml
Pmy Pm
V
0s osl
T
osl
0(s=1)
Constant Constant Region with
torque power fixed voltage
region region and frequency
Fig. 3.12,1, Operating variable varying with motor speed.
11. In traction application, speed control in a wide range is usually required
and the torque demand in the high-speed range is low. Control beyond
constant power range is required.
12. To prevent the torque from exceeding the breakdown torque, the
machine is operated at a constant slip speed and the machine current
and power are allowed to decrease as shown in Fig. 3.12.1.
13. Fig. 3.12.2 shows a general block diagram where constant VIfcontrol is
implemented.
Slip speed
controller
Inverter
P (1
O syn
2
m
Motor
m
Speed sensor
Fig. 3.12.2. General configuration of constant Vf control.
PART-4
Permanent Magnet Configuration and Control of Motor Drives.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.13. Define brushless DC motor (BLDC). Also describe

operation of permanent magnet BLDC motors.
Answer
A Brushless DC Motor :
1. A BLDC motor (brushless DC motor) should always be viewed as a
combination of controller and motor and the controller takes DC input.
2. The controller is a static unit which converts DC into pulsed AC whereas
motor is an electromagnetic rotating machine which runs on pulsed AC.
3. ABLDC motor is also called DCsynchronous motor or electronically
commutated DC motor.
4 When the stator electromagnets are energised by pulsed AC from

controller, there is a continuous change in the polarity of stator
electromagnets in a sequential manner which, in effect, causes rotation
of stator magnetic field.
5. The rotor permanent magnets follow the stator rotating field due to
magnetic pull, hence the rotation. The motor, thus, works like a
synchronous motor.
6. In a BLDC motor, the input motor current is reversed at the appropriate
moment depending upon the rotor position as signalled by Hall Effect
sensor.
7. This is something like the action a mechanical commutator in a

conventional DC motor. Hence the BLDC motor is also sometimes called
electronically commutated DC motor.
B. Operation of Permanent Magnet BLDC Motor:
1. The motor has a three-phase stator with a number of coils and a rotor
with surface mounted permanent magnets.
2 The stator and the rotor are reversed compared to the brushed DC
motor where the permanent magnets are mounted on the stator.
3. The way a BLDC motor works is that the poles on the stator are
alternating in such a way that the rotor is turning clockwise.
4 The pole on the stator pulls the pole on the rotor clockwise and when
the poles are in line with each other the current is switched off.
Momentum then carries the rotor further and the current is reversed,
changing the magnetic field and the poles in the stator.
5. To make sure the motor keeps on turning sensors are needed to
determine the position of the rotor. This is often done using Hall Effect
sensors.
6 BLDC motors are very efficient. Torque is high under low speeds and
goes down as the speed goes up.
7 A drawback of this type of motor is the price compared to the other
possible EV motors. A BLDC motor needs strong permanent magnet
that can influence the total price of the motor.
U: Phase-U winding
V: Phase-V winding
W: Phase-W winding
Rotor: Magnet
Stator
U
Motor
windings
Rotor
-O W
oOutput 1
|HE HE! HE
-oOutput 2
oOutput 3
Hall effect IC
Fig. 3.13.1.
Que 3.14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of BLDc

motor ?
Answer
A. Advantages of BLDC Motor:
1. BLDC motor is compact in size and light in weight.
2 They are easy to control.
3 Easy tocool.
4 Requires low maintenance.
5 Have high reliability.
6 They have law noise emissions.
B. Disadvantages of BLDC Motors :
1 More expensive.
2 They have limited constant power range.
3 Problem magnet denmagnetization.
4 Cannot reach high speeds because of the limited mechanical strength of
the assembly between the rotor yoke and the permanent magnets.
Que 3.15. Discuss in brief about control of BLDC motor drives.
Answer
1 In vehicle traction application, the torque produced is required to follow
the torque desired by the driver and commanded through the accelerator
and brake pedals. Thus, torque control is the basic requirement.
2. Fig. 3.15.1 shows a block diagram ofa torque control scheme for a BLDC
motor drive.
3. The desired current I' is derived from the commanded
a torque controller.
torqueTthrough
4 The current controller and commutation sequencer receive the
desired
current I' position information from the position sensors, and perhaps
the current feedback through current transducers, and then
gating signals. produce
5. These gating signals are sent to the three-phase inverter
(power
converter) to produce the phase current desired by the BLDC machine.
DC supply
Three-phase BLDC
Load
inverter
motor
Commanded
Gating
signals
torque T
Current controller and
commutation sequencer Position
sensor
Fig. 3.15.1. Block diagram of the torque control of the BLDC motor.
6. Many high-performance applications include current feedback for torque
control.
7. At the minimum, aDC bus current feedback is required to protect the
drive and machine from over currents.
8 The commutation angle associated with a brush-less motor is normally
set so that the motor will commutate around the peak of the torque
angle curve.
9. Considering a three-phase motor, connected in delta or wye,
commutation occurs at electrical angles, which are - 30° (electrical)
from the peaks of the torque-angle curves.
10. When the motor position moves beyond the peaks by an amount equal
to 30° (electrical), then the commutation sensors cause the stator phase
excitation to switch to move the motor suddenly to -30° relative to the
peak of the next torque-angle curve.
Que 3.16. Discuss in brief three classes of permanent magnet
materials used for electric motors.
Answer
There are three classes of permanent magnet materials currently used
for electric motors:
i. Alnico:
1. The main advantages of Alnico are its high magnetic remanent flux
density and low temperature coefficients.
2. The temperature coefficient of its remanent magnetic flux density Br,
or remanence, is 0.02 % /°Cand the maximum service temperature is
520°C.
3-20 D ME-Sem-7) Electric Propulsion Unit
3 These advantages allow quite a high air gap flux density and high
operating temperature. Unfortunately, coercive force is very low and
the demagnetization curve is extremely non-linear.
4 Therefore, it is very easy not only to magnetize but also to demagnetize
Alnico. Alnico magnets have been used in motors having ratings in the
range ofa few watts to 150 kW.
i. Ferrites:
1 Aferrite has a higher coercive force than that of Alnico, but at the same
time has a lower remanent magnetic flux density.
2 Temperature coefficients are relatively high, that is, the coefficient of
B, is 0.20 %/°C and the coefficient of coercive field strength, H, or
coercivity is 0.27 %/°C.
3. The maximum service temperature is 400 °C. The main advantages of
ferrites are their low cost and very high electric resistance which means
that there are no eddy-current losses in the PM volume.
iii. Rare-Earth PMs :
1. The first generation of the rare-earth PMs based on the composition of
samarium-cobalt (SmCo.) was invented in the 1960s and has been
produced commercially since the early 1970s.
2. Today, it is a well-established hard magnetic material. SmCo, has the
advantages of high remanent flux density,high coercive force, high
energy production, linear demagnetization curve, and low temperature
coefficient.
3. The temperature coefficient of Br is 0.03 to 0.045%/ °C and the
temperature coefficient of H,is 0.14 to 0.40%/°C. The maximum service
temperature is 250 to 300 °C.
4. It is well suited for building motors with low volume and, consequently
with high specific power and low moment of inertia.
PART-5
Configuration and Control of Switch Reluctance

Motor Drives, Drive System Eficiency.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.17. Explain in brief switched reluctance motor drive.

