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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
1 An Introduction to Magnetic Nanoparticles
1.1 Magnetism of Nanoparticles: From Bulk to Nanoscale
1.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles as a New Tool for Biomedical
Applications
1.3 Conclusion
References
Part I: Current Biomedical Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles
2 Magnetic Nanoparticles in Nanomedicine
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biomedical Applications
2.3 Conclusions and Final Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
3 Clustering of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Nanomedicine
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Clustering Theory
3.3 Clustering Methods
3.4 Theranostic Relevant Examples
3.5 Conclusion and General Remarks
References
4 Multifunctional Bioactive Magnetic Scaffolds with Tailored
Features for Bone Tissue Engineering
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering: An Overview
4.3 Surface Presentation
4.4 Bioactive Magnetic Scaffolds
4.5 Conclusions and Final Remarks
References
5 Magnetic Nanoparticles in the Development of Polymer
Scaffolds for Medical Applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Production Methods for Scaffolds and Hydrogels
Based on Polymer Nanocomposites Filled
5.3 Applications of Scaffolds Filled with MNPs
5.4 Conclusion
References
6 Magnetic Polymer Colloids for Ultrasensitive Molecular
Imaging
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Molecular Imaging
6.3 Development of MRI as a Tool for Ultrasensitive
Molecular Imaging
6.4 Conclusion and Final Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
7 Iron oxide Nanoparticles in Anticancer Drug Delivery and
Imaging Diagnostics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SPIONs – Anticancer Drug Delivery
7.3 SPIONs in Imaging Techniques for Biomedical
Applications
7.4 Conclusion
References
8 Functional Addressable Magnetic Domains and Their
Potential Applications in Theranostics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Magnetite: The Addressable Compass
8.3 Magnetite Magnetic Moments
8.4 Magnetic Domains and Superparamagnetism in
Magnetite Nanoparticles (MNPs)
8.5 SPIONs Synthesis
8.6 MNPs Functionalization
8.7 Theranostics: Concepts and Possibilities
8.8 Conclusion
References
9 Nuclear/MR Magnetic Nanoparticle‐based Probes for
Multimodal Biomedical Imaging
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Overview of Imaging Techniques
9.3 SPECT/PET/MRI Tracers
References
Part II: Magnetic Nanoparticles in Alternative Cancer Therapy
10 Magnetic Nanoparticles Hyperthermia
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Synthesis Methods
10.3 In Vitro/In Vivo and Preclinical MNH Research
10.4 State‐of‐the‐Art of MNH
10.5 Conclusion
References
11 Drug Delivery and Magnetic Hyperthermia Based on
Surface Engineering of Magnetic Nanoparticles
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Magnetic Properties of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
11.3 Surface Engineering of MNP
11.4 Surface Engineering of MNP in Magnetic Properties
and Colloidal Stability
11.5 Surface Engineering of MNP in Drug Delivery and
Magnetic Hyperthermia
11.6 MNP Surface Engineering for Drug Delivery:
Hydrophobic Medicines
11.7 Conclusion and Outlook
References
12 Improving Magneto‐thermal Energy Conversion Efficiency
of Magnetic Fluids Through External DC Magnetic Field
Induced Orientational Ordering
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Linear Response Model for RFAMF‐Induced Heating
of Magnetic Nanofluids
12.3 Effect of Medium Viscosity on RFAMF Induced
Heating Efficiency
12.4 External DC Magnetic Field‐Induced Orientational
Ordering
12.5 Experimental Determination of RFAMF‐Induced
Heating Efficiency
12.6 Enhancement of Heating Efficiency upon
Orientational Ordering
References
13 Classical Magnetoliposomes vs. Current
Magnetocyclodextrins with Ferrimagnetic Nanoparticles for
High Efficiency and Low Toxicity in Noninvasive Alternative
Therapy of Cancer by Magnetic/Superparamagnetic
Hyperthermia
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Basic Physical Aspects That Lead to the Heating of
MNPs
13.3 MNPs – Liposomes/ CDs as High Potential in Cancer
Therapy by Magnetic/Superparamagnetic Hyperthermia
13.4 Specific Absorption Rate in SPMHT Using MLPs and
MCDs
13.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 Efficiency of Energy Dissipation in Nanomagnets: A
Theoretical Study of AC Susceptibility
14.1 Introduction
14.2 General Formalism: The SAR in Terms of the
Dynamic Susceptibility
14.3 Linear and Nonlinear Susceptibility: Study of Two
System Examples
14.4 Conclusion
References
15 Magnetic Nanoparticle Relaxation in Biomedical
Application: Focus on Simulating Nanoparticle Heating
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Theory of Magnetic Particle Heating
15.3 Predicting the Magnetic Particle Heating
15.4 Conclusion
Appendix
Acknowledgments
References
16 Magnetic Nanoparticles in Alternative Tumors Therapy:
Biocompatibility, Toxicity, and Safety Compared with Classical
Methods
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Biocompatibility, Toxicity, and Safety of Magnetic
Nanoparticles for Alternative Cancer Therapy
16.3 Conclusion
References
17 The Size, Shape, and Composition Design of Iron Oxide
Nanoparticles to Combine, MRI, Magnetic Hyperthermia, and
Photothermia
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Structure, Magnetic Properties and Synthesis
Methods of Iron Oxide NPs
17.3 Iron Oxide as Contrast Agent for MRI
17.4 Magnetic Hyperthermia with Iron Oxide NPs
17.5 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Used for Photothermal
Treatment
References
18 Magnetic/Superparamagnetic Hyperthermia in Clinical
Trials for Noninvasive Alternative Cancer Therapy
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Magnetic/Superparamagnetic Hyperthermia in
Clinical Trials
18.3 Increase Efficacy of MHT/SPMHT in Cancer
Treatment by Using Dual‐Therapy
18.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Magnetic susceptibility values for different bulk
magnetic materi...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Examples of the MNPs clinically approved or in the
phase of clini...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 An overview of various biomaterials for tissue
engineering applic...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 SPIONs theranostics contributions.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Characteristics of preclinical imaging techniques
with biomedical ...
Table 9.2 Physicochemical characteristics of SPECT and PET
emitters.
Table 9.3 Most commonly used SPECT/PET emitters for
Nuclear/MR or multimodal...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Magnetic nanoparticles with potential use in
hyperthermia and rel...
Table 10.2 Synthesis methods of magnetic nanoparticles and
alloys.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Summary of important applications of MNP in drug
delivery and mag...
Table 11.2 Biopharmaceutical classification system (BCS).
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Reduction in RFAMF‐induced heating efficiency
with increasing med...
Table 12.2 Essential magneto‐structural properties of the
phosphate and TMAO...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Magnetization and magnetic behavior of
nanoparticles according to...
Table 13.2 Classification of the lipid‐based liposome‐like
vesicles and thei...
Table 13.3 Classification of nonlipid‐based liposome‐like
vesicles and their...
Table 13.4 Benefits and limitations in cyclodextrin use as
pharmaceutical in...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Standard parameters used for the simulation of
SLP values for LR...
Table 15.2 Comparison of SLP dependencies from theories
(LRT and SWMBT) and...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Summary ofin vitro studies performed in recent
years highlightin...
Table 16.2In vivo toxicity results of SPIONs.
Table 16.3 Some of the commercialized SPIONs which are
used for different d...
Table 16.4 Cytotoxicity of Fe3O4 nanoparticles in different cell
lines.
Table 16.5 Representative magnetic nanoparticles for
magnetic nanoparticle‐...
Table 16.6 The distribution of MNPs in organs and tissues,
depending on the...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Size and shape control of the most reported
synthesis methods of...
Table 17.2 Some published values are reported in size,
composition, and sha...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Summary of clinical trials on MHT using magnetic
nanoparticles.
Table 18.2 Nanoparticle constructs utilized for magnetic
hyperthermia thera...
Table 18.3 Summary of recent studies on magnetic fluid
hyperthermia therapy...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 (a) Schematic field dependencies of magnetization
of (I) diamagne...
Figure 1.2 Fe3O4 bulk unit cell (inverse spinel structure).
Figure 1.3 (a) Representation of the magnetization vectors (
) and elementar...
Figure 1.4 Magnetic structures of nanoparticles: multidomain
nanoparticles w...
Figure 1.5 Multidomain magnetic nanoparticles with (a)
uniform magnetization...
Figure 1.6 (a) Relative saturation magnetization of iron,
cobalt, and nickel...
Figure 1.7 (a) Specific saturation magnetization as a function
of the mean d...
Figure 1.8 (a) The crystallographic systems for Ni‐single
crystal.(b) Ro...
Figure 1.9 The crystallographic systems for Co‐single crystal.
Figure 1.10 The crystal approximated by an ellipsoid (general
case).
Figure 1.11 The orientation of spontaneous magnetization
relative to norma...
Figure 1.12 (a) Schematic view of the general spin canting
geometry (the cor...
Figure 1.13 (a) Schematic drawing of a core‐shell structure
and (b) transmis...
Figure 1.14 (a) Typical hysteresis loop for ferromagnetic
materials.(b) ...
Figure 1.15 (a) M versus H for
(Zn0.15Ni0.85Fe2O4)0.15/(SiO2)0.85 sample....
Figure 1.16 (a) M versus H in low fields and (b) M versus 1/H
in high fields...
Figure 1.17 Nanoparticle energy as a function of ψ and φ
angles fo...
Figure 1.18 Illustration of the two components of the
magnetic relaxation of...
Figure 1.19 Schematic diagram of a single‐core magnetic
nanoparticle. Note t...
Figure 1.20 SLP for γ‐Fe2O3 nanoparticles.
Figure 1.21 Different applications of magnetic NPs.
Figure 1.22 A representation of the application of core and
shell of magneti...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Example of a NMRD profile for a colloidal
suspension of SPIONs sh...
Figure 2.2 (a) CT lymphography demonstrated a sentinel node
(arrow). (b) The...
Figure 2.3 (a) CT lymphography demonstrated a sentinel node
(arrow). (b) The...
Figure 2.4 MPI‐CT imaging of intravenously injected hMSCs,
Resovist, and sal...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Interactions between magnetic nanoparticles. (a)
Schematic illust...
Figure 3.2 Electrostatic stabilization of the nanoparticles by
(a) Derjaguin...
Figure Scheme 3.1 Schematic illustration of magnetic
nanoparticles clusterin...
Figure 3.3 Schematic illustration of the nanoclusters prepared
by encapsulat...
Figure 3.4 Schematic illustration of magnetic nanoclusters
armed with PD‐1 a...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Stimulus–responsive membrane triggering in vitro
of the proposed ...
Figure 4.2 Schematic representation of magnet‐scaffold
configurations: (a) e...
Figure 4.3 Effect of time‐dependent magnetic field on PCL and
PCL/Fe3O4 subs...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Number of published papers in the last decade,
according to the W...
Figure 5.2 Flowchart representing the main stages of
production, scaffolding...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Effect of external magnetic field on hydrogen nuclei
associated w...
Figure 6.2 Vector diagram of the precessing hydrogen nucleus.
At any given i...
Figure 6.3 Components of a typical clinical MRI machine. The
MRI machine con...
Figure 6.4 Effect of RF pulse on longitudinal and transverse
magnetization. ...
Figure 6.5 Longitudinal and transverse relaxation.
Figure 6.6 Basic concepts of electrostatic layer‐by‐layer self‐
assembly. In ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Schematic view for the targeting mechanisms.
Figure 7.2 Schematic view for MTD delivery.
Figure 7.3 MRI imaging diagnostics mechanism.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Magnetite magnetic moments from double
exchange Fe3+/Fe2+ in octa...
Figure 8.2 SPIONs as function of particle size features: SPIONs
show near ze...
Figure 8.3 Uniaxial anisotropy and SMDs orientation by
magnetic field. SPION...
Figure 8.4 Theranostics: hyperthermia + MRI + drug delivery.
Figure 8.5 Hyperthermia induction: SPIONs interactions and
energy transforma...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic representation of a SPECT detector (left
panel) and a P...
Figure 9.2 Surface radiolabeling approaches with metallic
radioisotopes and ...
Figure 9.3 (a) FeHA NPs imaged on a MRI system (top panel)
and on a scintigr...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Formation of NPs by reverse micelle.
Figure 10.2 Medical applications of MNPs.
Figure 10.3 Magnetic particles use as a diagnostic and
therapeutic tool.
Figure 10.4 A representation showing how drugs are
magnetically transported ...
Figure 10.5 AMF generator.
Figure 10.6 Mechanism of local MNH. The heat sources –
ultrasound, microwave...
Figure 10.7 Coercitivity size relations in ferromagnetic and
superparamagnet...
Figure 10.8 Heating mechanisms in response to an AMF.
Figure 10.9 How superparamagnetic and ferromagnetic NPs
behave when subjecte...
Figure 10.10 Synthesis procedure of nanoparticles synthesis
from plants.
Figure 10.11 Flow reactor system in hydrothermal synthesis.
Figure 10.12 Coating and functionalization in magnetic
nanoparticles.
Figure 10.13 Synthetic outline for functional iron
nanoparticles: from synth...
Figure 10.14 MFH process.
Figure 10.15 Active vs. passive targeting of tumors.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Scheme of Néel relaxation for particles below 15
nm and consider...
Figure 11.2 Brown relaxation scheme for particles below 15
nm and considered...
Figure 11.3 Typical morphologies of magnetic composite
nanomaterials. Brown ...
Figure 11.4 Bioluminescence imaging of intracellular
implanted U87 cells in ...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Schematic diagram showing the Brezovich’s limit.
The physiologic...
Figure 12.2 (a) Temperature variations, as a function of time,
for the magne...
Figure 12.3 (a) Variations of SAR, as a function of MNP size,
for six differ...
Figure 12.4 (a) Typical AFM topography image (16 μm×25
μm) for TMAOH coated ...
Figure 12.5 (a) Variation of anisotropy energy barrier (Eaniso),
as a functi...
Figure 12.6 Typical schematic diagram of the experimental
set‐up utilized fo...
Figure 12.7 Typical time‐temperature curves for the TMAOH
coated Fe3O4 MNPs ...
Figure 12.8 Bar charts comparing the SAR values of the
random and oriented s...
Figure 12.9 (a) Simulated dynamic hysteresis loops (at 126
kHz) for the phos...
Figure 12.10 Bar chart comparing the SAR values of the agar
immobilized magn...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Schematic representation of the induction electric
field ( ) gen...
Figure 13.2 Saturation hysteresis loop (black line) and minor
loop (red line...
Figure 13.3 The single‐ and multidomains magnetic structures
of nanoparticle...
Figure 13.4 A schematic showing the coercivity (Hc) behavior
of a magnetic p...
Figure 13.5 (a) Magnetization curve at room temperature; (b)
M versus H in l...
Figure 13.6 (a) Néel relaxation is the rotation of magnetic
moment inside a ...
Figure 13.7 Calculated Néel and Brown relaxation times over a
range of parti...
Figure 13.8 The general structure of a liposome, illustrating a
phospholipid...
Figure 13.9 (a) Classical MLPs filled with large magnetic
nanoparticles repr...
Figure 13.10 Molecular structure of γ‐cyclodextrin.
Figure 13.11 Cyclodextrin‐MNP multimodal therapeutic
approach.
Figure 13.12 (a) Nanoparticle encapsulated in the liposome
(MLPs) (Caillaud ...
Figure 13.13 Specific loss power for (a) nanoparticles
bioconjugated with cy...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 2D assembly of nanospheres on a square super‐
lattice of paramete...
Figure 14.2 Linear susceptibility χeq as a function of the
(reduced) lo...
Figure 14.3 SAR as a function of X (see text) for various values
of the long...
Figure 14.4 The SAR as a function of the longitudinal DC field
for various v...
Figure 14.5 Equilibrium susceptibility as a function of the DC
field for sam...
Figure 14.6 SAR, (a) linear ( ) and (b)
nonlinear ( ), as a function of the ...
Figure 14.7 Log‐Log plot of the linear and nonlinear SAR as a
function of th...
Figure 14.8 (a) Linear and (b) Non linear SAR as a function of
the AC field ...
Figure 14.9 Thermal behavior of the successive contributions
to SAR for a mo...
Figure 14.10 Successive contributions to SAR against the AC
field intensity,...
Figure 14.11 Successive contributions to SAR against the AC
field frequency,...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Comparison of MC‐simulation, LRT, and SWMBT
for size‐dependent S...
for field amplitude‐...
Figure 15.3 MC-simulation for field amplitude-dependent SLP
for various anis...
for frequency‐depend...
Figure 15.A.1 Flow diagram of Monte Carlo simulation
implementation. The inp...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Physical and chemical factors of magnetic
nanoparticles, determi...
Figure 16.2 (a) Transmission electron microscopy micrograph
of one cell of M...
Figure 16.3 Magnetosome particles isolated from
Magnetospirillum gryphiswald...
Figure 16.4 Overview of in vitro toxicity assays. Cell image
adapted from (M...
Figure 16.5 Ferrofluids containing IONPs are synthesized and
characterized a...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Crystalline structure of the magnetite phase.
Figure 17.2 (a) Magnetization vs. applied field characteristic
of ferromagne...
Figure 17.3 Evolution of the magnetite composition with the
NPs size.
Figure 17.4 (a) Magnetization of different ferrites and its
influence on tr...
Figure 17.5 Axial spin echo T2‐weighted MR image (TR/TE:
3000/15 ms, 24 echo...
Figure 17.6 Axial spin echo T2‐weighted MR Image of 3T6
fibroblast samples (...
Figure 17.7 Majors events associated with the clinical trials of
magnetic hy...
Figure 17.8 SAR and hysteresis loop area (A) versus (a)
glycerol fraction (%...
Figure 17.9 Measured temperature change of increasing
concentrations of magn...
Figure 17.10 Heating measurement under photothermal
irradiation (1064 nm at ...
Figure 17.11 In vivo heat therapy. (a) Thermal images
obtained with the IR c...
Figure 17.12 Temperature increase of CT‐26 tumor‐bearing
mice after intraven...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 MHT in a patient with a malignant brain tumor. (a)
Following the...
Figure 18.2 Thermotherapy treatment of the pelvic region
after intratumoral ...
Figure 18.3 Glioblastoma recurrence. (a,b) Pretreatment brain
MRI. (c,d) Pos...
Figure 18.4 Application of nanoparticle suspension into the
prostate is carr...
Figure 18.5 Computerized tomography scans of the prostate
performed before (...
Figure 18.6 Optimal specific loss power within the allowable
biological limi...
Figure 18.7 The time variation of the heating temperature of
the magnetic na...
Figure 18.8 Schematic representation of magnetic
hyperthermia therapy in the...
Figure 18.9 In vivo hyperthermia treatment of cancer. (a)
Schematics of magn...
Figure 18.10 (a) Schematic representation of injectable
thermo‐sensitive mag...
Figure 18.11 The trio of synchronized combined
hyperthermia, chemotherapy, a...
Figure 18.12 The 5‐FU loaded Fe3O4@anti‐HER2
nanoparticles (500 mg ml−1...
Figure 18.13 Individual temperature dosages over tumor
areas. (a) By using t...
Figure 18.14 Synergistic effect between chemotherapy and
MHT. Photographs of...
Figure 18.15 Nanocube‐mediated heating in suspension. (a)
Transmission elect...
Figure 18.16 In vivo heat therapy. (a) Thermal images
obtained with the IR c...
Magnetic Nanoparticles in
Human Health and Medicine
Current Medical Applications and

