Computer Automation

in Manufacturing
Computer Automation
in Manufacturing

An introduction

Thomas O. Boucher
Department of Industrial Engineering
Rutgers University
Piscataway NJ
USA

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

First edition 1996
© 1996 Thomas O. Boucher
Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1996
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996

Typeset in 1O/12pt. Times by Thomson Press (I) Ltd., New Delhi

ISBN 978-1-4613 -5848-0 ISBN 978-1-4615-2045-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2045-0
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To My Mother and Father
 Contents

Preface Xl

Acknowledgements xiii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Developments in manufacturing technology for automation 1
1.2 A hierarchical model of factory automation 7
1.3 System requirements and automatic control technology 8
1.4 About this book 10
1.5 Summary 12
Further reading 12

2 The architecture of microprocessor-based systems 13

2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 The transistor and basic digital logic functions 16
2.3 Gates and their I/O functions 23
2.4 Basic properties of boolean variables 27
2.5 Gates, boolean algebra and the design of logic networks 29
2.6 An overview of the architecture and operations of a micro-
processor-based system 31
2.7 Number systems and low-level computer languages 47
2.8 Assembly language programming 57
2.9 Communications and automatic data transfer 60
2.10 Software strategies for I/O communication 75
2.11 Summary 80
Exercises 81
Further reading 90

3 Sensors and automatic data acquisition 92

3.1 Introduction 92
3.2 Discrete event sensors 93
3.3 Continuous sensors 100
3.4 Interfacing a digital controller with an analog world 106
3.5 Transducers 116
3.6 Summary 132
viii II CONTENTS

Exercises 132
Further reading 136

4 Actuators and the performance of work 137

4.1 Introduction 137
4.2 Concepts of work, force, torque and power 137
4.3 Power transmission and reflected forces 145
4.4 Basic principles of a DC machine 148
4.5 Operating characteristics of DC motors 152
4.6 Speed control of DC motors 155
4.7 Stepping motors 158
4.8 Relay switches and solenoids 162
4.9 Fluid actuators 164
4.10 Summary 167
Appendix 4A: Quantities and their units 168
Exercises 168
Further reading 171

5 Control theory 172

5.1 Introduction 172
5.2 Components of a control system 172
5.3 Mathematical characterization and transfer functions 174
5.4 Laplace transforms 176
5.5 Using transforms to analyze system response 179
5.6 Closed loop speed control 186
5.7 Position transform of a DC motor 194
5.8 Position control of a DC motor 196
5.9 Characteristic responses of a closed loop control system 197
5.10 Control strategies 205
5.11 Typical classes of control system models 208
5.12 Digital control 213
5.13 Summary 229
Appendix SA: Partial fraction expansion 230
Appendix 5B: Solution of a linear differential equation
with imaginary roots 231
Exercises 233
Further reading 239

6 Programmable logic controllers 240

6.1 Introduction 240
6.2 PLC hardware 241
6.3 Relay circuits and ladder diagrams 244
6.4 Sequential control using relay circuits 247
6.5 Sequential control using PLCs 251
 CONTENTS I I ix

6.6 Scan sequence and program execution 258

6.7 Decoupling and program control 259
6.8 Counters and timers 263
6.9 Sequential function charts and GRAFCET 272
6.10 Advanced PLC programming 286
6.11 Summary 290
Exercises 290
Further reading 298

7 Supervisory control of manufacturing systems 299

7.1 Introduction 299
7.2 Production organization and manufacturing system design 301
7.3 Communication architecture and local area networks 308
7.4 Discrete event systems and supervisory controller software
design 327
7.5 Some mathematical properties of ordinary Petri nets 335
i6 Case study: Petri net representation of a machining cell
controller 344
7.7 Software specification for a machining cell controller 353
7.8 Imposing priorities in Petri net models 359
7.9 Summary 368
Exercises 369
Further reading 371