Answer
1. The switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive is considered to be an
attractive candidate for variable speed motor drives due to its low cost,
rugged structure, reliable converter topology, high efficiency over a
wide speed range, and simplicity in control.
2. These drives are suitable for EVs, electric traction applications,
automotive applications, aircraft starter/generator systems, mining
drives, washing machines, door actuators, etc.
3 The SRM has a simple, rugged, and low-cost structure. It has no PM or
winding on the rotor. This structure not only reduces the cost of the
SRM but also offers high-speed operation capability for this motor.
4
Unlike the induction and PM machines,the SRM iscapable of high
speed operation without the concern of mechanical failures that result
from the high-level centrifugal force.
5. In addition, the inverter of the SRM drive has a reliable topology.
6
The stator windings are connected in series with the upper and lower
switches of the inverter. This topology can prevent the shoot-through
fault that exists in the induction and permanent motor drive inverter.
7. A conventional SRM drive system consists of the switched reluctance
motor, power inverter, sensors such as voltage, current, and position
sensors, and control circuitry such as the DSP controller and its
peripherals through proper control, high performance can be achieved
in the SRM drive system.
8 The SRM drive inverter is connected to a DC power supply, which can
be derived from the utility lines through a front-end diode rectifier or
from batteries.
9 The control circuit provides a gating signal to the switches of the inverter
according to particular control strategies and the signals from various sensors.
Electric
Power SRM
energy converter
Load
input
Current Position
sensor sensor
Control
commands +Controller
SRD
Fig. 3.17.1. SRM drive system.

Que 3.18. Describe the control of switched reluctance motor for
vehicle traction.
Answer
Control of switched reluctance motor for vehicle traction is done by
following two methods :
a. Mutually Induced Voltage-Based Method:
1. The idea of this method is based on measuring the mutually induced
voltage in an idle phase which is either adjacent or opposite to the
energized phase of an SRM.
3-22 D (ME-Sem-7)
2 The mutual voltage in the off" phase induced due to the current in the
active phase, varies significantly with respect to the rotor position.
3. This mutually induced voltage variation can be sensed by asimple electronic
circuit. Ifthe functional relation between the mutually induced voltage in the
inactive phase due to the current in the active phase and the rotor position is
known, the rotor position information can be extracted from the mutually
measured induced voltage in the inactive phase.
4 This method is only suitable for low-speed operation. Furthermore, it is
very sensitive to noise since the ratio between induced voltage and
system noise is small.
b. Observer-Based Methods :
1 In this method, state-space equations are used to describe the dynamic
behavior of the SRM drive.
2 An observer is then developed based on these non-linear state-space
differential equations for estimation of the rotor position.
3. The input and output of this observer are phase voltage and phase
current, respectively. The state variables of this observer are stator flux
linkage, rotor position angle, and rotor speed.
4 The phase current, flux linkage, rotor position, and rotor speed canbe estimated
using this observer. The phase current estimated by this observer is compared
to the actual phase current of the SRM, and the resultant current errors are
used to adjust the parameters of the observer.
5. When the current estimated by the observer matches the actual current,
the observer is considered as a correct representation of the dynamic
behavior of the actual SRM drive and the rotor position estimated by the
observer is used to represent the actual rotor position.
6. The main disadvantages of these methods are real-time implementation of
complex algorithms, which require ahigh-speed DSP and asignificant amount
of stored data. This increases the cost and speed limitations by the DSP.
7. However, high resolution in detecting rotor position and applicability to
whole speed range are some merits of these methods.
Que 3.19. Describe factors which affect the efficiency of the drive
system of hybrid vehicle.
1.
Answer
--
The schematic diagram ofhybrid vehicle drive train is as shown in Fig. 3.19.1.
wheel
Internal Motor/generator Mechanical Final

combusion engine (M/G) transmission drive
Battery Inverter
Fig. 3.19.1.
2 In today s hybrid propulsion system the total driveline efficiency is more

than 80 %.
3 From Fig. 3.19.1 it is seen that the drive system consists of various
components like generator, motor, inverter, transmission system and
energy storage system (battery).
4 Hence efficiency of drive train can be improved by reducing the losses in
generator/motor, inverter,transmission system and battery.
5 The losses present in each of these components are given below :
a. Generator/Motor:
1. Generator/motor i.e., the electric machine is the most significant
contributor to efficiency of hybrid propulsion system.
2. The various losses that occur in generator/motor are iron (core) losses,
copper losses, mechanical friction losses, windage and stray losses.
3. Eddy current loss occurs due to circulating currents in the bulk iron
material produced due tochanging magnetic fields.
4. The copper losses depend on operating current levels of the machine.
b. Inverter :
1. The losses in power electronic inverter are of 2 types i.e., active
component losses and passive component losses. Active components are
semiconductor devices and passive components are link capacitors, device
snubbers and current shunts.
The active component losses are classified into 3types i.e.,conduction,
switching and reverse recovery losses.
3. Conduction loss takes place due to current and voltage stress in
semiconductor device.
4 Switching losses causes major power dissipation in power electronic
systems.
5
Reverse recovery loss take place when diode is reverse biased.
C.
Transmission System : The losses in power distribution system are
comprised of harness and cable resistive losses, connector losses and
fuse or protective device loss.
d. Energy Storage System (Battery) :
1 Hybrid propulsion systems require energy storage systems having turn
around efficiency greater than 90 %to be effective. Mostly battery systems
are simply incapable of meeting such high energy efficiency targets.
form as it is
2. In fact, any system in which energy not stored in the same
consumed is not suited as an energy storage system because there will
the available energy.
be one or more energy conversion steps toaccess
conversion
3 For example a battery must go through a chemical to electrical battery
instead of
to utilize its energy. Hence ultra-capacitor is used capacitor.
because energy conversion is not required for ultra
efficiency
4. Hence propulsion system incorporating ultra capacitor has an
of 95 %in each direction.
4 UNIT
Energy Storage
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Energy Storage 4-2D to 4-3D
Requirements in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicle
Part-2 : Battery Based Energy Storage 4-3D to 4-8D

and its Analysis
Part-3 : Fuel Cell Based Energy Storage 4-8D to 4-12D
and its Analysis
Part-4 : Super Capacitor based 4-12D to 4-14D

Energy Storage and its Analysis
Part-5 : Flywheel Based Energy 4-14D to 4-16D
Storage and its Analysis
Part-6 : Hybridization of Different. 4-16D to 4-18D
Energy Storage Devices
Part-7 : Sizing the Drive System 4-18D to 4-19D
Matching the Electrical Machine
and the Internal Combustion
Engine (ICE)
Part-8: Sizing the Propulsion Motor ..