Alternative Therapy of Cancer
Edited by
Costica Caizer
Department of Physics, West University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania
Mahendra Rai
UGC‐Basic Science Research Faculty, Department of Biotechnology, SGB
Amravati University, Amravati, Maharashtra, India
This edition first published 2022
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Caizer, Costica, editor. | Rai, Mahendra, editor.
Title: Magnetic nanoparticles in human health and medicine : current medical
applications and alternative therapy of cancer / edited by Costica Caizer, Mahendra
Rai.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell, 2022. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021007068 (print) | LCCN 2021007069 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119754671 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119754732 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119754749 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Magnetic nanoparticles—Therapeutic use. | Nanomedicine. | Cancer
—Alternative treatment.
Classification: LCC R857.N34 M34 2021 (print) | LCC R857.N34 (ebook) | DDC 610.28
—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021007068
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021007069
Cover Design: Wiley
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List of Contributors
Nasir M. Ahmad
Polymer Research Lab School of Chemical and Materials Engineering
(SCME) National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
Islamabad, Pakistan
Bruno E. Amantéa
Magnetic Materials and Colloids Laboratory Institute of Chemistry Sã o
Paulo State University (UNESP) Araraquara, SP, Brazil
Haruna L. Barazorda‐Ccahuanac
Centro de Investigació n en Ingeniería Molecular‐ CIIM Universidad
Cató lica de Santa María Arequipa, Peru
Sylvie Begin‐Colin
Université de Strasbourg, CNRS Institut de Physique et Chimie des
Matériaux de Strasbourg Strasbourg, France
Dawn Blazer
Department of PhysicsUniversity of Texas at El PasoEl Paso, TX, USA
Shital Bonde
UGC – Basic Science Research Faculty Department of Biotechnology
SGB Amravati University Amravati, Maharashtra, India
Sebastien Boutry
Université de Mons General Organic and Biomedical Chemistry Unit
NMR and Molecular Imaging Laboratory Mons, Belgium;
Center for Microscopy and Molecular Imaging (CMMI) Gosselies,
Belgium
Costica Caizer
Department of Physics West University of Timisoara Timisoara,
Romania
Geoffrey Cotin
Ana Paula da Silva
Department of Science and Technology Polymers and Biopolymers
Technology Laboratory (TecPBio) Federal University of Sao Paulo Sã o
José dos Campos, SP, Brazil
Cristina Dehelean
Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Toxicology “Victor Babes”
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timisoara, Romania
Jean-Louis Déjardin
Laboratoire PROMES CNRS UPR 8521 Université de Perpignan Via
Domitia Rambla de la Thermodynamique Tecnosud, Perpignan, France
Amanda de Sousa Martinez de Freitas
Technology Laboratory (TecPBio) Federal University of Sao Paulo Sã o
Roberto De Santis
Institute of Polymers Composites and Biomaterials National Research
Council of Italy Naples, Italy
Riccardo Di Corato
Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems (IMM)CNR, Via
Monteroni Lecce, Italy
Caio C. dos Santos
Paulo State University (UNESP )Araraquara, SP, Brazil
Abdelhamid Elaissari
University Claude Bernard Lyon‐1 CNRS, ISA‐UMR 5280 Lyon, France
Ahmed A. El‐Gendy
Department of Physics University of Texas at El Paso El Paso, TX, USA
Ulrich M. Engelmann
Department of Medical Engineering and Applied Mathematics FH
Aachen University of Applied Sciences Aachen, Germany;
Applied Medical Engineering Helmholtz Institute, Medical Faculty
RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany
Eirini Fragogeorgi
Institute of Nuclear & Radiological Sciences Technology, Energy &
Safety (INRASTES) NCSR “Demokritos” Ag. Paraskevi‐Athens, Greece;
Bioemission Technology Solutions (BIOEMTECH) Lefkippos Attica
Technology Park NCSR “Demokritos” Ag. Paraskevi-Athens, Greece
Barbara Freis
Sihomara Patricia García‐Zepeda
Departmento de Toxicología Centro de Investigació n y de Estudios
Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional CINVESTAV-IPN, Av. IPN
2508 Zacatenco, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
Maria Georgiou
Technology Park NCSR “Demokritos” Ag. Paraskevi‐Athens, Greece
Yohannes Getahun
Department of Physics University of Texas at El Paso El Paso, TX, USA
Antonio Gloria
Cristian Iacoviță
Department of Pharmaceutical Physics and Biophysics “Iuliu
Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Miguel Jafelicci Jr
Magnetic Materials and Colloids Laboratory Institute of ChemistrySã o
Hamid Kachkachi
Fouzia Khan
Smart Materials Section Corrosion Science and Technology Division
Materials Characterization Group Metallurgy and Materials
GroupIndira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, HBNI Kalpakkam,
Tamil Nadu, India
Sumera Khizar
Islamabad, Pakistan
Barid Baran Lahiri
Tamil Nadu, India
Sophie Laurent
Université de Mons General Organic and Biomedical Chemistry Unit
NMR and Molecular Imaging Laboratory Mons, Belgium;
Center for Microscopy and Molecular Imaging (CMMI) Gosselies,
Belgium
Noureddine Lebaz
University Claude Bernard Lyon‐1 CNRS, LAGEPP UMR‐5007
Villeurbanne, France
Ana Paula Lemes
Technology Laboratory (TecPBio) Federal University of Sao PauloSã o
Constantin Mihai Lucaciu
Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Guilherme N. Lucena
Paulo State University (UNESP) Araraquara, SP, Brazil;
Institute of Chemistry Institute of Bioenergy Research (IPBEN) Sã o
Sergio Madurga
Faculty of Chemistry Barcelona University Barcelona, Spain
Giacomo Mandriota
Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego Genoa, Italy
Rodrigo Fernando C. Marques
Institute of Chemistry Institute of Bioenergy Research (IPBEN)Sã o
Centre for Monitoring and Research of the Quality of Fuels, Biofuels,
Crude Oil, and Derivatives (CEMPEQC) Institute of Chemistry Sã o Paulo
State University (UNESP) Araraquara, SP, Brazil
Damien Mertz
Larissa Stieven Montagna
Technology Laboratory (TecP Bio) Federal University of Sao Paulo Sã o
Miroslava Nedyalkova
Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy Sofia University “St. Kliment
Ohridski” Sofia, Bulgaria
Panagiotis Papadimitroulas
Technology ParkNCSR “Demokritos” Ag Paraskevi‐Athens, Greece
Valentina Peluso
Department of Neurosciences Reproductive and Odontostomatological
Sciences University of Naples Federico II Naples, Italy
Francis Perton
John Philip
Smart Materials SectionCorrosion Science and Technology Division
Materials Characterization Group Metallurgy and Materials Group
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, HBNI Kalpakkam, Tamil
Nadu, India
Rodolfo D. Piazza
Gabriel C. Pinto
Magnetic Materials and Colloids Laboratory Institute of Chemistry, Sã o
Mahendra Rai
UGC – Basic Science Research Faculty Department of Biotechnology
SGB Amravati University Amravati, Maharashtra, India
Surojit Ranoo
Tamil Nadu, India
Sundas Riaz
Islamabad, Pakistan
Maritina Rouchota
Technology Park NCSR “Demokritos” Ag. Paraskevi‐Athens, Greece
Teresa Russo
Jaime Santoyo‐Salazar
Departmento de Física Centro de Investigació n y de Estudios Avanzados
del Instituto Politécnico Nacional CINVESTAV-IPN, Av. IPN 2508
Zacatenco, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
Sophia Sarpaki
Technology Park NCSR “Demokritos” Ag. Paraskevi-Athens, Greece
Gul Shahnaz
Department of Pharmacy Faculty of Biological Sciences Quaid-i-Azam
University Islamabad, Pakistan
Carolyn Shasha
Department of Physics University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA
Ioana Slabu
Applied Medical Engineering Helmholtz Institute, Medical Faculty
RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany
Codruta Soica
Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Toxicology “Victor Babes”
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timisoara, Romania
Gabriela Fabiola Ştiufiuc
Faculty of Physics “Babes‐Bolyai” University Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Rareș Ionuț Ştiufiuc
Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca,
Romania;
Med Future Research Center for Advanced Medicine “Iuliu Hațieganu”
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Romulus Tetean
Faculty of Physics “Babes‐Bolyai” University Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Boyan Todorov
Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy Sofia University “St. Kliment
Ohridski” Sofia, Bulgaria
Valentin Toma
Med Future Research Center for Advanced Medicine “Iuliu Hațieganu”
University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Francois Vernay
1
An Introduction to Magnetic
Nanoparticles: From Bulk to
Nanoscale Magnetism and Their
Applicative Potential in Human
Health and Medicine
Costica Caizer1, Shital Bonde2, and Mahendra Rai2
1 Physics Faculty, Department of Physics, West University of
Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania
2 UGC – Basic Science Research Faculty, Department of Biotechnology,
SGB Amravati University, Amravati, Maharashtra, India
1.1 Magnetism of Nanoparticles: From Bulk to

