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Copyright © 2015. Cornell University Press. All rights reserved.
Monarchs in a Changing World : Biology and Conservation of an Iconic Butterfly, edited by Karen S. Oberhauser, et al., Cornell University Press, 2015.
monarchs in a changing world
monarchs in a
changing world
biology and conservation
of an iconic butterfly
Edited by
Karen S. Oberhauser
Kelly R. Nail
Sonia Altizer
comstock publishing associates, a division of
cornell university press

Ithaca and London
Copyright © 2015 by Cornell University except for portions of Chapters 2 and 13,
which were written by federal employees and cannot be copyrighted.
All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof,
must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher.
For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street,
Ithaca, New York 14850.
First published 2015 by Cornell University Press
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Monarchs in a changing world : biology and conservation of an iconic

butterfly / edited by Karen S. Oberhauser, Kelly R. Nail, Sonia Altizer.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8014-5315-1 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Monarch butterfly. 2. Monarch butterfly—Conservation—North
America. I. Oberhauser, Karen Suzanne, editor. II. Nail, Kelly R.,
editor. III. Altizer, Sonia M., editor. IV. Oberhauser, Karen Suzanne.
Monarchs and people. Container of (work):
QL561.D3M6635 2015
595.78'9—dc23 2014034844
Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and

materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials
include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally
chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit
our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu.
Cloth printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Cover photograph: Three monarchs congregating in the early morning at the Cerro
Pelon overwintering colony in Mexico (February 2013). Photograph by Kelly R. Nail.
Contents
Preface ix
part i Model Programs for Citizen Science, Education,

and Conservation: An Overview
Karen S. Oberhauser 1
1. Environmental Education and Monarchs: Reaching across Disciplines, Generations, and Nations
Elisabeth Young-Isebrand, Karen S. Oberhauser, Kim Bailey, Sonya Charest, Brian Hayes,
Elizabeth Howard, Jim Lovett, Susan Meyers, Erik Mollenhauer, Eneida B. Montesiños-Patino,
Ann Ryan, Orley R. Taylor, and Rocío Treviño 5
2. Contributions to Monarch Biology and Conservation through Citizen Science: Seventy
Years and Counting
Karen S. Oberhauser, Leslie Ries, Sonia Altizer, Rebecca V. Batalden, Janet Kudell-Ekstrum,
Mark Garland, Elizabeth Howard, Sarina Jepsen, Jim Lovett, Mía Monroe, Gail Morris,
Eduardo Rendón-Salinas, Richard G. RuBino, Ann Ryan, Orley R. Taylor, Rocío Treviño,
Francis X. Villablanca, and Dick Walton 13
3. Monarch Habitat Conservation across North America: Past Progress and Future Needs
Priya C. Shahani, Guadalupe del Río Pesado, Phil Schappert, and Eligio García Serrano 31
part ii Monarchs as Herbivores, Prey, and Hosts: An Overview

Jacobus C. de Roode 43
4. Macroevolutionary Trends in the Defense of Milkweeds against Monarchs: Latex,
Cardenolides, and Tolerance of Herbivory
Anurag A. Agrawal, Jared G. Ali, Sergio Rasmann, and Mark Fishbein 47
5. Invertebrate Natural Enemies and Stage-Specific Mortality Rates of Monarch Eggs and Larvae
Alma De Anda and Karen S. Oberhauser 60
6. Lacewings, Wasps, and Flies—Oh My: Insect Enemies Take a Bite out of Monarchs
Karen S. Oberhauser, Michael Anderson, Sophia Anderson, Wendy Caldwell, Alma De Anda,
Mark Hunter, Matthew C. Kaiser, and Michelle J. Solensky 71
7. Monarchs and Their Debilitating Parasites: Immunity, Migration, and Medicinal Plant Use
Sonia Altizer and Jacobus C. de Roode 83
part iii Monarchs in a Changing Climate: An Overview

