Peace in the world

Pace, a word derived from the Latin pax, generally defines, in a positive sense, a state of
tranquility, a state free from military conflict.
In ancient Greece, the idea of peace was linked to the original golden age of humanity. In Greek
mythology, Irina (Eirene) is an allegorical goddess personifying peace. The symbol of the dove
with an olive branch also originates from ancient mythology: by choosing the helmet of Ares
(Mars), the god of war, to nest, this sacred bird prolongs the state of peace, preventing the god
from fulfilling his function

The evolution of the peace in the world

On the collective level, peace is the absence of war (Latin pax absentia belli), of violence
between human groups. In this sense, totalitarian or dictatorial societies may be at peace
militarily, but not socially: for example, class struggle is a state of social war. Maintaining
international peace is one of the objectives of organizations such as the UN. There are also non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) that support peace talks where there is a state of war, such
as Neve Shalom - Wahat as Salam, the joint Israeli-Palestinian movement
Pacifists, like Christian anarchists, believe that any kind of violence will only breed more
violence. Other groups of people take a variety of positions on violence, many of them espousing
the just war theory. Communism's ideologues also repeatedly affirmed their attachment to the
"struggle for peace," but their anti-war slogans often concealed expansionist intentions.
Politicians and soldiers have claimed at various times that they want peace, but a "just peace", by
which they could understand a peace that only takes into account the interests of one of the
conflicting parties (theirs).

Peace as stasis between two punctuations

CHANGE
According to the theory of Niles Eltridge and John Sepkoski (1972), in both individual and
family life as well as social life, in human history and in natural history, periods of peace
alternate with periods of conflict called punctuations. In periods of peace, the evolution is
gradual: a personal or family balance is formed, habits settle, the political regime remains the
same, the climate, flora, fauna change little and gradually. During the punctuation periods,
various incidents or accidents, births, deaths, illnesses, marriages, divorces, job changes,
business openings or closures, major political changes, revolutions, civil or international wars,
state collapses, territorial changes, natural catastrophes , climatic, volcanic or meteoritic end the
state of peace, destroy the previous balance and inaugurate a new balance, a new period of peace
(stasis), on new bases. This theory was called the "punctuated equilibrium theory".
The preamble of UNESCO's founding declaration states: "since wars spring from the spirit of
men, it is also in their spirit that the foundations of peace must be laid." Indian politician
Mohandas Gandhi stated, "There is no way to peace, for peace is the way" and "Justice can only
be achieved through a just peace, and peace cannot last without justice for all, including the
enemy", adding however : "In the face of men like Hitler or Stalin, violence is less harmful to
peace than cowardice disguised as non-violence.”
The way in which humanity has evolved towards modernity can very well be analyzed from the
perspective of changing forms of consciousness, of the remodeling of social relationships and
structures, of technological developments, or from the relationship of the individual to the
environment that surrounds him. But the modern man, like the man of any historical era,
continues to be completely described by the way he relates himself as an individual, but also the
community of which he is a part as a whole, to the forms of conflict with which he is
contemporary. It is like a sum of attitudes sensibly complete of its external dynamics, but also of
its inner feelings, anxieties and aspirations.

Today, wars without winners and losers, or undeclared preventive wars, are possible. Man
recently also discovered conflict-as-a-spectacle.

War and peace of modern man thus define a new form of consciousness, which states must
organize and which also has a measurement tool: economic growth. For the historians of the
future, the forms of peace and those of the current war will provide a perfect description of the
times with which we are contemporaries.
War, as well as periods of peace, are forms of balancing social energies, and the way in which
they behave or manifest themselves bears witness to the culture and the stage of social
development. The modern man is the man of individual conscience, sure of his free will, and his
claim to gain was to relate contractually to the social community of which he is a part. He is the
recent man.