Nanoscale
1.1.1 Introduction
The bulk magnetic material has specific magnetic properties depending
on the type of magnetic material and the form of magnetic ordering
(Smit and Wijin 1961; Kneller 1962; Jacobs and Bean 1963; Vonsovskii
1974; Kojima 1982; Rosensweig 1985; Cullity and Graham 2009).
Magnetic materials can be diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and with
ordered forms of magnetism. The magnetic ordered materials can be
ferromagnetic, antiferomagnetic, ferimagnetic, and some more complex
magnetic structures. Diamagnetic materials show a very weak
magnetization (M) induced by the application of the external magnetic
field (H) (Figure 1.1a‐(I)), in the opposite direction to the magnetic field
(Figure 1.1b‐(I)), due to the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction
(Faraday) that modifies the orbital and spin motion of atomic electrons.
In the absence of the magnetic field, this material has no atomic (or
molecular) magnetic moment. The paramagnetic materials show a
weak magnetization in an external magnetic field (Figure 1.1a‐(II)), but
in the same direction of the applied magnetic field (Figure 1.1b‐(II)), as
a result of the reorientation of the permanent atomic magnetic
moments in the magnetic field. This material has, at molecular level,
permanent magnetic moments (in the absence of the external magnetic
field), which does not interact magnetically with each other. In the case
of ferromagnetic materials, an intense magnetization is obtained in the
presence of the external magnetic field (Figure 1.1a‐(III)), in the same
direction with the applied magnetic field (Figure 1.1b‐(III)), due to the
existence of ordered (aligned) atomic (or molecular) magnetic
moments under the action of exchange forces (exchange interaction)
existing at the molecular level of a quantum nature.
Figure 1.1 (a) Schematic field dependencies of magnetization of (I)
diamagnetic, (II) paramagnetic, and (III) ferromagnetic materials.
Source: Yamauchi (2008). Reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons.
(b) Schematic representation of the magnetization of different
magnetic materials in the external magnetic field: (I) diamagnetic, (II)
paramagnetic, (III) ferromagnetic.
Source: Caizer (2013). Eurobit Publishing.
In the ferromagnetic crystal, the atoms with spin magnetic moment