Kelly R. Nail and Karen S. Oberhauser 95
8. What’s Too Hot and What’s Too Cold? Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Extreme
Temperatures on Developing Monarchs
Kelly R. Nail, Rebecca V. Batalden, and Karen S. Oberhauser 99
vi Contents
9. Microclimatic Protection of Overwintering Monarchs Provided by Mexico’s

High-Elevation Oyamel Fir Forests: A Review
Ernest H. Williams and Lincoln P. Brower 109
10. Effect of the 2010–2011 Drought on the Lipid Content of Monarchs Migrating
through Texas to Overwintering Sites in Mexico
Lincoln P. Brower, Linda S. Fink, Ridlon J. Kiphart, Victoria Pocius,
Raúl R. Zubieta, and M. Isabel Ramírez 117
11. Estimating the Climate Signal in Monarch Population Decline: No Direct
Evidence for an Impact of Climate Change?
Myron P. Zalucki, Lincoln P. Brower, Stephen B. Malcolm, and Benjamin H. Slager 130
part iv Conserving North American Monarch Butterflies: An Overview

Lincoln P. Brower and Linda S. Fink 143
12. Understanding and Conserving the Western North American Monarch Population
Sarina Jepsen and Scott Hoffman Black 147
13. Threats to the Availability of Overwintering Habitat in the Monarch Butterfly
Biosphere Reserve: Land Use and Climate Change
M. Isabel Ramírez, Cuauhtémoc Sáenz-Romero, Gerald Rehfeldt, and Lidia Salas-Canela 157
14. Monarch Butterflies and Agriculture
John M. Pleasants 169
15. Fires and Fire Management in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve
Héctor Martínez-Torres, Mariana Cantú-Fernández, M. Isabel Ramírez,
and Diego R. Pérez-Salicrup 179
16. Project Milkweed: A Strategy for Monarch Habitat Conservation
Brianna Borders and Eric Lee-Mäder 190
17. Grassland and Roadside Management Practices Affect Milkweed Abundance
and Opportunities for Monarch Recruitment
Kristen A. Baum and Elisha K. Mueller 197
part v New Perspectives on Monarch Migration, Evolution,

and Population Biology: An Overview
Andrew K. Davis and Sonia Altizer 203
18. Tracking the Fall Migration of Eastern Monarchs with Journey North Roost
Sightings: New Findings about the Pace of Fall Migration
Elizabeth Howard and Andrew K. Davis 207
19. Potential Changes in Eastern North American Monarch Migration in
Response to an Introduced Milkweed, Asclepias curassavica
Rebecca V. Batalden and Karen S. Oberhauser 215
20. Migration and Host Plant Use by the Southern Monarch, Danaus erippus
Stephen B. Malcolm and Benjamin H. Slager 225
21. Monarchs in the Mist: New Perspectives on Monarch Distribution in the Pacific Northwest
Robert Michael Pyle 236
Contents vii
22. Monarchs across the Atlantic Ocean: What’s Happening on the Other Shore?
Juan Fernández-Haeger, Diego Jordano, and Myron P. Zalucki 247
23. Unraveling the Mysteries of Monarch Migration and Global Dispersal
through Molecular Genetic Techniques
Amanda A. Pierce, Sonia Altizer, Nicola L. Chamberlain, Marcus R. Kronforst,
and Jacobus C. de Roode 257
24. Connecting Eastern Monarch Population Dynamics across Their Migratory Cycle
Leslie Ries, Douglas J. Taron, Eduardo Rendón-Salinas, and Karen S. Oberhauser 268
References 283
Contributors 313
Index 317
Color plates are at the end of the e-book