Man has recently elevated reason to the rank of divinity and placed himself at the center of the
Universe. In an attempt to define modern humanity, Horia Roman Patapievici characterizes those
who we are as "...the best fed, the most prosperous, the freest (in terms of space travel) that
humanity has known. At the same time, people are the weakest of angels, the most dependent on
comfort and consumption, the most enslaved to the pleasure of free will, the least autonomous in
their judgments, the most gregarious and servile (…) that he has ever known humanity. (…)
The recent man is the man who, wanting to be fed up with all the phenomena of the world -
mastering them, possessing them, changing them as he pleases and permeating himself with all
their materiality, he woke up one fine day that he is nothing more than an epiphenomenon of
their flow, drain and trickle.”
Modern man took note of the statement of Friedrich Nietzsche, who found that God is dead,
killed by the desire to question him and question him according to rational logic. Without God,
modern man was also left without a number of landmarks, which he replaced with material
targets. He thus became vulnerable and weak in the face of the need to satisfy his immediate
desires and fearful of tomorrow. He became easily manipulable and replaced his fear of an
ineffable court with a morality that he constantly builds and adapts.
His desires, especially those dictated by erotic impulses of all kinds, are today what particularly
characterizes the recent man, and not the heroism, chivalry or unshakable faith of another time.
Of course, all these changes will be found and examined by future generations and by analyzing
our ways of waging war or keeping peace. Some of them are also the subject of this work.

The great change of modernity

Robert Nisbet sees as a consequence of the French Revolution the opportunity for the emergence
of new types of property, more fluid. In the modern world to "have liquidity", i.e. to have "cash",
liquid receivables, is generally a desirable thing. It wasn't always like that. The essence of
feudalism was that the lords rewarded their faithful with properties (feuds), which included the
inventory of goods and related settlements.
Modern man took note of the statement of Friedrich Nietzsche, who found that God is dead,
killed by the desire to question him and question him according to rational logic. Without God,
modern man was also left without a number of landmarks, which he replaced with material
targets. He thus became vulnerable and weak in the face of the need to satisfy his immediate
desires and fearful of tomorrow. He became easily manipulable and replaced his fear of an
ineffable court with a morality that he constantly builds and adapts.
His desires, especially those dictated by erotic impulses of all kinds, are today what particularly
characterizes the recent man, and not the heroism, chivalry or unshakable faith of another time.
Of course, all these changes will be found and examined by future generations and by analyzing
our ways of waging war or keeping peace. Some of them are also the subject of this work.

The great change of modernity

Robert Nisbet sees as a consequence of the French Revolution the opportunity for the emergence
of new types of property, more fluid. In the modern world to "have liquidity", i.e. to have "cash",
liquid receivables, is generally a desirable thing. It wasn't always like that. The essence of
feudalism was that the lords rewarded their faithful with properties (feuds), which included the
inventory of goods and related settlements.
Giordano Bruno went further. He considered that the intellect is of a fantastic nature, and the
philosopher is the one who must be able to handle the phantasms and become "a great painter of
the spirit". The paternity of the equation "eros=magic" still belongs to Marsilio Ficino. He shows
for the first time the identity of substance of the two techniques of manipulation of phantasms, as
well as of their operational procedures. Ficino also uses the term "net", to explain how the lover,
like the magician, do the same thing: they cast their nets to attract what they want.

Giordano Bruno additionally proposes the terms "binding" (vincire) and "linkage" (vincula) to
describe the same process. Bruno's magician (the manipulator, or the great manipulator) is the
one who is aware that, in order to "attach" an individual (or a group of individuals), he must take
into account the complexity of the expectations of the target subject(s). Thus, the more
knowledge the manipulator has about those he has to "tie", the more his chance to succeed
increases, because he will know how to choose the right means to create a bond.
Bruno's fundamental assumption is that there is a great tool of manipulation and this is eros in
the most general sense of the term (what we love, from physical pleasure to unsuspected things,
passing through wealth, power, etc.). The main entrance of all magical operations is fantasy, the
only gateway to all internal effects and "link of links". The operator (magician) who wants to
exercise control over others must first be himself sheltered from any control coming from others.
Then, both the operator and his subjects must "believe" in the effectiveness of his actions. Faith
is a prerequisite for magic. However, the operator is the only one who is aware of the magical
mechanism.