(the orbital magnetic moment being frozen by the presence of the
crystalline electric field) are located at small distances between them,
thus, generating the exchange interaction that aligns the spin magnetic
moments over large spatial atomic distances, which can reach up to
tens of microns (μm) (magnetic domains) (Caizer 2004a). In the
antiferromagnetic crystal, the equal atomic magnetic moments are
aligned to 180°, thus existing as a compensation for these, so that in the
absence of the external magnetic field, the magnetization is nonexistent
while in the presence of a magnetic field that is very low. On the other
hand, in the case of ferrimagnetics, where, in the absence of the
external magnetic field, there is a noncompensation of the magnetic
moments aligned to 180 as a result of the exchange interaction (more
precisely a superexchange), and there will be a significantly higher
magnetization in the presence of the external magnetic field, but of a
lower value compared to ferromagnetics.
A classification of the diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic
materials, depending on the amplitude of the magnetic susceptibility
(χ) (the intrinsic parameter of magnetic materials) is given below
(Caizer 2013), and Table 1.1 shows the specific value ranges to
magnetic susceptibility for different types of magnetic
materials/substances (LIO – linear, isotropic, and homogeneous),
without there being a strict delimitation between them.
Table 1.1 Magnetic susceptibility values for different bulk magnetic
materials.
Type of magnetic Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
material
χ −(10−4 – 10−3 – 10−5 102 – 105
10−6) (χ > 0) (χ ≫ 0)
(χ < 0)
When the size of the magnetic material, ferro‐ or ferrimagnetic, is

reduced to the range of nm – tens of nm, it was found that the magnetic
properties specific to the bulk change radically, regardless of the type of
magnetic ordering (Caizer 2016). Thus, in the category of magnetic
materials with magnetic ordering of ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
type, a special category appears called superparamagnetic materials.
This name was introduced by Bean (Bean and Livingston 1959) in
order to distinguish this material from the bulk basic magnetic ones:
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic. This is because the
material itself is ordered magnetically, ferro‐ or ferrimagnetic, but
behaves in the external magnetic field like a paramagnetic material.
This name was introduced considering that, at the microstructural
level, we do not have individual atoms with magnetic moment isolated
from each other, as in the case of paramagnetics, but a magnetic
structure (magnetic domain) that contains a very large number of
atoms with magnetic moments (even more greater than 105) coupled
to each other (with magnetic ordering) as a result of the exchange or
superexchange interaction. Superparamagnetic behavior is
characteristic of magnetic materials with small sizes in the nanometers
range, depending on the nature of the material.
In biomedical applications, the most used materials are those with
magnetic ordering of ferrimagnetic or even ferromagnetic type because
they present an intense magnetism and fast response to an external
magnetic field. However, the most used in applications and much
studied today in research for various applications are materials based
on iron oxides (ferrimagnetic) (Smit and Wijin 1961) with the
magnetite (Fe3O4) typical representative (Figure 1.2). Magnetite is an
inverse spinel (Fe2+ Fe23+O42−) with a cubic structure in which the
magnetic cations of Fe2+ and Fe3+ are found in two magnetic subllatices
A (tetrahedral) and B (octahedral) having opposite magnetizations:
Fe3+ [Fe2+ Fe3+] O42, where the right parenthesis represents the ions
from the sublatice B and Fe3+, from outside, the parenthesis represents
the ions from the sublatice A. However, recent experiments (Garcia and
Subias 2004) have shown a difference in the electric charge of Fe(B)
ions, where Fe2.5+ is present, as shown in Figure 1.2 (Parkinson et al.
2012).
Figure 1.2 Fe3O4 bulk unit cell (inverse spinel structure).
Source: Parkinson et al. (2012). CC BY 3.0.
The basic magnetic aspects of bulk magnetic material, ferromagnetic, or

ferrimagnetic, and how they change in the case of nanomaterial, will be
presented below considering the magnetic particles/nanoparticles for
biomedical applications.
1.1.2 The Atomic Magnetic Moment,

Magnetization, and Magnetic Moment of the
Nanoparticle
In the case of a bulk paramagnetic, ferro‐, or ferrimagnetic material, the
magnetism is due to the existence of the magnetic moment (total) at the
atomic (or ionic/molecular) level (Kneller 1962; Jacobs and Bean 1963;
Vonsovskii 1974; Caizer 2004a):
(1.1)
as a result of the spin–orbit coupling (vector summation of the spin
magnetic moments (total) () and the orbital magnetic moments (total)
( ): the vector model of the atom ( = + ). In Eq. (1.1), gJ is the
spectroscopic splitting factor (Lande factor) at the atomic level,
(1.2)
mJ is the internal magnetic quantum number (total), which can take (2J
+ 1) values (according to quantum physics, respectively –J, …, 0, …, +J),
and μB is the Bohr magnetone:
(1.3)
with the observables: e is the electron charge (e = 1.6 × 10−19 C), m0 is

the resting electron mass (m0 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg), and h is the Planck
constant (h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js). In Eq. (1.2), L is the internal orbital
quantum number (total), and S is the internal spin quantum number.
Macroscopically, the quantity that characterizes the bulk magnetic
material, from a magnetic point of view, is the magnetization ( ),
defined as a numerical quantity equal to the resulting magnetic
moment ( , being the total magnetic moment of the atom/ion
(Eq. 1.1), and i the number of atoms/ions in volume V) of the volume

unit (Caizer 2004a),
(1.4)
respectively, in the hypothesis of a continuous environment. According

to formula (1.4), the magnetization vector has the same direction
and sense as the elementary magnetic moment vector .
In accordance with Eq. (1.4), the magnetic moment of a volume of
magnetic material will be
(1.5)
In the case of reducing the volume of ferrous‐ or ferrimagnetic material

in the nanometer range (nm – tens of nm), as in the case of magnetic
nanoparticles, when there is a single magnetic domain (Weiss domain)
(or in the case of a nanoparticle volume even smaller than the one
corresponding to a magnetic domain), the magnetization (M) is uniform
in the finite volume of material. Thus, in this case, of the single‐domain
magnetic nanoparticle, the resulting magnetic moment can be written
as (Caizer 2016)
(1.6)
or by using the common notations (Caizer 2019)
(1.7)
where mNP is the magnetic moment of the nanoparticle, VNP the
volume of the nanoparticle, and Ms the spontaneous magnetization of
the magnetic material (the magnetization of a magnetic domain [M]
corresponds to the spontaneous magnetization [or saturation]) (Ms)
(M ≡ Ms). When the nanoparticle is spherically approximated, formula
(1.7) is written as
(1.8)
where D is the diameter of the nanoparticle, an approximation widely

used both in theoretical calculations and in practical applications. From
a magnetic point of view, it is important if the nanoparticle is spherical
or has another shape, e.g. ellipsoidal, as the magnetic behavior in the
external magnetic field may change a lot, especially due to soft
magnetic materials case (see Section 1.1.5).
To conclude, it can be said that, from a magnetic point of view, in the
case of bulk magnetic material, the base observable for the magnetic
characterization is the magnetization given by relationship (1.4) or the
elementary magnetic moment du, where the magnetization is
nonuniform (Figure 1.3a), whose field and space dependence must be
known for the calculation of the integral.
Figure 1.3 (a) Representation of the magnetization vectors ( ) and

elementary magnet moment ( ) for an elementary volume dV of the
bulk magnetic material of finite volume V, and an example of
multidomain magnetic structures (in magnified image).
Source: Caizer (2016). Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature;
(b) Spherical nanoparticle for uniaxial crystalline symmetry; e.m.a. is
the easy magnetization axis.
Source: Caizer et al. (2020). Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature.
In the case of magnetic nanoparticles (Figure 1.3b), the aspects are

simplified, these being characterized by the magnetic moment of the
nanoparticles given by Eq. (1.7) (or Eq. (1.8) for spherical
nanoparticles), where Ms is the spontaneous magnetization of the
nanoparticle material which is a known observable (Ms is a material
parameter), and VNP is the effective volume of the nanoparticle. VNP
and in most theoretical or practical cases can be easily approximated by
the volume of a sphere, ellipsoid of revolute or flattened, cylinder, etc.,
which radically simplifies the calculations. However, for this reason, the
exact given situation will have to be taken into account, in order not to
introduce errors.
1.1.3 Magnetic Structures

The bulk ferromagnetic magnetic material consists of magnetic
domains (Kneller 1962) spontaneously magnetized to saturation,
resulting from the balance of exchange forces, which tend to align the
atomic (ionic) magnetic moments in the network, and magnetostatic
forces, which, through the created magnetic poles, tend to disorient the
magnetic moments from their parallel alignment. The magnetic
structure is stable when there is a balance between the exchange and
magnetostatic forces, respectively, in the condition of minimum
magnetocrystalline energy. Experimentally, different structures of
magnetic domains were observed, the most common being those with
free magnetic poles (Figure 1.4a) and magnetic structures without free
magnetic poles (with magnetic flux closing domains) (Figure 1.4b). The
first magnetic structure is characteristic of uniaxial crystals and the
second magnetic structure is characteristic of the magnetic crystals
with cubic symmetry.
Figure 1.4 Magnetic structures of nanoparticles: multidomain
nanoparticles with (a) uniaxial and (b) cubic symmetry.
Source: Caizer et al. (2017). Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature.
The magnetic domains are separated from each other by narrow