4-19D to 4-20D
Part-9: Sizing the Power Electronics 4-20D to 4-21D
Part-10: Selecting the Encrgy Storage 4-21D to 4-24D
Technology, Conmunication,
Supporting Subsystems
4-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
4-2 D (ME-Sem-7)
Energy Storage
PART- 1
Introduction to Energy Storage Requirements

in Hybrid and Electric Vehicle.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. What are the various requirements of EVs energy

source ?
Answer
Requirements of EVs energy sources are as follows :
1 High specific energy and energy density.
2. High specific power and power density.
3. Fast charging and deep discharging capabilities.
4. Long cycle and service life.
5. Low self discharging rate and high charging efficiency.
6 Safety and cost effectiveness.
7. Maintenance free.
8. Environmentally sound and recyclable.
Que 4.2. Write about energy storage systems.
OR
What are different energy storage techniques used in hybrid electric
vehicles ? AKTU2021-22,Marks 10|
Answer
1 Energy storage systems are the set of methods and technologies used to
store energy. The stored energy can be drawn upon at a later time to
perform useful operation.
2 Energy is available in various forms including radiation, chemical,
gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated
temperature, latent heat and kinetic.
3
There are various methods and technologies to store various forms of
energy. The choice of energy storage technology is typically dictated by
application, economics, integration within the system, and the availability
of resources.
4 Energy storage systems are also involved in converting energy from
forms that are difficult to store to forms that are more convenient or
economical.
4-3 D (ME-Sem-7)
:
5 Five key energy storage technologies are as follows
Electrochemical energy storage ii. Chemical energy storage
üi. Thermal energy storage iv. Mechanical energy storage
Electrical energy storage
6. The choice of energy storage system technology is interleaved with
vehicle tractive effort for the customer usage pattern anticipated.
PART-2
Battery Based Energy Storage and its Analysis.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.3. Discuss in brief about battery based energy storage.

What are the requirements of EV batteries ?
Answer
A. Battery :
1 Batteries have been the major energy source for EVs for a long time.
The battery converts stored chemical energy into electric energy. The
chemical reaction between the electrodes and electrolyte generates
electricity.
2. Battery is the most important component of an electric vehicle and
typically constitutes up to about half of the vehicle cost and weight. The
choice of batteries depends on the energy density, weight and costs.
3. The available total energy in the batteries for vehicles is called the
battery capacity and the remaining amount of energy during use is
called the state of charge (SoC) and is expressed in percentage "charge"
remaining.
4 Electric cycles and low range mopeds have simple battery units while
electric cars deploy a large number of batteries.
B. Requirement of EVBatteries:
1 A stable voltage output over a good depth of discharge.
2 High energy capacity for the given battery weight and size.
3. High peak power output per unit mass and volume.
4. High energy efficiency.
5 Able to function with wide ranges of operating temperatures.
6 Good charge retention on open-circuit stand.
7 Ability to accept fast recharge.
8. Ability to withstand over charge and over discharge.
44D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
Que 4.4. Explain in detail lead-acid battery along with its

advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Lead-Acid Battery:
1. Lead-acid batteries are the oldest rechargeable batteries. Compared to
other batteries, lead-acid batteries are much heavier, but the price is
relatively cheap and safe.
2 It is called lead-acid battery because its active ingredients are the metal
lead and sulphuric acid.
3 The difference in voltage between the positive plate (lead peroxide) and
the negative plate (spongy lead) is 2.13 V
4 Lead peroxide and spongy lead are used in the automotive battery today
because no other materials have a greater voltage difference.
5 The reactions involved during charging and discharging ofbatteries are
shown below :
i Chemical reaction when discharging,
PbO, + 2H,S0, + Pb%’ PbSO, + 2H, + PbSO,
ii. Chemical reaction when charging,
PbO, + 2H,0 +PbSO, %’ PbS0,+ 2H,SO, +Pb
Battery
load
Electron flow
Acid goes Lead

peroxide
lead into plates
Sponge
Sponge lead Lead peroxide
changing to changing to
lead sulphate lead sulphate
Electrolyte
becomes
weaker
Fig. 4.4.1. Discharging of a lead-acid battery.