Ioan Petru Culianu opines that the Magician (Bruno's great manipulator), the one capable of
controlling and directing phantasms, did not disappear with modern man. Bruno's magician
today deals with public relations, advertising, information, counter-information and
disinformation, censorship, cryptography, etc., and the principles of the Bruno operator continue
to be followed, even if in an impersonal and technical form. Of course, technology has not
replaced magic on the ground that was its own, that of intersubjective relationships, to the extent
that applied psychology and psychosociology are direct extensions of Renaissance magic.
Moreover, the function of the great manipulator was institutionalized, being taken over by the
states. A state that wants to survive must be able to provide its citizens with an infallible
education and, as far as possible, be able to satisfy their wishes. If it fails, the state must take care
to produce its own counter-culture, whose ideological components must be organized in order to
avoid the cohesion of the marginals and the increase of their power.

This last observation contained in Culianu's works is particularly important, as will be seen
below. If manipulation is taken for granted as an effective weapon used in a conflict to confuse
your opponent, in the world of modern man, peace is written with manipulation
operations.Forms of peace, forms of war in the world of modern man
In the early 1990s, Alvin and Heidi Toffler expanded their social theory of the "wave"
development of human society, publishing "War and Anti-War." Consistent with the idea of
"power in motion", the Tofflers explain their vision in the preface: "The thesis of this book is
clear but, nevertheless, little understood: the way we fight reflects the way we make wealth and
the way we anti- we war must reflect the way we war. (...) War and anti-war, however, are not
antagonistic, in the sometimes system. (…) In a complex world, there are times when war itself
becomes a necessary tool to prevent a bigger and more terrible war. War is anti-war.”

The Tofflers explain society throughout history with the help of a scheme that made them
famous, by theorizing the waves of development: the first wave, of pre-industrial society, the
second wave, of industrial society and the third wave, which humanity entered in the third
millennium AD, the wave of post-industrialism. The merit of this simplification is that it helps a
lot to outline common forms of peace and war throughout history and allows understanding of
future forms of belligerence and, obviously, peace.
The first forms of warfare, of wild hunters and gatherers fighting for the natural resources of a
given territory, were obviously cruel. Once nature began to be mastered and agriculture made it
possible to create food surpluses, it became more profitable to enslave opponents than to
decimate them. Slavery represented one of the many innovations of the First Wave of social
development, which had the effect of reducing the inventory of corpses on the battlefield.
Slavery is one of the forms of peace of the First Wave civilization.

Industrialism, when it appeared for the first time in Europe, offered as a social innovation
relations established on the basis of contractual agreements. Contracts have become an integrated
part of everyday business. Political systems were justified in terms of a "social contract" between
rulers and the ruled. Treaties and agreements became key elements in the forms of war and peace
of the Second Wave.
Second Wave warfare has evolved into organized violence between nations, fully committed and
led by governments at the helm of integrated economies. In order to maintain peace, institutions
were created: the League of Nations after the First World War, respectively the United Nations
Organization, after the Second World War, which were established around the nations. The
treaties recognized national sovereignty, the inviolability of each national border and the full
right of independent nations to be represented under equal conditions in international cooperation
and regulatory organizations.

The Cold War marked the last great confrontation of industrial society. Its end was not the result
of a violent confrontation, commensurate with the forces that could have been employed, but of
the acceptance of the idea of the superiority of the opponent, at the same time and the evidence
that a mass conflict, on a planetary scale, could mean the end of humanity, the end of history .
Another end of history was later theorized by one of the ideologues of American neo-liberalism,
Francis Fukuyama, in "The End of History and the Last Man", by proclaiming the need for all
nations to move towards democracy and the free market as a goal of the postmodern society
without conflicts. Toffler does not believe in the end of conflicts and takes the analysis further,
noting: "...the Second Wave type idea according to which national governments are the only ones
that can have military force is today outdated". And if the nations have already lost the monopoly
of violence, why "...would we not consider the creation of voluntary forces (...) organized by
private corporations to fight wars on the basis of salary contracts, for the United Nations...".
Maintaining the idea of contract and free initiative, which he transfers to the sphere of the
organization of armed conflicts, Toffler complements Fukuyama.