regions in the crystal (transition) called walls of magnetic domains.
Within the walls is a continuous change in orientation of spins, from the
direction of magnetization in one domain to the direction of
magnetization in the neighboring domain. The most common walls
found in magnetic structures are the Bloch‐type walls (Bloch 1930) or
180 walls, which separate 2 neighboring domains with opposite
magnetizations. They are also the most stable in magnetic structures.
But there are also Nèel or 90's walls, which separate adjacent domains,
where the magnetizations in the domains are oriented at 90°. Nèel‐type
walls are generally unstable.
The magnetic domains are magnetized uniformly (at saturation),
characterized by the spontaneous magnetization of Ms. In the closing
domains, the spontaneous magnetization is oriented at 45 in relation to
the direction of separation of the domains (Figure 1.4b) so that the
normal component of the magnetization is continuous along the
boundaries separating the domains, and, thus, no magnetostatic energy
will occur.
The thickness of the domain walls is generally less than 105 A, and that
of the walls in the range 10–103 A, strongly depending on the
anisotropy of the material and the exchange forces.
When the volume of the magnetic material is reduced in the nanometer
range, the magnetic structure changes radically, reaching a unidominal
structure, under a certain critical volume (Vcr) (Kittel 1946).
Schematically, this aspect is shown in Figure 1.5, in the case of the
spherical nanoparticle (Caizer 2004a). Above the critical volume (V >
Vcr), the nanoparticle has an incipient structure of magnetic domains,
which depending on the crystalline symmetry of the material, can be of
the form: (a) case of uniaxial symmetry or (b) case of cubic symmetry.
Figure 1.5 Multidomain magnetic nanoparticles with (a) uniform

magnetization (uniaxial symmetry) and (b) nonuniform magnetization
(cubic symmetry), and (c) single‐domain nanoparticle.
Source: Adapted from Caizer and Stefanescu (2003).
Using the classic model of the single‐domain particle, it can estimate

the critical diameter Dc (or the critical volume Vcr) at which the
transition from the state with the structure of magnetic domains
(multidomains) to the one with the single‐domain structure takes
place. Thus, for the critical diameter, the following formula is obtained:
(1.9)
where εP is the energy density of the domain wall, μ0 is the magnetic

permeability of the vacuum (μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m−1), and Ms the
spontaneous magnetization of the material.
The energy density of the wall was determined by Landau–Lifschtz,
finding the following formula:
(1.10)
where D is the constant in the crystalline network, TC is the Curie

temperature of the magnetic material, KV is the constant
magnetoscrystalline anisotropy, and KB is the Boltzmann constant.
The critical diameter at which the transition from the multidomains
structure to the single‐domain structure takes place depending a lot on
the magnetic anisotropy of the nanoparticle. For Co, the value of ~60
nm was found (…). However, in the case of Ni–Zn ferrite nanoparticles,
Caizer finds a value Dc = 21.6 nm, for the energy of the domain wall εP
of 0.145 erg cm−2 (Caizer 2003a).
In conclusion, when conducting theoretical and practical studies on the
use of nanoparticles, it is very important to know the critical diameter
(Dc ) under which the nanoparticle becomes one with a single‐magnetic
structure, for which a previous evaluation is needed.
1.1.4 Magnetic Saturation

Another important aspect to consider, when a magnetic material is
reduced to the nanoscale, is the saturation magnetization of the
material, which is influenced by such reduction.
In the case of bulk magnetic material, the saturation magnetization
(Msat) (theoretically obtained in intense magnetic field and at low
temperatures) is equal to the spontaneous magnetization (Ms), being a
known parameter of material. Example, in the case of Fe, the saturation
magnetization at room temperature is 1714 kA m−1 (Cullity and
Graham 2009), and in the case of Fe3O4, it is 477.5 kA m−1 (Smit and
Wijin 1961). The spontaneous magnetization of the bulk magnetic
material decreases with temperature, having the maximum value at 0 K
(Ms(0)) and zero at a temperature, generally high (hundreds of
degrees), which is Curie temperature in the case of ferromagnetics and
Nèel temperature in the case of ferrimagnetic materials. The
temperature variation of the spontaneous magnetization of massive
ferromagnetic material, such as Fe, Co, and Ni (Figure 1.6a), is a
universal function that does not involve indeterminate constants:
(1.11)
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he was not mistaken, then knocked softly, twice. Receiving no answer he
knocked again, somewhat louder.
"He sleeps soundly enough," he muttered; "at that age it comes easy."
The Councillor was on the point of returning. After all, it would be time
enough to speak of the paper at breakfast, and already day was beginning to
break. But again those subtle, insinuating suspicions crept into his mind.
Yes! he must assure himself at once! And he knocked again, this time
almost pushing the door. It was not fastened, and gave way, disclosing an
empty room and a bed untouched. With a rapid glance he searched the
room. All was in order.
"What!" he exclaimed, "at his age! This is promising, certainly."
And he began to wonder which servant was accessory to these midnight

rambles, for this was surely not the first. The hall door was barred and
double-barred when young Robespierre took leave of Monsieur de Pontivy.
The porter was certainly culpable. Yes, the whole domestic staff was privy
to the misconduct of his secretary! The very next day the Councillor would
have a reckoning with them all, and it would be a terrible reckoning! But
just at that moment, when Monsieur de Pontivy was about to leave the
room, he noticed the young man's hat and stick lying near. He stopped in
surprise.
Was Robespierre in the house, then?
Monsieur de Pontivy again looked at the bed. No, it had not been slept
in. Other details struck him: the coat and vest hanging up, and the frilled
waistcoat carefully folded on a chair. It was enough,—the young man had
not gone out.
Where was he? In Louison's room, undoubtedly, on the third floor!

Louison, his daughter's maid! She was from Perigord, sprightly and
complaisant, cunning enough, a veritable soubrette, with her sly ways and
her round cheeks. Ah! how stupid he had been to have taken her into the
house, considering her age and bearing, scarcely twenty-two, and dark and
passionate as a Catalonian.
"I ought to have known as much," he said.
His daughter's waiting-woman! The thought was distracting. That she

should enter Clarisse's room every morning, carry her breakfast, see her in
bed, assist at each detail of her toilet, fresh from the young man's embraces,
his caresses still warm on her lips! And these things were taking place
under his roof!
He left the room agitated but resolved. It was very simple. To-morrow
she would be discharged the first thing, and he also should be turned out,
the hypocrite who, with all his smiling, respectful airs, defiled his roof. He
did well to get himself protected by priests, and Monsieur de Rohan, a nice
present he had made!
All the young man's qualities, all the satisfaction he had given him,
disappeared before this one brutal fact. He would not be sorry, either, to be
able to say to the Abbé de Saint-Vaast—
"You know the young man you recommended me. Well, I surprised him
in the garret with a servant-maid, and I turned him out like a lackey. But
even lackeys respect my house."
He had now crossed the corridor and was descending the stairs, still
rehearsing the scene in his mind. Smarting under his wounded self-love, he
exaggerated everything. Had they not forgotten the respect due to him,
Monsieur de Pontivy, to his house, and worse still, had they not mockingly
set him at defiance? He smiled grimly at the thought. He had now reached
the last step of the second staircase, and was turning into the corridor of the
ground floor.
"Decidedly," he muttered, "I was mistaken in my estimate of that young

man. He is a fool!"
All at once he stopped. He caught the sound of whispering, and the

noise of a door being softly and cautiously closed. Some one here, at this
hour! Who can it be? He blew out the candle, and gliding along the wall, he
approached, but suddenly recoiled, for in the grey light of the dawn he had
recognised Robespierre. The young man was advancing quietly in the
direction of the stairs.
The truth, all the awful, maddening truth, the endless shame and
dishonour, rushed on Monsieur de Pontivy in a moment, and stunned him
like a blow.
Robespierre had come from Clarisse's room!
Everything swam before him. He held in his hand the extinguished

candle, with such force that the bronze candlestick entered his flesh. He
made a movement as if to use it as a weapon, and kill the wretch there and
then. At that instant the young man saw him. He turned deadly pale and
tried to escape, but Monsieur de Pontivy threw himself on him, and seized
him by the throat.
"Where do you come from?" he almost hissed.
The young man swayed with the shock, his knees, bent under him.
Monsieur de Pontivy, mad with rage, repeated—"Where do you come

from?"
He was strangling him.
Robespierre gave a hoarse scream.
"You are hurting me!" he gasped.
"Hurting you! Hurting you! did you say? What if I kill you, knock out
your cursed brains with this"—brandishing the bronze candlestick—"yes,
kill you, wretch, for bringing dishonour on my house...."
But just then Monsieur de Pontivy felt a hand laid on his arm arresting
the blow.
It was Clarisse, drawn by the noise, half-dressed, her hair hanging in

disorder down her back.
"Oh, father!" she sobbed, falling on her knees, as if for pardon.
It was dishonour, yes, dishonour complete, palpable, avowed, dishonour

that flowed with his. daughter's tears, and covered her face with shame. The
agony of the father was augmented by that of the head of the family, whose
record of austerity and uprightness was thus dragged in the mud.
The young man, having regained his self-possession, was about to

speak, but Monsieur de Pontivy gave him no time.
"Silence!" he thundered. "Not a word! Do you hear, sir? Not a word! To

your room, and await my orders!"
The command was accompanied with such a gesture that Robespierre

could only obey, and silently moved towards the staircase.
Then, turning towards Clarisse, he continued, "As to you ..."
But she lay lifeless on the floor. He bent down, lifted her in his arms,
and carried her to her room; exhausted by her weight, he laid her on the first
armchair.
The young girl regained consciousness. She opened her eyes and
recognised her father, and a sob rose in her throat, suffocating her. She
could not speak, but a word she had not pronounced for ten years, a word
from her far-off childhood, came to her lips, and she murmured softly
through her tears, "Papa! papa!"
CHAPTER II
THE VOICE OF THE PAST