B. Advantages of Lead-Acid Batteries:
1 Reliable.
2 Robust.
3 Rapid recharge.
4 Can deliver very high currents.
5. Ability to hold charge over a period of not being used.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 45D (ME-Sem-7)
6
Indefinite shelf life if stored without electrolyte.
7 Wide range of
sizesand
C. Disadvantages of capacities available.
1
Heavy and bulky. Lead-Acid Batteries :
2 Very low
3. Danger ofspecific energy.
4 overheating during charging.
Not suitable for fast
5. Loss of charging.
voltage over discharge.
Que 4.5. Discuss in brief about nickel-cadmium battery along
with its advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Nickel-Cadmium Battery :
1 Lead acid batteries require a
considerable amount of servicing to keep
them in good condition, although this is not applicable with sealed and
maintenance free batteries.
Nickel
hydroxide Cadmium
Potassium hydroxide
Fig. 4.5.1. NiCd alkaline battery cell.
2. Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) batteries are
alkaline batteries with which electrical energy is derived from the
chemical reaction of a metal with oxygen in an alkaline electrolyte
medium.
3 Nickel-cadmium batteries are available for EVs
they may not be advisable due to cadmiumapplications, although
toxicity and nickel
carcinogenity. They do not have the same life span as the nickel-metal
hydride batteries.
4. The main components of the nickel-cadmium cellfor vehicle use are as
follows:
Positive plate - Nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH)
Negative plate -Cadmium (Cd)
iii. Electrolyte - Potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
5. The process of charging
water (H,0)
involves the oxygen moving from the negative
plate to the positive plate, and the reverse when
6. When fully charged, the discharging.
negative plate becomes pure cadmium and the
positive plate becomes nickel oxide hydroxide. Fig.4.5.1 shows a simplified
representation of a NiCd battery cell.
Energy Storage
4-6D (ME-Sem-7)
reaction is given below:
7. Asimplified chemical equation to represent this
2Ni0OH +Cd + 2H,0+KOH + 2Ni(OH), +CdO, + KOH
B. Advantages : lead-acid batteries.
1. Superior low-temperature performance compared to
2. Flat discharge voltage.
3. Long life.
4. Excellent reliability.
5. Low maintenance requirements.
C. Disadvantages :
1. High cost.
2. Toxicity contained in cadmium.
3 Developing insufficient power for EV and HEV applications.
Que 4.6.
Describe nickel-metal hydride battery along with its
Answer
A. Nickel-Metal Hydride (MHM) Battery :
reasons for the
1. The disadvantages of the NiCd batteries are the
development of NiMH batteries.
are also used
2 NiMH batteries are more widely used by HEVs, but
successfully in some BEV cars.
3 Nickel-metal hydride batteries have the advantages of high specific
batteries.
energy and long cycle life relative to lead-acid
4. An important feature of this battery is that they can be
fully charged
ambient
with very little impact on battery life. They operate at
temperature and do not require maintenance.
Nickel
Metal
hydroxide
hydride
Potassium hydroxide
Fig. 4.6.1. Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery.
5.
In NiMH batteries, the positive electrode is a nickel hydroxide similar to
that used in NiCd battery, while the negative electrode is a metal hydride
where hydrogen is stored.
6. The concept of NiMH batteries is based on the fact that fine particles of
certain metallic alloys, when exposed to hydrogen at certain pressures
and temperatures absorb large quantities of the gas to form the metal
7.
hydride compounds.
Furthermore, the metal hydrides are able to absorb and release hydrogen
many times without deterioration.
8 The two electrode chemical reactions in a
NiMH battery are:
At positive electrode,
:
Ni0OH+ H,0 + e Ni(OH), + OH
At the negative electrode,
MH, +0H MH, _ +H,0 +e
B. Advantages:
1 Charge up quickly.
2 High cycle stability.
3 20 % higher specific energy and power, and in
higher. volumetric terms 40 %
4. Longer life cycle than Li-ion and lead-acid batteries.
5. Safe and abuse tolerant.
C. Disadvantages :
1 Relatively high cost.
2 Higher self-discharge rate compared to NiCd.
3 Poor charge acceptance capability at elevated temperatures.
4 Low cell efficiency.
Que 4.7. Explain in detail lithium-ion battery along with its
'advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Lithium-ion Battery :
1 Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is now used primarily for electric vehicles,
as they are much lighter which provides a more fuel efficient vehicle.
2. This battery may already be familiar to us because it is also used in many
portable electronic equipment such as cell phones and laptops.
3. The main difference is a matter of scale. Its physical capacity and size on
electric cars is much greater - this is often referred to as a traction
battery pack.
4 Li-ion batteries have a very high power to weight ratio.
5. This battery also has a low self-discharge level, so the battery is better
than any other battery in maintaining its ability to hold its full charge.
6. The various reactions involved in this type of battery are as follows:
Charging Reactions :
Cathode reaction : LiCoO, ’ Li,_CoO, +xLit +xe
Anode reaction : C + xLit + xe ’ CLi,
Battery as a whole : LiCoO, +C’ Li,CoCO, +CLi,
ii. Discharging Reactions :
Cathode reaction : LiCoO, ’ Li,_CoO, +xLit + xe
Anode reaction : C +xLi' +xe’ CLi,
Battery as a whole : LiCoO, +C-’ Li, CoC0,+ CLi,
4-8D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
7 Li-ion cells, in their most common form, consist of a graphite anode, a
lithium metaloxide cathode and an electrolyte of a lithium salt and an
organic solvent.
8. In an automotive application a Li-ion battery consists of tens to thousands
of individual cells packaged together to provide the required voltage,
power and energy.
Carbon
Metal (cobalt,
Energy manganese Load
Source
nickel) oxide
Li (-)
Cathode Cathode
() Li
(+)
Anode (+)
Anode
Li
Li
Discharge
Separator Electrolyte (Lithium salt
in solvent)
Charge
Fig. 4.7.1. Lithium-ion battery.
B. Advantages :
1 Higher specific energy.
2 Higher specific power.
3 Low self-discharge.
4. Ofer phenomenal starting power and massive deep cycle reserve power.
5. Longer life span.
6 No harmful emissions.
7. Loss of voltage over discharge.
C. Disadvantages :
1 Generation of heat.
2. Higher initial cost.
PART-3
Fuel Cell Based Energy Storage and its Analysis.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.8. What is a fuel cell ? Describe its basic structure.
Answer
1. Afuel cell is an electrochemical device that
produces electricity by means
of a chemical reaction, much like a battery. The
major difference between
batteries and fuel cells is that the latter can produce electricity as long as
fuel is supplied,while batteries produce electricity from stored
energy and, hence, require frequent recharging. chemical
2 The basic structure of a fuel cell (Fig. 4.8.1) consists of an
cathode, similar to a battery. The fuel supplied to the cell anode and a
is hydrogen
and oxygen.
3 The concept of fuel cell is the opposite of electrolysis of water, where
hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form electricity and water.
4. The hydrogen fuel supplied to the fuel cell consists of two
atoms per molecule chemically bonded together in the formhydrogen
H,. This
molecule includes two separate nuclei, each containing one proton, while
sharing two electrons.
5. The fuel cell breaks apart these hydrogen molecules to
produce
electricity.
6 The hydrogen molecule breaks into four parts at the anode due to the
chemical reaction, releasing hydrogen ions and electrons.
Hydrogen e
Oxygen
e e (air)
H
H
Unreacted
Water
hydrogen
Fig.4.8.1. Basic fuel cell structure.
7 The flow ofelectrons from the anode to the cathode through the
external
circuit is what produces electricity. For the overall cell reaction to complete,
Oxygen or air must be passed over the cathode,
8 The chemical reaction taking place in a fuel cell are as follows:
Anode : H,’ 2H *+ 2e
Cathode: 2e- + 2H + (0,)’ H,0
2
1
Cell : H,+;0 H,0
4-10 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Storage
Que 4.9. What are the various types of fuel cell ? Explain in detail.
Answer
Various types of fuel cell are as follows:
i. Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC):
1. In an alkaline fuel cell (AFC), an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) is used as the electrolyte.
2. Alkaline fuel cells have been in actual use for a long time, delivering
electrical efficiencies of up to 60 %.
3. They require pure hydrogen as fuel and operate at low temperatures (at
80°C); therefore, they are suitable for vehicle applications.
4. Residual heat can be used for heating, but the cell temperature is not
sufficiently high to generate steam that can be used for cogeneration.
:ii. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell:
1. The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells use solid electrolytes
and operate at low temperatures (around 80 °C). Nafion is an example
of solid polymer electrolyte.
2 These fuel cells are also known as solid polymer membrane fuel cells.
3. The electrical efficiency of PEM fuel cells is lower than that of the
alkaline cells (about 40 %).
4 However, a rugged and simple construction makes these types of fuel
cells suitable for vehicle applications.
5. The advantage of PEM cells is that they can tolerate impurity in the fuel,
as compared to pure hydrogen which is needed in alkaline fuel cells.
iüi. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC):
1 The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is a result of research on using
methanol as the fuel that can be carried on-board avehicle and reformed
to supply hydrogen to the fuel cell.
2. A DMFC works on the same principle as the PEM, except that the
temperature is increased tothe range of 90to 120°C such that internal
reformation of methanol into hydrogen is possible.
3 The electrical efficiency of DMFC is quite low at about 30 %.
4 This type of fuel cellis still in the design stages, because the search for
a good electrocatalyst to reform the methanol efficiently and toreduce
Oxygen in the presence of methanol is ongoing.
iv. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC):
1 Phosphoric acid fuelcells (PAFC) are the oldest type with an origin that
extends back to the creation of the fuel cell concept.
2 The electrolyte used is phosphoric acid, and the cell operating
temperature is about 200 °C, which makes some cogeneration possible.
3 The electrical efficiency of this cell is reasonable at about 40 %.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 4-11D (ME-Semn-7)
4. These types of fuel cells are considered too bulky for transportation
applications, while higher efficiency designs exist for stationary
applications.
V. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC):
1. Molten carbonate fuel cells, originally developed to operate directly from
coal, operate at 600 °C and require C0 or CO² on the cathode side and
hydrogen on the anode.
2 The cells use carbonate as the electrolyte.
3 The electrical efficiency of these fuel cells is high at about 50 %, but the
excess heat can be used for cogeneration for improved efficiency.
4 The high temperatures required make these fuel cells not particularly
suitable for vehicular applications, but they can be used for stationary
power generation.
vi. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC):
1 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid ionic conductor as the electrolyte
rather than a solution or a polymer which reduces corrosion problems.
2 However, toachieve adequate ionic conductivity in such a ceramic, the
system must operate at very high temperatures.
3 This fuel cell has high electrical efficiency of 50 to 60 %, and residual
heat can also be used for cogeneration.
4. Although not a good choice for vehicle applications, it is at present the
best option for stationary power generation.
Que 4.10.Explain the process of fuel cell-based energy storage.

AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
1. The fuel cell can be used as an energy storage device by combining it
with a fuel generation device to create a Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC)
system.
2 RFCcan convert electrical energy to a storable fuel and then use this
fuel in a fuel cell reaction to provide electricity when needed.
3 Most common types of RFCsuses hydrogen as the energy storage medium
which is generated via electrolysis of water.
4. RFCsystem uses the H,0 cycle as the energy storage medium.
5. Water is decomposed electrolytically into hydrogen and oxygen.
6 The hydrogen is stored while the oxygen can either be stored or vented
to the ambient air.
7. When power is needed,the hydrogen is simply supplied to the fuel cell
and electrical power is produced.
8 Thisapproach ensures that the fuel cell always has a supply of pure, fuel
cellcompatible hydrogen, pressurized and ready for use.
9. The only inputs required are electrical power, makeup water and air for
reactant and cooling.
PART-4
Super Capacitor based Energy Storage and its Analysis.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.11. Define ultra capacitor (super capacitors). Mention its

Answer
A Ultra Capacitor :
1. Ultra capacitors also known as super capacitors or electrochemical
capacitors are different from batteries. Batteries store their energy
chemically where an ultra capacitor stores it physically.
Polarized Polarized
electrode +
electrode
Electrolyte
Fig. 4.11.1. Basic principle of ultra capacitors.
2 Acapacitor is a device for storing deemed energy in a dielectric place
between two conducting plates.
3. Small volume capacitors are used frequently in
circuits. Their capacity is directly proportionalnumerous types of electric
to the area of the
conducting plates.
4. Thus
iflarge-area capacitors used, they gain a
the capacity per unit weight is the same or high storage potential. If
battery it becomes possible to use it as an EVgreater than the secondary
battery.
5. Alternatively, using a material
in it would reduce the size of the
whose surface has numerous small holes
6 In an electric car,
capacitor.
an ultra capacitor can provide the power
acceleration while a battery provides range needed for
and recharges the ultra
capacitor between surges.
7. Ultra capacitors can be
charged and discharged much
batteries and are very suitable for storing the energy from faster than
braking, for climbing hills or sudden acceleration. regenerative
B. Advantages :
1. Can store 10 to 100 times
more energy per unit volume or unit mass
than standard electrolytic capacitors.
2. Can be charged and discharged more quickly than batteries.
3. Tolerate many more charge/discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries.
4. Able to provide large surges of power in short periods of time without
overheating.
5. Deliver many times more power for weight than Li-ion batteries.
6 They have efficiencies of up to 98 %.
7. Unlimited cycle life (over 1million cyles)
8 Tolerant of high temperatures.
C. Disadvantages :
1 Only about /10theenergy density of batteries (and thus are physically
larger for a given amount of energy).
2 Low maximum voltage.
3 Extremely high capital cost.
Que 4.12. Discuss principle and characteristics of ultra capacitors.
Answer
A Principle of Ultra Capacitors :
1 The double-layer capacitor technology is the major approach to achieve
the ultra capacitor concept.
2 When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, a double layeris formed
by the dipole orientation and alignment of electrolyte
the entire surface of the electrodes. molecules over
3. By adopting high-dielectric materials, short separation
distances and
large electrode surface areas, the capacitance can be greatly increased.
4. At the present status of ultra capacitor technology, the corresponding

electrode materials may be carbon/metal fibre composited, doped
conducting polymer films on carbon cloth or mixed metal oxide coatings
on metal foil, while the electrolyte materials may be aqueous/organic
solution or solid polymer.
B. Characteristics of Ultra Capacitors :
1 Capacitors have a number of great properties.
2. They store power as electrical charge rather than chemical energy. This
typically allows near instant charge times and very high peak output
currents.
3 They can survive hundreds of thousands of charge-discharge cycles,

rather than the hundreds of cycles for full-cycled batteries.
4
Ultra capacitors have little or no internal resistance (down to 0 to
12m2) allowing them to work at close to 100 %efficiency.
5. They have high power density.
PART-5
Flywheel Based Energy Storage and its Analysis.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.13. Analyse flywheel based energy storagesystem.

Answer
1. The flywheel is an energy storage device similar to a battery but instead
of storing the energy chemically, it is stored in kinetic form in a rotating
disc.
2 Typically, the rotor is accelerated by an electric motor (charging process)
and decelerated when the motor isswitched to generative operation
(discharging).
3
This flywheelenergy system composed of composite rotors spinning at
thousands of rpm on frictionless magnetic bearings, which can drive a
generator to provide power for EVs. Energy stored in flywheels increases
quadratically with rotational speed of the rotor.
4. Gyroscopic effect is avoided by having two adjoining wheels counter

rotating at identical speeds on a stationary shaft. Friction is reduced to
variable levels by suspending the wheels in vacuum.
5. The importance of energy storage with flywheel is to reduce the loss of
mechanical energy, namely the loss of kinetic energy that consists of air
friction resistance and rotary resistance.
Point of
common
coupling
Frequency
inverter
Controls
Containment
Motor
generator
Cooling
Flywheel-mass
Vacuumn
system Bearing
Fig. 4.13.1. Flywheel.
6. According to different means for the reduction of energy loss, flywheel
energy storage system (FESS) can be divided into low-speed flywheel
system and high-speed flywheel system.
7. The first reduces air friction by increasing the mass of flywheel while
the second is to reduce the air pressure of operating environment of
flywheel.
Que 4.14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of flywheel
based energy storage ?
Answer
A. Advantages :
1. High power density.
2 Long cycle life.
3 No degradation over time.
4. Easily estimated state-of-charge.

5. Highest energy storage density.
6. Shortest charging time.
7 Easiest maintenance.
8. No pollution.
B. Disadvantages :
1. Excessive high cost. Its cost is about 1.5 times that of ultra capacitor
and an about 6 - 7 times that of chemical batter.
Que 4.15. Compare battery, ultra capacitor and flywheel based

energy storage.
Answer
Battery Ultra Capacitor Flywheel
Storage mechanism Chemical Electric Mechanical
Life 3-5 years years > 20 years

Limited Limited Less limited
Temperature range
Large Middle Small
Relative mass
(Equivalent energy)
Months Days Hours
Time to hold a charge
PART-6
Hybridization of Different Energy Storage Devices.
Questions-Answers
Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
differentenergy
Que 4.16. What do you mean by hybridization of
storage devices?
Answer
1. The hybridization of energy storage is
to combine two or more energy
can be brought out
storages together so that the advantages of each one
others.
and the disadvantages can be compensated by
2 For instance, the hybridization of a chemical battery with an
ultracapacitor can overcome such problems as low specific power of
electrochemical batteries and low specific energy of ultra capacitors,
therefore achieving high specific energy and high specific power.
3 Basically, the hybridized energy storage consists of two basic energy
storages: one with high specificenergy and the other with high specific
power.
4. The basic operation of this system is illustrated in Figure 10.18. In high
power demand operations, such as acceleration and hill climbing, both
basic energy storages deliver their power to the load as shown in
Fig. 4.16.1(a).
High power demand

High specific Power Load
energy storage converter
High specific
power storage
(a)
Low power demand
High specific Power
converter Load
energy storage
High specific
power storage
(b)
Negative power
High specific Power
energy storage converter Load
Primary power flow

High specific
power storage Secondary power flow
(c)
Fig.4.16.1. Concept of a hybrid energy storage operation.