Pre f a c e
Whether you are a monarch citizen scientist, an as well as tried-and-true methods in laboratory and
entomologist, a population biologist, a conservation field biology. Since publication of the last volume in
policy maker, a teacher, or just interested in mon- 2004, the North American Monarch Conservation
archs’ amazing biology and their impressive annual Plan was published (CEC 2008) and the Monarch
migratory cycle, you are reading this book because Joint Venture was formed (Monarch Joint Venture
monarchs fascinate you. With contributions from 2013). These efforts have brought even more atten-
dozens of individuals across the globe, Monarchs in tion to monarch conservation, with a concomitant
a Changing World: Biology and Conservation of an increase in local, regional, national, and interna-
Iconic Butterfly highlights the unique and remark- tional conservation efforts. The past decade has also
able natural history of monarchs and their complex brought an explosion of interest by citizens in collect-
and multifaceted interactions with people. ing scientific data; these citizen scientists invest tens
Five international conferences have been held on of thousands of volunteer hours in monitoring mon-
monarch biology and conservation, four of which archs every year. At the same time, monarch num-
triggered the creation of edited volumes: the Sympo- bers are decreasing in response to environmental
sium on the Biology and Conservation of the Mon- changes brought on by habitat loss and other stress-
arch Butterfly (Morelos, Mexico, 1981), the Second ors; like many other organisms, monarchs require
International Conference on the Monarch Butterfly our attention and care to survive these changes. Now
(Los Angeles, California, 1986; Malcolm and Zalucki is a crucial time for monarchs, and this book is not
1993), the North American Conference on the Mon- only a celebration of their amazing biology and our
arch Butterfly (Morelia, Michoacán, 1997; Hoth et al. love of this charismatic insect, but also a call to arms.
1999), the Monarch Population Dynamics Con- The cutting-edge scientific developments described
ference (Lawrence, Kansas, 2001; Oberhauser and in the following chapters build on a long tradition
Solensky 2004), and the Monarch Biology and Con- of research. Monarchs have helped answer funda-
servation Meeting (Minneapolis, Minnesota, 2012; mental biological questions about how organisms
this volume). migrate, find and digest food, and cope with a world
With three existing compendia of monarch biol- in which natural enemies attack them as eggs, lar-
ogy and conservation, why do we need another one? vae, pupae, and adults. They’ve also been the focus
There has been a veritable explosion of knowledge of studies that have helped elucidate how genes are
about monarchs in the last decade. Monarchs con- translated into molecules that allow organisms to
tinue to provide a window into some of the most function appropriately as they age and face a diver-
fascinating questions facing biologists and the pub- sity of environmental conditions. New aspects of
lic, and we’ve compiled recent findings that utilize monarch biology have come to light in the past few
cutting-edge genetic tools and analytical techniques, years, including understanding of large-scale trends
ix
x Preface
in monarch population sizes and their response to of the book. Part 2, “Monarchs as Herbivores, Prey,
environmental and human perturbations, how mon- and Hosts,” focuses on how monarchs interact with a
archs might respond to future global climate change, complex food web that includes their milkweed host
and patterns of genetic variation and evolutionary plants and an amazing array of natural enemies that
divergence among wild monarch populations. New range from microscopic organisms to much larger
findings on monarch biology are accumulating at a insects and even birds. Part 3, “Monarchs in a Chang-
fast rate, and this book includes both summaries of ing Climate,” highlights how monarchs respond to
recent published work and findings that are included temperature and precipitation extremes throughout
here for the first time. their life cycle. These chapters address climate from
Despite all the work represented by this book a variety of perspectives, using analyses of citizen
and the papers and books that preceded it, there is science data, experiments in the lab and field, and
still a great deal we don’t understand about mon- simple mathematical models. Part 4, “Conserving
archs. Most chapters include a preview of the next North American Monarch Butterflies,” builds on the
steps in our understanding of monarch biology and overview of conservation efforts in the first section
conservation challenges, offering a glimpse into by highlighting examples of on-the-ground conser-
where monarchs might lead us next. vation programs, and threats imposed by specific
How should you approach Monarchs in a Chang- anthropogenic changes. Part 5, “New Perspectives on
ing World? First, note that it does not include a basic Monarch Migration, Evolution, and Population Biol-
introduction to monarch biology. If your goal is to ogy,” addresses new findings that are pushing scien-
learn about the monarch life cycle or the basics of tific boundaries in the areas of genetics, migration,
their migration, we invite you to read the overviews herbivore use of non-native plants, and population
in the previous book (Oberhauser and Solensky dynamics.
2004), or visit one of the many excellent websites Chapter authors include monarch biologists
on monarchs. Next, we don’t recommend reading it and conservation practitioners who work and live
like a novel. Rather, skim the brief summaries that in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Spain, Por-
will orient you to the content in each chapter, find tugal, Bolivia, Argentina, Morocco, New Zealand,
the chapters that interest you most, let that infor- and Australia. These authors work for universities,
mation sink in, and then move on to new subjects. government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and
The structure of chapters varies deliberately; most citizen science programs and include the top experts
chapters that present new findings are set up like sci- and practitioners in the fields of monarch biology,
entific papers (in a traditional introduction, meth- outreach, and conservation.
ods, results, conclusions format), while those that While individuals and organizations are
synthesize knowledge or summarize many projects acknowledged at the end of each chapter, the editors
are each structured uniquely in order to best present would like to acknowledge the Monarch Joint Ven-
their specific information. ture for supporting the 2012 meeting that brought so
Monarchs in a Changing World is divided into many of the authors and citizen scientists together;
five sections, each with an overview that introduces Patrick Guerra, Jessica Hellman, and Steve Reppert
the chapters and puts them in the context of what we for their constructive comments that led to impor-
already know about the topic. Part 1, “Monarchs and tant improvements in the book; and all the people
People: Model Programs for Citizen Science, Edu- who study and support monarchs. We are especially
cation, and Conservation,” focuses on interactions indebted to the monarch and butterfly citizen scien-
between people and monarchs, illustrating the long tists whose countless hours of observing have con-
fascination people have had with monarchs, and tributed to our knowledge of monarchs and the best
introducing themes that continue through the rest ways to conserve them.
monarchs in a changing world
PA R T I
Model Programs for