Under what irresistible spell had she fallen? Through what intricate
windings had the subtle poison entered the young girl's pure and innocent
soul, then steeped in the fresh dew of life's dawning hopes? What sweet
vision had the young man held out to her, to which she had yielded in all
innocence, her eyes dreamily fixed on the vague unknown, and from which
she had awaked, all pale and trembling, her heart smitten with unspeakable
dismay?
Or had they both been the puppets of Destiny, of blind Chance which at
so tender an age had brought them together under the same roof, in an
intimacy of daily intercourse, increased by the sadness of their cloistered
existence, so that they had been the victims of their extreme youth, of the
attraction they unconsciously exercised over each other, both carried away
by the strong currents of life.
She, influenced by a train of incidents insignificant in themselves,

rendered dangerous by repetition, details of every-day life which had
gradually drawn her towards the young man, whose presence at last became
a sweet necessity to her lonely existence.
He, suddenly stirred during the first few days of his residence in the
Hôtel Rue des Lions; never for a moment thinking of the distance which
separated him from the daughter of Monsieur de Pontivy. Think? How
could he think, thrilling under the first revelation of love disclosed to him
with the eloquence of Rousseau in la Nouvelle Héloïse, that romance of
burning passion then in vogue? He had commenced to read the novel, by
stealth, at Louis-le-Grand, and finished it in three nights of mad insomnia,
in his little room on the third floor at the Hôtel de Pontivy. All the sap of his
youth beat at his temples and throbbed in his veins at that flaming rhetoric;
every phrase burned like kisses on his lips.
He recited portions aloud, learned them by heart, found them sublime in

utterance. He yearned to repeat them to others, as one does music. And to
whom could he repeat them but to Clarisse, placed there as if expressly to
hear them? So he did repeat them to her. At all times and everywhere when
alone with her. At the harpsichord, on long winter evenings, when the
guests gravely and silently played at cards, and he turned the pages of her
music. Out walking, when he met her, as if by chance, and spoke to her—
while the eyes of Mademoiselle Jusseaume wandered absently from them—
of Paris which she knew so little, the gay fêtes and gossip of the town, thus
opening out to her endless vistas of happiness until then unknown, which
involved promises of future joy.
He recited verses to her, pastorals, such as were then upon men's lips,
mythologic madrigals made for rolling round a bonbon. She found them
charming, and sought to learn them by heart. He copied them and gave
them to her. This was a dangerous game. He became bolder, copied love-
letters, then wrote them himself and compared them with Rousseau's. She
read them, delighted at first, then trembling, and when she trembled it was
too late.
She was unconsciously dragged into a world of fancy and illusion by

the very strength of his youth and enthusiasm. His presence in that dull
dwelling had seemed a ray of sunlight under which the bud of her young
life had opened into flower. Thus, all unconscious of the poisonous mist
that was more closely enveloping her from day to day, she found herself
gliding insensibly down a steep declivity which gave way under her feet as
she advanced, and before she could recover possession of her senses, or
stay her quick descent to question whereto it led, she was undone!
"Every girl who reads this book is lost," Rousseau had written at the
beginning of la Nouvelle Héloïse. And she had done far worse. Alone,
given up to her own devices, just awakening to the mystery of existence,
pure, innocent, and guileless, she had imbibed its insidious poison from the
lips of one she had learned to love. And now she had fallen from these
dizzy heights, dazed and crushed, lonelier than ever, for Monsieur de
Pontivy had turned Robespierre out of the house soon after the fatal
discovery.
The decision had been brief, in the character of a command:
"Of course, it is understood that what passed between us last night shall
go no further," Monsieur de Pontivy had said to the young secretary, called
to the Councillor's study at breakfast-time. "You can seek some pretext to
treat me disrespectfully at table before the servants, and I shall beg you to
leave my house."
The young man listened respectfully.
"But I am willing to make reparation," he said.
The Councillor drew back under this new affront.
"You marry my daughter! You forget who you are, Monsieur de

Robespierre! You, the husband of Mademoiselle de Pontivy! Enough, sir,
and do as I have said!"
The departure of young Robespierre took place as the Councillor

desired. No one had the slightest suspicion of the real reason, and Clarisse,
who was suffering from a severe attack of brain fever, kept her bed.
In refusing to give the hand of his daughter, even dishonoured, to any

one who was not of her rank, Monsieur de Pontivy was but true to his
principles, to his own code of morals, based upon caste prejudice and
foolish pride.
Could he have read the future of the young man he would not have
acted otherwise, and yet that young man was destined to become one of the
masters of France—but at what a price and under what conditions!
Nineteen years had passed since then, nineteen years in which events
succeeded each other with a rapidity and violence unparalleled in the
previous history of Europe. The excesses of an arbitrary government, added
to universal discontent, had led to the Revolution. But this act of
deliverance and social regeneration was unhappily to develop even worse
excesses. The Reign of Terror was now raging. Louis XVI. and Marie
Antoinette had perished on the scaffold, followed by a large number of
nobles and priests, victims of the tempest now at flood, and drowning in its
crimson tide numberless victims with no respect of persons. The whole
nation, in the country and in Paris, was perishing in the iron grasp of a new
and more despotic government. Terror, monstrous parody of liberty, ruled
the State, which was adrift without rudder on the storm, while all its people
were driven to distraction by wild advocates of the guillotine.
Prominent among these fanatics, raised to power by the very suddenness
of events, was Maximilien de Robespierre, once the young secretary of
Monsieur de Pontivy, now styled simply Robespierre, President of the
National Assembly, or Convention, the most powerful and most dreaded of
the twelve conventionnels who, under the name of members of the
Committee of Public Safety, ruled the destinies of France.
History is the romance of nations, more abundant in wild

improbabilities than the most extravagant fairy tale; and the French
Revolution stands out from the events which have perplexed the mind of
man since the world began, a still unsolved enigma. The actors in this
fearful drama move like beings of some other sphere, the produce of a wild
imagination, the offspring of delirium, created to astound and stupefy. And
it was the destiny of the secretary of Monsieur de Pontivy to become one of
these. Still in the prime of his life, scarcely thirty-six, he was one of the
principal if not the chief personage of the Revolution.
However signal his success, the course of events left him unchanged.
During the slow accession of a man to the summit of human aspiration, his
deficiences are sometimes dwarfed and his powers developed and
strengthened; but the foundation remains the same—just as trees which ever
renew their leaves, and absorb from the same soil a perennial flow of life.
After nineteen years, marked by a succession of events so rapid, so

tumultuous, and of such moment that they would have sufficed to fill a
century of history, the secretary of Monsieur de Pontivy, whom we last saw
awake to love under the influence of Rousseau, found himself, on a day
given up to retirement and study, at l'Ermitage of Montmorency, in the very
room where the great philosopher wrote la Nouvelle Héloïse, whose
burning pages had been a revelation to his youth.
He had come there to seek inspiration for the speech he was to deliver
on the Place de la Révolution at the approaching festival in honour of the
Supreme Being, a ceremony instituted and organised under his direction,
and which had been suggested to him by the spiritualistic theories of
Rousseau.
It was Friday, the 6th of June, 1794, or, to use the language of the time,
the 20th prairial of the second year of the Republic. Robespierre, having
left Paris the evening before, had come down to sleep in that quiet and
flowery retreat, built at the entrance of the forest of Montmorency, like a
nest hidden in the under branches of a tree. Rousseau's Ermitage, which
became State property after the Revolution, had been secretly sublet to him
by a friend and given over to the care of a gardener, who also acted as sole
domestic during his visits, which were very frequent. For he often fled from
Paris secretly, seeking solitude and calm, and a little of that poetry of nature
in which the fiercest Revolutionists, his peers in crime, loved sometimes to
refresh themselves in the short pauses of their fratricidal and sanguinary
struggles.
Robespierre descended to the garden soon after daybreak, inhaling the

fresh morning air, wandering under the shade of those great trees where
Rousseau used to walk, or sitting in his favourite nooks; dreaming the
while, his soul drinking to the full the infinite sweetness of Nature's magic
charms, quickened into life at the rosy touch of morn. He would busy
himself in rustic pursuits, botanising, or gathering periwinkles, the master's
favourite flowers; thus occupied he used to prolong his walk into the forest
of Montmorency, which seemed but a continuation of the garden. Here, he
would sometimes find friends awaiting him, an intimate circle which he
was wont to gather round him to share a rustic meal upon the grass.
That morning he had awakened earlier than usual, beset with ideas for
his forthcoming speech, the first that he was to deliver at a public ceremony,
whose anticipated success would, like an apotheosis, deify him in the eyes
of the people, and set a decisive and brilliant seal to that supremacy of
power which was the goal of his boundless ambition. It was important that
he should finish before noon, when he had arranged an interview in the
forest, a political interview of the highest importance, which would perhaps
effect a change in the foreign policy of France.
Robespierre had slept in the very room which Rousseau had occupied
on the first floor, and in which were gathered all the furniture and
possessions of the great man, left behind in the haste of removal, after his
famous quarrel with the fair owner of l'Ermitage. The bed was Rousseau's,
as were two walnut cabinets and a table of the same rich wood, the very
table on which the philosopher wrote the first part of la Nouvelle Hèloïse;
then a small library, a barometer, and two pictures, one of which, by an
English painter, represented "The Soldier's Fortune," and the other "The
Wise and Foolish Virgins." In these surroundings Robespierre seemed to
breathe more intimately the spirit of the master for whom he had such an
ardent admiration.
Robespierre had passed a sleepless night, judging from his pale,

feverish face and swollen eyelids. Outwardly he was little changed.
Monsieur de Pontivy would have recognised his former secretary in this
man before whom all France trembled. It was the same dapper figure,
spruce and neat as ever, with that nervous, restless manner which time had
but accentuated. This nervousness, apparent in his whole person, was
visible even in his face, which, now deeply marked with small-pox,
twitched and contracted convulsively. The high cheek-bones and the green,
cat-like eyes, shifting about in an uneasy fashion, added to the unpleasant
expression of the whole countenance.
He threw open the three windows of his room, which looked out on the
garden. A whiff of fresh air fanned his face, charged with all the sweet
perfumes of the country. Day had scarcely dawned, and the whole valley of
Montmorency was bathed in pale, uncertain light, like floating mist. He
remained at one of the windows, gazing long and earnestly out on
awakening nature, watching the dawn as it slowly lifted the veil at the first
smiles of morning. Then he seated himself at the little table prepared for
work, with sheets of paper spread about, as if awaiting the thoughts of
which they were to be the messengers. He slipped his pen in an inkstand
ornamented with a small bust of Rousseau, and commenced.
Jotting down some rough notes and sentences, he stopped to look out of
the window in a dreamy, absent manner, apparently without thought. Thirty-
five years ago, amid the same surroundings, in that same room, on that very
table, Rousseau had written those burning pages of romance under whose
influence Robespierre had stammered forth his first love tale on the
shoulder of Clarisse. Did he ever think of that drama of his youth, of that
living relic of his sin wandering about the world perhaps, his child, the fruit
of his first love, whose advent into life Clarisse had announced to him some
months after the terrible scene at the Rue des Lions-Saint-Paul? Think? He
had more important things to trouble him! Think indeed! The idea had
never entered his head. For many years the intellectual appetite had alone
prevailed in him;—egoism, and that masterful ambition which asks no other
intoxicant than the delirium of success, and the thought of realising one day,
by terrorism even if necessary, Utopian theories of universal equality. And
yet the letter in which Clarisse had apprised him of her approaching
motherhood would have moved a stone:—
"DEAR MAXIMILIEN,—I never thought to write to you after the