such as constant
5. On the other hand, in low power demand operation,
speed cruising operations,the high specificenergy storage willdeliver
its power to the load and charge the high specific power storage to
recover its charge lost during high power demand operation, as shown
in Fig. 4.16.1(b).
6 In regenerative braking operations, the peak power will be absorbed by
the high specific power storage, and only a limited part is absorbed by
the high specific energy storage.
7. In this way, the whole system would be much smaller in weight and size
than if any one of them alone was the energy storage.
PART-7
Sizing the Drive System : Matching the Electrical Machine and the Internal
Combustion Engine (1CE).
Questions-Answers
Que 4.17. Discuss about matching the electrical machine and the
internal combustion engine.
Answer
1. It is essential to size the vehicle power plan, to achieve required vehicle
mass, load and performance.
2 The traction of the vehicle propulsion system is determined by the vehicle
design mass and acceleration performance by Newton's law, F= ma.
3 The most commonly used matching elements in hybrid electric passenger
vehicle is the planetary gear set (or) epicyclic gear set.
4 In compact vehicles, continuously variable transmission (CVT s) of the
compression belt and toroidal variator variety are becoming popular
because of the presence of seamless transitions in ratio.
5 The representational diagram of epicyclic gear is shown in Fig. 4.17.1.
6. Speed summing device is used as three port mechanical component in
epicyclic gear set. Majority of designs of epicyclic gear set depends on a
dual input and single output where internal combustion engine (ICE) is
one input source and the other input source originates from the
motor-generator (M/G) set.
electric
Fig. 4.17.1.
7. The governing equation for epicyclic gear based on basic ratio and gear
tooth number is given as,
N, +KN,-(K+1)N=0
Where, N,, Ng, NÍ are number of teeth of the ring, the sun gear and
carrier, and
K=RinJR
ing where R is the radius of ring and sun gears.
PART-8
Sizing the Propulsion Motor.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.18. Describe about sizing of electric motor.
Answer
1. An electric machine is at the core of hybrid propulsion regardless of
whether or not the vehicle is gasoline electric, diesel electric or fuel cell
electric.
2.
Propulsion is via an ACdrive system consisting of an energy storage
unit, a power processor, the M/G and vehicle driveline and wheels.
3. Fig. 4.18.1 is a schematic of the hybrid propulsion system in a

multi-converter architecture.
4. The system in Fig. 4.18.1 can be upgraded by the addition of an interface
converter (e.g., booster) to the ultra capacitor bank for maximum
performance when non-alkaline electrolyte storage batteries are used.
5. For example, a lead acid battery system benefits the most from a converter
interface to an ultra capacitor bank. In that case the total energy storage
system weight and cost are minimised.
Wheels
ICE
O0OwGoH Trans. FD
Batt.
Ultra
cap.
Fig. 4.18.1. Hybrid vehicle drivetrain.
6. The motor-generator, M/G, is sized as follows : maximum input speed at
transmission is restricted to < 12000 rpm from the engine side by the
rev-limiter function in the electronic engine controller and on the
transmission side by the proper gear selection.
PART-9
Sizing the Power Electronics.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.19. Explain sizing of power electronics.
Answer
1. All of the electrical power directed to the hybrid propvlsion M/G must
pass through the power electronics.
2 It has been said that control electronics uses power to process
information and that power electronics uses information to process
power.
3 In this section we describe how power electronics is sized to
match the
electric machine to the vehicle energy storage system, via
processed by the control electronics. information
4. Fig. 4.19.1 is a schematic for the hybrid propulsion
system AC drive
system consisting of on board energy storage, power processing
to control algorithms, and traction actuation via the M/G according
driveline. and vehicle
Power electronics
W
R
v,,
V,T
Transmission
T
Control electronics
Driveline
Cmds
controller, common
gate drives, power
supply
Fig. 4.19.1. Schematic of hybrid AC drive system.

5 The essentials of AC drive system operation are that power from a DC
source such as a fuel cell, battery or ultra-capacitor is converted to
variable voltage, variable frequency AC power at the M/G terminals, V
and I,.
6. The M/G then convert this electrical power to mechanical power in the
form of torque and speed at the transmission input shaft, T and o.
7. The power electronics is an electrical matching element is in same
manner that a gearbox processes mechanical power to match the engine
to the road load requirements. The power inverter matches the DC
source to the mechanical system regardless of torque or speed level,
provided these quantities are within its capability.
PART-10
Selecting the Energy Storage Technology, Communication,
Supporting Subsystems.
Questions-Answers
Energy Storage
4-22 D (ME-Sem-7)
selectingthe energy
Que 4.20. What are various considerations in
storage system ?
Answer
upon certain
The selection of energy storage system depends
considerations as mentioned below:
1. Initial and operating costs.

2. Safety and reliability.
Charging efficiency and also discharge profile.
4 Service life.
5 High energy storage capability.
6. Physical requirements such as size, weight and shape.
7. Duty cycle whether continuous (or) intermittent.
constant resistance
8 Current - voltage relations such as constant current,
and constant power.
9 Normal voltage during discharge.
discharge.
10. Maximum permissible voltage at the start of battery
properly.
11. End voltage that is, voltage at which battery stops functioning
in hybrid
Que 4.21. Write short note on communication network
propulsion.
Answer
elements in
1. Communication infrastructure is one of the fundamental
vehicle (EV)
realizing the real-time monitoring and control of electric
charging.
levels: device level.
2. A communication network consists of three
communication network level, and application level. The device level
comprises EVs, charging stations, electric power connections and
meters.
3 The communication network is responsible for data exchange between

different entities. The application level is responsible for the
management and control of EVs' charging.
4
The controller area network (CAN) is another type of serial
communications protocol that was developed within the automotive
industry to allowa number of electronic units on a single vehicle to
share essential control data.
5. A vehicle nowadays uses many microcontrollers for autonomous

control systems.
6 In the OSI7 layer model shown in Fig. 4.21.1 the network architecture
is defined as.
Computer : Node A Computer :Node B
7 Application 7 Application
6 Presentation 6 Presentation
5 Session 5 Session
4 Transport 4 Transport
3 Network 3 Network
2 Data link 2 Data link
1Physical 1Physical
Communication channel
Fig. 4.21.1.
Que 4.22. Discuss in brief about supporting subsystems in hybrid
vehicles.
Answer
1 Hybrid vehicles needs supporting subsystems like electrically assisted
steering, braking and climate control systems.
2. To make sure that steering boost is accessible even when the
OFF, the vehicle steering system must be fully electric orengine
is
at least
electric over hydraulic and likewise for brakes as the engine vacuum is
not accessible during OFF mode.
3. Cabin climate control is also one of the most
subsystems in hybrid vehicles.
important supporting
4. Let us elaborate these three supporting subsystems as follows :
A. Steering Systems :
1. As it is
generally known that, the vehicle
load ranges between 8 kN to 12 KN, a lowsteering mechanism rack
voltage DC brush motor
electric assist is in sufficient for boosting the
mechanism. performance of steering
2 So to boost the steering performance, a 42 V power net vehicle power

supply is required. For voltages above 60 V, high voltage cabling with
orange colour insulation is required.
B. Braking System :
1. Ahybrid vehicle does not need electric assist either electrohydraulic
(or) electromechanical brake gear.
2. The operation of the vehicle can be continued in hybrid mode with
conventional foundation brakes but the recovery of energy will drop
considerably.
3 So to achieve optimal energy recovery electro hydraulic brakes are
required. These also ensure vehicles stability.
C. Cabin Climate Control System:
1. A climate control system is a complex system that requires routine
maintenance for incre ased seasonal performance and operation.
2. Avehicle's climate control system is comprised of multiple, smaller
systems that work together to maintain a comfortable cabin
environment.
3. The climate control system is able to affect and regulate the internal
temperature of a vehicle through a cycle of processes.
5
UNIT
Energy Management
Strategies
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Energy 5-2D to 5-3D
Management Strategies Used
in Hybrid and Electric Vehicle
Part-2 : Classification of Different. e.*....***.... 5-4D to 5-7D