Jeremy Scahill, describing the beginnings of Blackwater, one of the most visible private full-
service war companies heavily engaged in the war effort in the Iraqi theaters of operations,
noted: "Blackwater was born just as the (U.S.) military , n.n.) was in the midst of a massive,
unprecedented privatization campaign that had begun in force during Dick Cheney's tenure as Secretary
of Defense, between 1989 and 1993, under the presidency of George H. W. Bush. (…) The idea was to let
the troops fight, while the private soldiers took care of the logistics." Scahill's analysis proves that not
only the theory of war has changed.Toffler then notes that in the society of nations of the Second
Wave, the global system was characterized by balance ("balance of power"). Therefore, if one
nation tended to become too powerful, then the others would coalesce against it. Or this
conception can no longer be valid after the collapse of one of the two great powers that waged
the Cold War. On the contrary, the current global system is "far from equilibrium" (Toffler is
inspired here by the theories of the physicist Ilya Prigogine), because there are political leaders
who are not averse to risk, on the contrary, they prosper politically by causing crises.

To prevent wars in such a global society, the solution is rather a surgical one. Because "systems
far from equilibrium" behave "non-linearly", small causes can be at the origin of huge effects.
Punctual armed interventions are therefore advisable to prevent conflicts from escalating to an
uncontrollable level. Surgical interventions (anti-war) can very well be done by "specialists"
provided by private security agencies as well and not necessarily by the regular armed forces.
The state's security agencies can thus become employers for the purpose of administering the
peace options that the political factor takes into account. Technological, knowledge, but also
social and ideological developments make this form of peace, which we can call the Third Wave,
perfectly possible.
The administration of peace through anti-war means, however, involves advanced forms of
"intelligence", in a weight far beyond what was considered tactically useful in the wars of the
Second Wave. The confrontation thus moves massively in the plan of information or
misinformation and technological advance, becoming much more important to correctly and
judiciously plan the forms of knowledge and analysis of informational resources, than a battle in
its form of violent confrontation.

The inner peace

On an individual level, peace can also be a personal state of mind, free from anger, rage,
bitterness, fear, and generally negative feelings. It can be wished for oneself and for others, many
traditional greetings being based on this wish (Latin pax vobis, Arabic salam aleikum, common
throughout the Islamic world, shalom in Hebrew, became shulem in Yiddish). It also has the
meaning of health in Semitic languages (which is similar to the meaning of greetings from other
cultures and languages - be healthy, salve, zdravstvuite, geia su, etc.).

Followers of some religions, such as Jainism, try not to harm any living thing, including insects.
Buddhists and Hindus believe that peace can be achieved when all desire and suffering ends. To
eliminate suffering and achieve this peace, they follow a series of teachings called the "Four
Noble Truths": the main doctrine of their philosophy. In the Chinese yi-king, peace is not the
absence of war, but the permanent pursuit of non-violent conflict resolution. However, wars were
not absent from Hindu, Confucian and Buddhist cultures, and some servants of the cults
approved or even encouraged them.

Conflicts
In general psychology, conflict is considered any clash of needs, motives, interests, thoughts,
feelings, or behavioral patterns directed in opposition. Conflict represents a non-constructive
way of externalizing accumulated emotions. It is accompanied by negative emotional processes
that disrupt behavior and reduce the efficiency of an individual’s activities. Conflict can play
either a positive or negative role for those involved in it.
The positive role of conflict is reflected through:

 Reconsideration of positions between communication participants or among one or more

individuals.
 Message reformulation.
 Improved feedback.
 Self-awareness at a personal level.
 Future self-control.
 Social recognition from others (for instance, better understanding of personal, social, and
psychological needs, hierarchical position within an organization, social statuses, and
social roles). The individual in question undergoes psychological and social
transformation, becoming predisposed to positive personal changes.
In general, most conflicts are related to the following sources:

1. Fundamental needs: These are the necessities essential for human survival, such as food,
water, and air.
2. Differing values: For instance, individuals belonging to different religions may hold
distinct values.
3. Diverse perceptions: These arise when people see or interpret things differently. For
example, two individuals might argue over a color because they perceive it differently.

Additionally, conflicts can emerge:

 Within groups of the same category of human resources.

 Between individuals and groups, as well as between groups and managers.
 Within educational organizations as a whole.

Student conflicts often stem from several common causes:

 Competitive atmosphere in the educational process.