solemn promise torn from me by my father, the day he declared I should
never be your wife. An unexpected event releases me from my oath, and
brings me nearer to you.
"I am about to become a mother.
"My father knows this. I thought that the announcement would conquer
his resistance, but I was mistaken. My supplications were vain.
"He persists unshaken in his refusal, exasperated at my entreaties, and is

resolved to send me to a convent, where the innocent being whose life is
already considered a crime will first see the light. My heart bleeds at the
thought of the wide gulf that must separate you from your child, orphaned
before its birth. And what pain for you to have a child that you must never
know! But I will spare you this. You are the disposer of our destiny,
Maximilien. We are yours.
"I have some money saved, which, in addition to the kind help of
Mademoiselle Jusseaume, would enable us to cross to England, where a
priest of our faith will bless our union. We can return afterwards to France,
if you wish; that shall be as you judge best, for you will have no wife more
submissive and devoted than the mother of your child.
"I am sending this letter to your aunt's at Arras, requesting them to

forward it to you. Write to me at the Poste Restante, Rue du Louvre, under
the name of the kind-hearted Mademoiselle Jusseaume, who is reading over
my shoulder while I write, her eyes full of tears. Wherever I may be, your
reply will always reach me.
"I kiss thee from my soul, dear companion of my heart—that heart

which through all its sufferings burns with an undying love and is thine
forever.
"CLARISSE DE PONTIVY."
This letter remained unanswered. Had it reached its destination? Yes;

young Robespierre had actually received it, eight days after, in Paris, at the
Hôtel du Coq d'Argent, on the Quai des Grands-Augustins, where he had
hired a room after leaving Monsieur de Pontivy's house. He had read and
re-read Clarisse's letter, then, on consideration, he burnt it, so that no trace
of it should be left. Clarisse's proposal was a risky adventure. What would
become of them both in England when her meagre resources were
exhausted? Return to France? Implore Monsieur de Pontivy's pardon? A
fine prospect! He would cause the marriage to be annulled, for it was illegal
both in England and in France, as the young people were not of age. As to
him, his fate was sealed in advance. He would be sent to the Bastille. And
the child? He scarcely gave a thought to it. So much might happen before
its birth!
This, however, was made known to him, soon after, in another letter
from Clarisse. The child—a boy—was born. If he did not decide to take
them the child would be abandoned, and she sent to a convent. Robespierre
hesitated, crushing the letter between his fingers, then resolutely burnt it, as
he destroyed the first. Paugh! The grandfather was wealthy. The child
would not starve. Clarisse had told him that she had given him Monsieur de
Pontivy's Christian name—Olivier. The Councillor would eventually relent.
And was it not, after all, one of those adventures of common occurrence in
the life of young men? He, at least, had done his duty by offering to make
reparation by marriage. Monsieur de Pontivy would not hear of it. So much
the worse!
Ah! he was of mean birth, was he!—without ancestry, without
connections, without a future.... Without a future? Was that certain, though?
Monsieur de Pontivy's refusal, far from humiliating him, gave a spur to

his ambition. All his latent self-esteem and pride rose suddenly in one
violent outburst. Full of bitterness and wounded vanity he finished his law
studies in a sort of rage, and set out for Arras, his native place, which he
had left as a child, returning to it a full-fledged lawyer. No sooner was he
called to the Bar than he came into public notice, choosing the cases most
likely to bring him renown.
But these local triumphs, however flattering, only half-satisfied his

ambition. He cared little or nothing for provincial fame. He would be also
foremost in the ranks of those who followed with anxious interest the great
Revolutionary movement now astir everywhere, in the highways and
byways of France, with its train of new ideas and aspirations. Robespierre
took part in this cautiously and adroitly, reserving ample margin for retreat
in case of future surprises, but already foreseeing the brilliant career that
politics would thenceforth offer to ambition.
At the Convocation of the States-General, the young lawyer was sent to

Versailles to represent his native town. Success was, at length, within his
grasp. He was nearing the Court, and about to plunge into the whirl of
public affairs, in which he thought to find an avenue to his ambition.
And yet he did not succeed all at once. Disconcerted, he lost command
of himself, became impatient and excited by extreme nervousness. He had
developed such tendencies even at Arras, and time seemed only to increase
them. In the chamber of the States-General, still ringing with the thunderous
eloquence of Mirabeau, the scene of giant contests of men of towering
mental stature, Robespierre vainly essayed to speak. He was received with
mockery and smiles of ridicule. He appeared puny and grotesque to these
colossal champions of Liberty, with his falsetto voice, his petty gestures, his
nervous twitches and grimaces, more like a monkey who had lost a nut than
a man.
But Robespierre's colleagues would have ceased their raillery perhaps

had they gone deeper into the motives and character of the man, and
sounded the subtle intricacies of his soul. They would have found in those
depths a resolute desire to accomplish his aim, an insatiable pride joined to
the confidence of an apostle determined to uphold his own doctrines, and to
promote theories of absolute equality, and of a return to the ideal state of
nature. They would have perhaps discovered that this ambitious fanatic was
capable of anything, even of atrocious crime, to realise his dreams.
The impetuous tribune Mirabeau had said at Versailles: "That man will
go far, for he believes in what he says." Mirabeau ought to have said, "He
believes in himself, and, as the effect of his mad vanity, he looks upon
everything he says as gospel truth." And in this lay his very strength. This
was the source of his success, founded on that cult of self, and a confidence
in his own powers carried to the point of believing himself infallible.
Through all the jolts and jars of party strife, the thunder and lightning
contests, the eager enthusiasm or gloomy despondency, the grand and
tumultuous outpourings of the revolutionary volcano through all this
hideous but sublime conflict, and amid dissensions of parties swarming
from the four corners of France, tearing each other to pieces like wild
beasts, Robespierre cunningly pursued a stealthy course, sinuously
ingratiating himself now with the more advanced, now with the more
moderate, always faithful to his original plan and policy.
Words! Rhetoric! these were his arms. Speech was not incriminating,
but actions were. Words were forgotten, actions lived as facts, and
Robespierre kept as clear of these as possible. During the most startling
manifestations of that horrible revolutionary struggle, he was never seen,
though the work of his hand could be traced everywhere, for far from
retiring he carried fuel to the flames, knowing well that every one would be
swallowed up in the fratricidal strife. When the danger was over and victory
assured, he would re-appear fierce and agitated, thus creating the illusion
that he had taken part in the last battle, and suffered personally in the
contest.
Where was he at the insurrection of Paris, the 10th of August, 1792,

when the populace invaded the Tuileries, and hastened the fall and
imprisonment of the King, whom they sent to the scaffold some months
later? Where was he a few days later, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th of
September, when armed bands wandered through Paris, forcing the prison
doors, and butchering the hostages? Where was he during the riots of
February, 1793, when the famished populace prowled about Paris asking for
bread? Where was he the evening of the 1st of May, when eighteen
thousand Parisians assailed the National Convention to turn out the traitor
deputies? Where was he two days after, on the 2nd of June, when the
insurrection recommenced?
Hidden, immured, barricaded, walking to and fro like an encaged tiger-

cat, excited and agitated, shaken with doubts, cold beads of perspiration
standing on his forehead, breathless to hear any news which his agents and
detectives might bring him, and only breathing freely again when the result
was known.
For this man was a coward. And was this known? No! Not then! All that
was known was what he wished to make public; that he was poor, that he
was worthy in every respect of the title of "Incorruptible" given to him by a
revolutionist in a moment of enthusiasm. And, in truth, he was free from
any venal stain, and knew that in this lay the greater part of his strength.
What was also known was that he was temperate and chaste. His private
life, from the time he left Versailles with the States-General to come to Paris
and install himself in a humble lodging in the Rue de Saintonge, would bear
the closest scrutiny. He lived there frugally and modestly, his only resource
being the deputy's fees of eighteen francs a day, part of which he
ostentatiously sent to his sister at Arras. Then suddenly he established
himself in the house of Duplay the carpenter, in the Rue Saint-Honoré, a
few steps from his club, the Jacobin Club; or, more properly speaking, he
was established there by force, by the carpenter himself, an ardent admirer
of his, who took advantage of a chance hospitality during the riots to press
him to remain indefinitely. He occupied a room under their roof where he
had now lived a year, surrounded by the jealous care of the whole family, in
republican simplicity, after the true patriarchal manner.
All this was well known, or if it had not been Robespierre would have
proclaimed it, for from this Spartan setting an atmosphere of democratic
virtue enveloped him, and raised him in solitary state above his fellows.
Yes, he was above them! Others gave themselves away, but he never!
Others had revealed their characters in unguarded moments, and laid bare to
the world their frailties and their virtues. He had never betrayed himself, for
he never acted on impulse. The others were well known to be made of flesh
and blood, of idealism, and dust, but who knew the real Robespierre? The
very mystery and doubt in which his true character was wrapped had lent
credence to the common rumour which attributed to him supernatural
qualities. He was compared to the pure source, high among virgin snows,
from which the Revolution sprung.
He stood alone on his pedestal, inaccessible, unassailable. All the great

leaders of the Revolution, his predecessors or his rivals, had disappeared,
carried off in the whirlwind, victims of their exaggerated enthusiasm, as
Mirabeau and Marat, or of Robespierre's treachery, as Danton and Camille
Desmoulins, ground in the sanguinary mill of the Revolutionary Tribunal,
on his sole accusation.
Thus when his path was cleared of those who stood most in his way, he
anticipated the time when he should hold the destiny of France in his hand,
aided by the Convention now subdued to his will, and the whole armed
force grovelling at his feet.
Yet one obstacle remained to be surmounted: the Committee of Public