Energy Management Strategies
Part-3 : Comparison of Different Energy 5-8D to 5-9D
Management Strategies
Part-4 : Implementation Issues of.. .... 5-10D to 5-10D
5-1 D (ME-Sem-7)
5-2 D (ME-Sem-7)
PART-1
Introduction to Energy Management Strategies
Used in Hybrid and Electric Vehicle.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. Discuss in brief energy management system used in

hybrid and electric vehicles.
Answer
1 The brain of electric vehicles is the energy management system (EMS)
that monitors and controls all required functions.
2 The EMS (shown in Fig. 5.1.1) is a computer based system that optimises
charging and energy output of batteries to maximise operating range
and improve performance.
3 The system predicts available range for a given state of battery charge.
The EMS also maintains an electronic log of the vehicle performance,
enables service personnel to run diagnostic checks on the car to give
service information about the car.
4. Compared with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), EVs offer
a relatively short driving range.
5 Thus, in order to maximize the utilization of on-boardstored energy,an
intelligent energy management system (EMS) need to be adopted.
6 The EMS performs the following functions :
1. Optimize the system energy flow.
ii Predict the remaining available energy and hence the residual driving
range.
iü. Suggest more efficient driving behaviour.
iv. Modulate temperature control in response to external climate.
V. Adjust lighting brightness in response to external environment.
vi. Propose a suitable battery charging algorithm.
vi. Diagnose any incorrect operation or defective components of the energy
Source.
Hybrid Vehicle Propulsion 53 D (ME-Sem-7)
Vehicle diagnostics Instrument panel Vehicle controls
EMS
Motor Motor Battery DCto 12 Volt

controller charger DC system
Contractors
Sensors
Battery pack
Fig. 5.1.1. Energy management system.
Que 5.2. Draw flow chart of energy management strategies.

Answer
Organise
management Annual reviews
resources
Appoint an Report and review

energy manager results regularly
Feedback
Prepare an Implement
energy policy actions
Set up an energy Prepare a plan of

monitoring and action based on
reporting system audit's findings
Implement a staff Conduct an

awareness and
energy audit
training program
Fig. 5.2.1. Flow chart of an energy management strategy.
54 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Management Strategies
PART-2
Classification of Different Energy Management Strategies.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.3. What are the different energy management strategies

used in hybrid and electric vehicles ? AKTU2021-22, Marks 10
Answer
Different energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric
vehicle are as follows :
A Rule Based: The rule based strategies consist offollowing sub categories:
i. Fuzzy Based : The fuzzy based control strategies are of three types:
1 Predictive,
2 Adaptive, and
3 Conventional.
i. Deterministic Control: The deterministic controllers are sub divided
into :
1 State machine,
2 Power follower, and
3 Thermostat control.
B. Optimization Based:The optimization based strategies are offolowing
types:
i. GlobalOptimization: The global optimization methods are:
1. Linear programming methods,
2. Dynamic programming,
3. Stochastic dynamic programming, and
4 Genetic algorithms.
i. Real Time Optimization: The real time optimization techniques are
of following types :
1 EFC minimization,
2. Robust control, and
3 Modelpredictive.
Que 5.4. Discuss in brief rule based (RB) methods used in hybrid
and electric vehicles.
Answer
1 RB methods are based on a set of predefined rules to
control the system.
They use upper and lower set points to control processes within given
boundaries and are used mostly in HVACsub systems for temperature
control.
2 Modulation capability is limited as the control can be either one or zero,
and therefore performed actions can be as simple as turning a thermostat
or switch on or off.
3. Operation requires human made rules and thresholds that define the
source of data and how to manipulate that information.
4. These rules should outline unequivocally the triggers and the action
that should follow, and usually come in the form ofIF/THEN sentences,
for example,"IF this event occurs, THEN perform this action."
5 A careful design of the control rules is therefore essential, which is not
always granted. Furthermore, RB methods have no learning capability,
meaning that more complicated systenms would require more complex
rules with higher maintenance/update costs.
6 RB depends on the operator knowledge and applies its rules to reduce
the energy and operating cost, such as appropriate start/stop time of
HVAC, night set-back, precooling, and preheating et.
7 This alone can provide significant savings when applied correctly;
however, the operator has toconstantly monitor and adjust the HVAC
operation tomeet the objectives of reducing energy consumption while
maintaining thermal comfort.
Que 5.5. Describe in brief model based optimization strategies
used in hybrid and electric vehicles.
Answer
1 Model based control elements show promise in simulation and in theory,
these generally worsened or had no effect on tracking performance in
our experiment.
2 However, in exploratory tests we found that the best performance was
obtained by driving model based contributions to zero.
3 One reason for the ineffectiveness of model based compensation may
have been the non-linear stiffness ofthe Bowden cable, which we modeled
as a linear spring, and slow changes in cable stiffness and length due to
heating over the course of each trial.
4. Another reason may have been the exclusion of friction and stiction.
5-6D (ME-Sem-7)
5 Sensitivity to model errors seems to be a fundamental issue in
implementing this type of inverse-model control in devices with Bowden
cable transmissions.
6. The passivity based controller (PAS) fared slightly better,
to its adaptive nature, but still did not yield perhaps due
substantial benefits.
factor that may have limited its effectiveness is input mismatch. One
Que 5.6. Discuss basic principle of rule based control methods.
Answer
1 Rule based control strategies can cope with the various
of HEV. operating modes
2 The rule-based strategies arc developed using
intuition,analysis of the ICE efficiency charts engineering
shown
insight and
in Fig. 5.6.1 and
the analysis of electrical component efficiency charts.
Maximum engine torque

Torque D C
0.60
Do
0.70
0.80 - BSFC
rpm
Fig. 5.6.1. Efficiency map of ICE.
3 An example of developing rule-based strategy can be

the ICE efficiency map shown in Fig. 5.6.2. explained using
4. The lines, which are drawn using engineering
divide the map into three regions : A, B, and C.
insight and intuition,
5. The rules for operation ofICE in these three
regions are:
i In the region A, only EM is used
of the ICE is poor. because in this region the fuel efficiency
In region B, only ICE is used since this the
region of high fuel efficiency.
ii. In region C, both ICE and EM are used.
Maximum engine torque
Torque
MOor and engine
Gas epgine 0.4o0
ghly/
0.45
0.50 0.60
0.70 B
Electric motor 0.80=BSFC
only BSFC=0.80
Upper boundary
A for electric motor
rpm
Fig. 5.6.2. Efficiency map of ICE showing upper

and lower boundaries for EM operation.
Que 5.7. Discuss deterministic role based strategies.