 Low tolerance for frustration.
 Limited communication skills.
 Inability to express negative emotions.
 Desire for affirmation at any cost.
 Mutual envy and antipathy

- Struggle for group dominance;

- Lack of conflict resolution skills;
- Wrong use of power by the teaching staff;
- Unmotivated aggression from colleagues, criticism of their families, aggression from friends;
- Arrogance, lies and ridicule of physical appearance.
In solving these conflicts, the teacher has a decisive role. He must be a peacemaker who uses the
conflict constructively in order to achieve the established educational goals. This goal can only
be achieved by knowing the concrete initial causes of the conflict that has arisen. The repeated
and consistent use of conflict resolution techniques by teachers will make the students able, after
a while, to resolve their conflicts by themselves and not bring them to the teacher every time.
This has beneficial effects on the classroom atmosphere, contributing to the creation of an
educational community where students support each other.
Questionnaire for students I
1. Do you like being a student in your class?
2. How do you rate your relationship with your colleagues?
3. How often do you organize common activities outside of school?
4. Can you rely on your colleagues if you have a problem?
5. How often do you have conflict situations in class?
6. To what extent are you involved in conflicts?
7. How easily can you resolve conflicts that arise?
8. Do your teachers help you in solving conflicts?
9. How would you like teachers to help you in resolving conflicts?
10. On whom does it depend that conflicts do not arise in your class?
Questionnaire for students II
1. In the group I belong to, the most conflictive students are _______.
2. In my group, the most violent students (thugs) are ______.
3. I sometimes argue with a colleague: a) never; b) rarely; c) often.
4. I happened to hit a classmate: a) never; b) rarely; c) often.
5. I happened to be hit by a colleague from my current collective: a) never; b) rarely; c) often.

Conciliation
International conciliation refers to a means of peaceful settlement of disputes between states,
according to the proposals made by a commission whose organization, composition and mode of
work are established by agreement of the parties.
The principle of peaceful settlement of international disputes and the concrete means of
resolution are the result of a long historical evolution of relations between states and the
development and improvement of institutions and norms of international law. In international
practice, there are known cases of resorting to various means of peaceful resolution of conflicts
since antiquity. .
In the Middle Ages states frequently used mediation, arbitration and conciliation.
 The peaceful settlement of international disputes is closely related to concerns aimed at
excluding war from the life of society, the prohibition of the use of force and the threat of force
in international relations, as well as the fight against international terrorism, the latter has
become a real danger against humanity. now, more than ever, the need for the peaceful settlement
of disputes between states is evidenced by a multitude of factors and processes that act in
international relations leading to their particularly serious tension.
Contemporary relationships are dominated by big problems, without alternative solutions yet.
The most serious of them is violence, although it was regulated after the Second World War, it
did not disappear, but acquired new forms of manifestation, some very serious, such as
destructured internal conflicts or international terrorism. Peace and war remain today essential
problems of international society and the legal regulation is not enough to really establish peace
as the only state of normality, because international relations can still be regulated by force. The
competition for power, understood as a competition of interests of the partners in the
international life, especially of the states, inevitably leads to contradictory situations, to
disagreements between them. Named generically - international disputes - these contradictions
have often led to violent conflicts with consequences between the worst on the international
balance and so quite fragile.
In another sense, the dispute means a misunderstanding, disagreement or dispute between
two or more states regarding a right, claim or interest.
The first attempts to outlaw war were in the interwar period, in an early form, through
peaceful means of resolving disputes between states.
Conciliation, a political-diplomatic means of peaceful settlement of international disputes,
appeared much later in conventional practice, although some elements of conciliation are also
found in mediation and investigation, being a combination of them. Investigating the causes of
the dispute as a characteristic of conciliation , is carried out by an independent body, and not by a
third party acting as a mediator. There is a close connection between the independent body and
the parties to the dispute, because the former formulates proposals, and the parties decide on
them.
The Hague Convention of 1907 does not enshrine the institution of conciliation, but it was
introduced in the relations between states, through bilateral treaties, namely the Bryan treaties
concluded in 1913 and 1914. they chose private persons by mutual agreement, they did not have
their own political authority. . This treaty has not been ratified. A first "Treaty of Conciliation"
and which establishes the procedure of conciliation in its characteristic features, is the Treaty
concluded between Sweden and Chile in 1920.
International documents that made international conciliation an important means of the
practices of states and international organizations in the peaceful settlement of international
conflicts were signed in the years 1922 - Resolution of the Assembly of the League of Nations on
the conciliation procedure, 1929 - General Act of Conciliation, Arbitration and Judicial
Regulation adopted, of the Little Understanding, 1938 General Act on the Judicial Settlement of
International Disputes, 1957 - European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes,
1966 - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1969 - Convention on the Right of
Treaty Arbitration, 1992 - CSCE Convention on Conciliation, etc. .