Appendix: Conversion tables 372

Index 373
 Preface

The use of industrial pes and programmable controllers in manufacturing has

been growing rapidly over the last twenty years. With their flexibility of
programming for different products and processes, capability for real time
data gathering for on-line product inspection and process control, and
potential for integrating the shop floor with a factory-wide information
system, it is likely that this technology will continue to evolve and be used for
the forseeable future.
The primary purpose of writing this book is to provide a text with a broad
treatment of computer automation that can be used in the third or fourth year
of an undergraduate engineering program. The book covers the technology of
microprocessor based systems, emphasizing the similarities between micro-
computers, microcontrollers and programmable controllers. It covers the use
of this technology in automating manufacturing applications at the individual
machine level, the manufacturing production line or cell level, and the shop
floor level.
The writing of this book was motivated by the need to cover a range of
important subjects in an engineering curriculum that is oriented toward
manufacturing. Some subjects are so fundamental to manufacturing automa-
tion that all engineers interested in manufacturing should have a basic level of
understanding of them. Today, every engineer interested in manufacturing
should have a grasp of computer architecture and how computer processors
are interfaced to electromechanical processes to gather information and
control machines. The theories of continuous and discrete control and their
applications using imbedded controllers and programmable logic controllers
are important ideas for engineers planning to work on the current generation
of manufacturing processes. An understanding of the uses of information and
the network technologies that support its transmission throughout the factory
will be important to the engineers who design and operate the next generation
of manufacturing systems.
Typically, one would expect to cover these subjects in individual specialized
courses. However, this is seldom done as a requirement at the undergraduate
level. This book helps to overcome two problems associated with the individ-
ual courses approach. The first problem is a lack·ofroom in the curriculum. In
any engineering discipline, there is so much foundation material to teach that
the ability to add new material oriented toward the practice of manufacturing
xii 1 1-1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _P_R_E_F_AC_E_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ----l

is limited. Students may complete a degree in industrial, manufacturing, or

mechanical engineering without having studied computer or controller archi-
tecture. On the other hand, some curricula may have an entire course on
computer architecture and digital logic, but provide no instruction in control
theory or local area networks. The second problem is that, regarding manufac-
turing, these subjects are part of a continuum of related ideas and should be
integrated as they are taught. It is the relationship between these technologies
that is important to the practising engineer in manufacturing and that
relationship should be emphasized in instruction.
This text was written from lecture notes developed for a senior undergrad-
uate course in computer control in manufacturing. The course was designed to
be taken by undergraduate students with a background in physics and
calculus at the sophomore level. Although it is helpful to have an introductory
course in linear circuit theory, it is not essential if the instructor gives a light
treatment of the basic equations for passive circuits or if the physics back-
ground of the students has touched on elementary concepts of DC circuits.
Due to the introductory nature of this text, I have focused on covering topics
to the level required for an understanding of basic principles. Hence, each
chapter is supplemented by a further reading list that provides the reader with
references to a more exhaustive treatment of the subject matter of the chapter.
I have found that it is possible to cover most of the material in this text in one
semester even if the students have no background in computer architecture,
a subject which usually consumes a third of the instruction time for the course.
Instructors with a student population having a background in computer
architecture may wish to supplement the remaining subjects with advanced
materials from the reading lists.
I have taught this material as part of a four credit course which includes
a one credit laboratory that meets for three hours a week. The lab is an
important component of instruction because it provides hands-on experimen-
tation that reinforces the concepts of this book. I have built the laboratory
around experiments on the inexpensive and popular Motorola 68HCll
microcontroller and the Allen-Bradley 500 series programmable controller,
both of which are referenced in this text. Any instructor interested in obtaining
a copy of the laboratory manual can write to me at Rutgers University.
A solution manual for end-of-chapter problems is also available by writing to
me.
Readers should note that this textbook was written for the purpose of
instructing students on the principles of computer control. Throughout this
book computer programs are used to illustrate control applications in
manufacturing. Because of the variable requirements of specific installations,
particularly safety requirements, these programs should not be copied for
actual installations without appropriate modifications.
 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Renata Joyner and Suzanne Becker for their assistance in
typing several earlier versions ofthe manuscript. Thanks, also, to my colleague
E. A. Elsayed, who encouraged me to develop the course on which the book is
based, and to my colleague Mohsen Jafari, who provided me with inputs for
Chapter 7. I am grateful to Gulgan Alpan, and Wei Zhou for reviewing
portions of manuscript, to Peter Brassington and Ramgopal Venkataraman,
who helped prepare several of the text drawings and Dan Diana, who
provided the cover artwork. Thanks also to my teaching assistant, Ozerk
Gogus, who helped me to refine end-of-chapter problems.
Particular acknowledgement is made to the Allen-Bradley Corporation for
permission to use material describing the Data Highway local area networks
that appears in Chapter 7 (Copyright 1991 Allen-Bradley Company, Inc. Used
with permission. Data Highway Plus, DH +, Data Highway 485, DH-485 are
all trademarks of Allen-Bradley Company, Inc.) Thanks also to Dr Seymour
Melman for permission to use Figure 1.1.
I thank the professional staff of Chapman & Hall for their help. Thanks
especially to my Editor, Mark Hammond, and to Helen Hodge for her
meticulous work as Copy Editor.
As have many authors, I found that an important person in the realization of
a book is a supportive and understanding spouse. I am grateful to my wife,
Unn, not only for putting up with my preoccupations while writing this book,
but for her active assistance and encouragement toward the end, when
I needed it.