Safety to whom the Convention had transferred its authority, and of which
he was a member, but where he felt a terrible undercurrent of animosity
directed against him.
At this point Robespierre realised that he must either cajole or conquer

them. For if they were curbed and reduced to silence, he would have all
power absolutely in his own hands. The hour was approaching. It was
necessary to strike a decisive blow, and he thought to have found the means
to do so, and to overawe the Committee, at his Festival of the Supreme
Being, which would take place in a couple of days, when he would speak to
the assembled multitude, and dominate his colleagues in his quality of
President of the Convention, a post he had sought in order to have an
opportunity to assert himself at this lay ceremony, this parody of the
religious celebrations of the old regime.
His intention was to confirm in public, amid the acclamations of the
populace, the religion of a new God, whose existence he had just
proclaimed—the God of Nature, a stranger to Christianity, borrowed entire
from Rousseau's famous pages in le Vicaire Savoyard. Robespierre's
sectarian temperament experienced a deeper satisfaction than he had
perhaps ever felt, at the thought that he was to declaim, among flowers and
incense, those empty, sonorous phrases which he was writing on the little
walnut table where his master had found some of his most burning
inspirations. He became in his own eyes the high priest of the Republic,
offering incense on the altar of his own superhuman sovereignty. Yes,
Robespierre could already hear the enthusiastic applause of the multitude!
Who would dare to stand in his way after such public consecration in the
immense Place de la Révolution, where for a week past the platform was
being prepared.
Such was the man shadowed by Destiny, the further course of whose
chequered career, with its startling incidents, we are now to follow.
Robespierre had just finished his first discourse, for he was to deliver
two. He closed it with a menace. "People," it ran, "let us under the auspices
of the Supreme Being give ourselves up to a pure joy. To-morrow we shall
again take arms against vice and tyrants!"
This was his note of warning to those who, he felt, ranged themselves
against him. Completely satisfied with himself, he read and re-read his
sentences, stopping to polish periods and phrases, or seeking graceful and
sonorous epithets. One passage especially pleased him, for a breath of le
Vicaire Savoyard seemed to pervade it. He spoke of the presence of the
Supreme Being, in all the joys of life. "It is He," he said, "who adds a charm
to the brow of beauty by adorning it with modesty; it is He who fills the
maternal heart with tenderness and joy; it is He who floods with happy tears
the eyes of a son clasped in his mother's arms." Robespierre smiled at the
music of the phrasing which in his pedantry he thought his master would
not have disowned.
But he stopped. After all, was it not a reminiscence of le Vicaire
Savoyard? Perhaps he had made use of the same metaphor as Rousseau? He
would be accused of feeble imitation! This could be easily ascertained, as
the book was near at hand, in the little bookcase that once belonged to the
master. He had but to take it from the case. The key was in the lock, but it
resisted, though he used all his strength. Growing impatient, he was about
to break open the door, but paused as though this would be sacrilege, and at
last sent for the gardener.
"This lock does not act, does it?" he said.
The gardener tried it in his turn, but with no better success.
"It is of the utmost importance for me to have a book which is in there,"

said Robespierre, visibly annoyed.
"That can be easily managed, citizen; there is a locksmith a few steps

from here, on the road to the forest. I will go and fetch his apprentice."
The gardener ran downstairs, and Robespierre returned to his work. He

was soon aware of footsteps advancing. It was the gardener returning with
the apprentice.
"This way, citizen," said the gardener.
The two men entered. Robespierre had his back to them, and continued
to write, a happy inspiration having occurred to him, which he was shaping
into a sentence. After they had tried several keys the door yielded at last.
"Now it's right, citizen!" said the gardener.
"Thanks!" said Robespierre, still bending over his work, and absorbed
in his sentence.
Suddenly the sound of a voice floated up through the casement:—

"Petits oiseaux de ce viant bocage...."
It was the young apprentice returning home across the garden, singing.
Robespierre stopped in his writing, vaguely surprised. He had heard that air
before! But where? When? This he could not tell. It was the echo of a
distant memory. He turned his head slowly in the direction of the cadence,
but the song had ceased.
The fleeting impression was soon effaced, and Robespierre, having

already forgotten the coincidence, rose and went towards the now open
bookcase. Taking Rousseau's volume, he opened it at these words: "Is there
in the world a more feeble and miserable being, a creature more at the
mercy of all around it, and in such need of pity, care, and protection, as a
child?" He passed over two chapters, turning the pages hastily. The phrase
he wanted was undoubtedly more towards the end. As one of the leaves
resisted the quick action of his hand, he stopped a moment to glance at the
text: "From my youth upwards, I have respected marriage as the first and
holiest institution of nature..." Now he would find it. The phrase he wanted
could not be much further! It soon cheered his sight: "I see God in all His
works, I feel His presence in me, I see Him in all my surroundings."
Robespierre breathed freely again. Here was only an analogy of

thought, suggested, hinted at by Rousseau, and which he, Robespierre, had
more fully developed. Smiling and reassured he returned to his place.
CHAPTER III
THE ENGLISHMAN
These words of Rousseau read before the open bookcase, suggestive as

they were of voices from the past still echoing through his memory, had no
meaning for him. They kindled no spark in the dead embers of his
conscience to reveal the truth. And yet it was a warning from heaven—a
moment of grave and vital import in the life of this man, who, had he not
been blinded by an insane ambition, might have recognised in the passing
stranger a messenger of Fate.
For the voice which had distracted him from his work was the voice of
Clarisse, and the young apprentice who had just left him was his son.
The outcast child, now grown to manhood, had been within touch of his
own father, but unseen by him. No mysterious affinity had drawn them
together, though the voice had vaguely troubled him as he returned to his
work.
The young man on leaving l'Ermitage took the path that led to the
forest. He was a fine, stoutly built lad, with a brisk lively manner, strong
and supple, revealing in spite of his workman's garb an air of good breeding
which might have perhaps betrayed his origin to a keen observer. His hair
was dark brown, his blue eyes looked out from the sunburnt and weather-
beaten face with an expression of extreme sweetness, and his full lips
smiled under a downy moustache. He walked with rapid strides, a hazel
stick in his hand, towards the forest, which he soon reached, threading the
paths and bypaths with the assurance of one to whom the deep wood and its
intricate labyrinths was familiar. He slackened his pace now and then to
wipe the perspiration from his forehead, keeping to the more shady side of
the way, for the sun, already high in the heavens, shed its rays in a burning
shower through the leaves, scorching the very grass in its intensity. At last,
overcome by the heat, he took off his coat and hung it at the end of the stick
across his shoulder.
Presently he turned into an avenue of oak saplings through which a

green glade was visible, an oasis where refreshing coolness told of the
presence of running water. Here he shaded his eyes with his hands to make
out a form outlined against the distance, and a smile lit up his face as he
recognised the approaching figure. Hastening his steps he called out—
"Thérèse!"
A fresh, clear voice answered—

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Magnetic Nanoparticles in Human

Health and Medicine Current Medical

Nanoparticles in Biology and Medicine Mikhail Soloviev

Human Microbiome in Health Disease and Therapy 1st

Medical Image Synthesis: Methods and Clinical

Lung Cancer New Understandings and Therapies Current

Options : The Alternative Cancer Therapy Book (Revici

JEE Advanced Physics-Magnetic Effects of Current and

Physical Therapy and Research in Patients with Cancer

In Praise Of Failure Costica Bradatan

Current Medical Applications and

1.1 Magnetism of Nanoparticles: From Bulk to

In the ferromagnetic crystal, the atoms with spin magnetic moment

When the size of the magnetic material, ferro‐ or ferrimagnetic, is

The basic magnetic aspects of bulk magnetic material, ferromagnetic, or

1.1.2 The Atomic Magnetic Moment,

with the observables: e is the electron charge (e = 1.6 × 10−19 C), m0 is

(Eq. 1.1), and i the number of atoms/ions in volume V) of the volume

respectively, in the hypothesis of a continuous environment. According

In the case of reducing the volume of ferrous‐ or ferrimagnetic material

where D is the diameter of the nanoparticle, an approximation widely

Figure 1.3 (a) Representation of the magnetization vectors ( ) and

In the case of magnetic nanoparticles (Figure 1.3b), the aspects are

1.1.3 Magnetic Structures

The magnetic domains are separated from each other by narrow

Figure 1.5 Multidomain magnetic nanoparticles with (a) uniform

Using the classic model of the single‐domain particle, it can estimate

where εP is the energy density of the domain wall, μ0 is the magnetic

where D is the constant in the crystalline network, TC is the Curie

1.1.4 Magnetic Saturation

"What!" he exclaimed, "at his age! This is promising, certainly."

And he began to wonder which servant was accessory to these midnight

Was Robespierre in the house, then?

Where was he? In Louison's room, undoubtedly, on the third floor!

His daughter's waiting-woman! The thought was distracting. That she

"Decidedly," he muttered, "I was mistaken in my estimate of that young

All at once he stopped. He caught the sound of whispering, and the

Robespierre had come from Clarisse's room!

Everything swam before him. He held in his hand the extinguished

"Where do you come from?" he almost hissed.

Monsieur de Pontivy, mad with rage, repeated—"Where do you come

He was strangling him.

Robespierre gave a hoarse scream.

"You are hurting me!" he gasped.

It was Clarisse, drawn by the noise, half-dressed, her hair hanging in

It was dishonour, yes, dishonour complete, palpable, avowed, dishonour

The young man, having regained his self-possession, was about to

"Silence!" he thundered. "Not a word! Do you hear, sir? Not a word! To

The command was accompanied with such a gesture that Robespierre

Then, turning towards Clarisse, he continued, "As to you ..."

THE VOICE OF THE PAST

She, influenced by a train of incidents insignificant in themselves,

He recited portions aloud, learned them by heart, found them sublime in

She was unconsciously dragged into a world of fancy and illusion by

The decision had been brief, in the character of a command:

"But I am willing to make reparation," he said.

The Councillor drew back under this new affront.

"You marry my daughter! You forget who you are, Monsieur de