People who fought for peace

The Nobel Peace Prize is one of the most prestigious honors in the world. It is awarded to
individuals, institutions or international organizations that have made special efforts to establish
or restore peace in a conflict zone, as well as its reservation at the international level. The first
award of this kind was awarded in 1901 to the founder of the Red Cross, Henry Dunant, and the
leader of the pacifist movement at the time, Frederic Passy. To date 95 individuals and 20
organizations have been honored with this award.
In 2009 the winner of the Nobel Prize was Barack Obama.
In March 2008, controversy erupted over Jeremiah Wright, Obama's pastor of the last 20
years, after ABC News aired footage of his sermons with a strong racial and political charge.
Obama initially responded by defending Wright's role in Chicago's African-American
community, but condemned his remarks and ended campaign relations with Wright. During the
controversy, Obama gave a speech titled "A More Perfect Union") in which he addressed racial
issues. Obama later left Trinity United Church of Christ "to avoid the impression that he
endorses the full range of views expressed within that church."
On June 19, Obama became the first presidential candidate to refuse public funding in a
general election since the system was created in 1976, changing his mind after initially wanting
to accept it.
On November 4, 2008, Barack Obama defeated John McCain in the general election, and
became the first African-American elected president of the United States. In his post-election
speech to hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago, Obama said "change has come to
America."
Critics argued that it was inappropriate for the award to go to the president of a country
involved in military conflicts in Iran and Afghanistan.
Malala Yousafzai won the Nobel Prize in 2014. This is a Pakistani student, known for her
activity and militant spirit on issues of education and Islamic society in general, especially
discrimination against women. These issues were revealed in a blog she wrote for the BBC in
2009. The following year, The New York Times produced a documentary on the subject starring
Malala Yousafzai.
As a result of violating the Taliban's ban on girls not going to school, Malala fell victim to the
attack on October 9, 2012. Then a group of Taliban stopped Malala's school bus and opened fire
on her. The teenager was seriously injured in the head, but escaped alive.
In appreciation of her work, she is nominated for the International Children's Peace Prize, the
publication "Time" places her among the first 100 people of the world. On October 10, 2014, he
was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (which he shared with Kailash Satyarthi, who has been
fighting against child exploitation since the 1990s) "for the fight against the oppression of
children and young people and for the right of all children to education".
Juan Manuel Santos Calderón won the Nobel Prize in 2016. He is a Colombian politician who
was the 32nd president of Colombia. He came to power during a crisis in relations between
Colombia and Venezuela, which he quickly resolved. In 2016 he was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize for his efforts to end more than 50 years of civil strife in the country.
Maria Angelita Ressa is a Filipino-American journalist and author, co-founder and CEO of
Rappler. She received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2021, along with Dmitri Muratov, "for their
efforts to protect freedom of expression, a prerequisite for democracy and lasting peace."
Narges Safie Mohammadi is an Iranian human rights activist and the Vice President of the
Defenders of Human Rights Center (DHRC), led by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Ebadi. In
May 2016, she was sentenced in Tehran to 16 years in prison for founding and leading a "human
rights movement campaigning for the abolition of the death penalty". In 2022, she was named in
the BBC 100 Women list. In 2023, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for her fight against
the oppression of women in Iran and the fight to promote human rights and freedom for all".

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Psiologie 2012 SCHOOL CONFLICTS: TYPES, CAUSES, SOLUTIONS Maria VÎRLAN.
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https://ro.scribd.com/document/606839657/Suport-de-Curs
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama
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https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Santos
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