Answer
1 Based on analysis of power flow in HEV drive train, ICE efficiency map
and human experiences are utilized to design deterministic rules.
2 These rules are generally implemented using lookup tables to split
requested power between the ICE and EM.
3. The most commonly used strategies are :
Thermostat (on off) control
i Power follower control
ii. Modified power follower
iv. State machine based controller
4 Power follower control in this strategy the ICE is the primary source of
power and the EM is used to provide additional power when needed by
the vehicle.
5. The rule base that is generally used is:
L. Below a certain minimum vehicle speed, only the EM is used.
If the demanded power is greater than the maximum power that the
ICE can produce at itsoperating speed, the EM is used to produce excess
power.
iüü. The EM charges the batteries by regenerative braking.
6 This is a very simple and effective strategy but the major disadvantage
is that the efficiency of the entire drive train is not optimized.
5-8 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Management Strategies
PART-3
Comparison of DiferentEnergy Management Strategies.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.8. Compare rules based control strategy and optimization

based control strategy.
OR
Compare different HEV control strategies.
Answer
S. No. Rule Based Optimization Rule Based

Control Strategy Control Strategy
1 It can be directly used for real It cannot be used directly for real
time implementation. time implementation.
2 It is easy to implement. It is complex to implement.
3 It is used widelyindevelopment It is least preferred strategy at
of energy management present due to its complexity.
strategies.
4. It is not easy to maintain It ensures real time control
optimal control of fuel economy capability.
and emissions.
5. It can be further divided into It can be further divided into global

deterministic rule basedcontrol optimization control strategy and
strategy and fuzzy logic rule instant aneous optimization
based. control strategy.
6. Enormous dependence on Depends upon high computing and
human. storage capacity of controller
system.
7. This control strategy onlyThis concentrates on economy,
concentrates on fuel economy. emission, battery life and driving
style.
Que 5.9. Discuss about optimal control problem and problem

formulation in hybrid and electric vehicles.
Answer
A. Optimal Control Problem :
1. The core of the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) control problem is the
instant management of the power flow from energy converter toobtain
the control objectives.
2 One significant feature of optimal control problem is that the control
objectives are generally integral in nature or semi-local in time.
3 For instance, drivability and the control actions are local in time.
4 Moreover, the control objectives frequently subjects to integral constraint
like maintaining the battery state of charge (SOC) inside a predetermined
range.
5 Generally, the energy management problem in a hybrid vehicle can be
driven into an optimization problem beyond a finite time horizon, whose
solution is established by optimal control theory methods which focuses
on determining a control law for a given system so that a definite optimally
criterion generally an integral performance index over a certain time
frame is obtained.
B. Problem Formulation:
1 Problem formulation deals with development of supervisory control
problem where the total mass of fuel, m, lg] is reduced under a driving
mission.
2 The optical energy management problem in a hybrid electric vehicle
comprises of finding the control u(t) which results in reducing the fuel
consumed, 'm<over atrip of length t, which starts at t, =0. This is similar
toreducing the integral performance index f.
Where, J= [m, (ut), )dt

m, = Mass flow rate of the fuel wheel
3. The minimization ofJ is accustomed to the constraints related to
physical
limitations of the actuators, limitation in the energy stored in RESS and
the need to maintain the battery state of charge (SOC) within
predetermined limits.
4. This makes the optimal energy management problem a
finite time optimal control problem where the objectiveconstrained,
reduced following a set of both local and global constraints onfunction is
the state
and control variables.
5-10 D (ME-Sem-7) Energy Management Strategies
PART-4
Implementation Issues of Energy Management Strategies.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.10.Compare different energy management strategies and

write implementation issues of energy management strategies.
Answer
A. Comparison: Refer Q. 5.8, Page 5-8D, Unit-5.
B. Implement Issues of Energy Management Strategies:
1. The energy management matrix.
2 Developing a strategic approach.
3 Organisation's energy policy.
4 Taking responsibility for energy management.
5 Motivating staff to save energy.
6 Monitoring energy use.
7. Lack of documented standardslenforcement.
8 System overrides.
9. Sensor location.
10. Nuisance alarms.

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UNIT

Part-2: Social and Environmental 1-4D to 1-7D

Part-3 : Impact of Modern Trains 1-7D to 1-7D

Part-4 : Conventional Vehicles :......... 1-8D to 1-10D

Part-5 : Vehicle Power Source 1-10D to 1-12D

Part-7 : Mathematical Models to 1-18D to 1-18D

Que 1.1. Define electric vehicle along with its layout.

Fig, 1.1.1. Layout of an electric vehicle.

Social and Environmental Importance of Hybrid and Electric

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que l.4. Explain social and environmental importance of hybrid

Que 1.7. Explain impact of modern drive trains on energy

Conventional Vehicles : Basics of Vehicle Performance.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.8. Write short note on conventional vehicles.

Que 1.9. What do you understand by vehicle performance ?

angle, the mileage in acertain condition and the hydrogen consumption

Que 1.10. Enumerate vehicle performance parameters ? Explain

Thus i= (T,ii,n,/r,) - M,sf, - (1/2) p,CpA,V² -d -f,

Vehicle Power Source Characterization.

Que 1.11. Explain in detail about power plant

60 Power J180 (gkWh)

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. Explain the transmission characteristics of avehicle.

Fig. 1.12.3. Schematic view of a torque converter.

Fig. 1.13.1. Forces acting on a vehicle.

5 The resistance usually includes tire rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag,

Que 1.14.Explain in detail about grading resistance and rolling

Fig. 1.14.1. Automobile climbing a grade.

i= tan a x sin a ..(1.14.2)

Moving direction Moving direction

Que 1.15. Explain about mathematical vehicle system modelling

Part-5 : Introduction to Various 2-17D to 2-19D

Hybrid Electric Drive Trains : Basic Concept of Hybrid Traction.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Discuss the basic concept of hybrid traction.

Que 2.2. Discuss concept of hybrid electric drive trains.

Power train (1)

Power flow while propelling

Que 2.3. What do you understand by micro hybrid

Fig. 2.3.1. Block diagram of a micro hybrid.

Fig. 2.4.1. Block diagram of a series mild hybrid.

Fig. 2.5.1. Block diagram of a full bybrid.

Introduction to Various Hybrid Drive Train Topologies.

Series hybrid Parallel hybrid

Gen Trans Trans

Power Electric Power Electric

Series-parallel hybrid Complex hybrid

Gen Trans Electric Electric Trans

Fig. 2.6.1. Classification of hybrid electrie vehicles.

Que 2.7. Deseribe series hybrid topology along with its

CEngine Generator Transm ission Differential

Front wheels Rear wheels

Generator Battery Motor Wheel

Fig. 2.7.1. Series hybrid.

CEngine H= Propeller shaft

Que 2.9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of series

C. Advantages of Parallel Hybrid Configuration :

Que 2.10. Describe split-power hybrid along with its advantage

Que 2.11. Explain control strategies of series hybrid drive train

Que 2.13. Explain control strategies of split power hybrid

(a) Mode l, normal driving or acceleration (b) Mode 2, light load

(c) Mode 3, braking or deceleration (d) Mode 4, vehicle at stop