Citizen Science, Education,
and Conservation
An Overview
KA R E N S . O B E R HAU SE R
Monarchs are arguably the most popular insect species in the world, and the fact that
they are an icon for conservation and environmental education programs has both con-
tributed to and resulted from this popularity. People’s affection for monarchs has many
origins. First, monarchs are widespread and familiar; caterpillars and adults are easily rec-
ognizable as visitors to gardens in North America and beyond, and many people welcome
the return of these beautiful insects year after year. Second, as evidenced by the chapters
in this book, monarchs are exceedingly interesting. They have fascinating relationships
with natural enemies and milkweed plants, use an amazing variety of strategies to live in
very different habitats throughout the world, and have an unusual (for butterflies) mating
system (Brower et al. 2007). Third, there is still a great deal of mystery surrounding the
ways in which monarchs navigate long distances, find appropriate breeding and winter-
ing locations, and survive in so many different habitats. Finally, monarchs are admired
for their tenacity in enduring an incredible migration from breeding locations in Canada
and the U.S. to overwintering sites in Mexico, and surviving, at least for now, all of the
changes that humans have imposed on their breeding, migrating, and wintering habitats.
The combination of these features makes monarchs a focus of education, conservation,
and scientific research programs, and many of the research programs engage members of
the public through citizen science. Thus, the lives of monarchs and thousands of people
in North America are intertwined in many ways through science education, biological
conservation, and scientific research.
People’s fascination with butterflies and monarchs is not new. Egyptian hieroglyphs
contain pictures of butterflies, and the pre-Hispanic cultures that lived in Mexico, espe-
cially the Teotihuacan, Mixtec, Cholultec, and Aztec cultures, observed and studied but-
terflies. In many cultures, butterflies symbolize rebirth; they seemingly die when the
caterpillar turns into a pupa, and re-emerge in a new form. In fact, the ancient Greek
word for butterfly is psyche, which can be translated as “soul.”
The aboriginal groups that lived in the monarch overwintering area in central Mexico
included the Otomí, Mazahua, Matlazinca, and Purepecha. A mural found in Zitácuaro,
a city close to the overwintering sites, is dedicated to the god of creation, and depicts the
belief that “from the mouth of the god of Creation each day the sun appeared and dur-
ing the winter its rays became butterflies” (Beutelspacher 1988). These butterflies were
believed to clothe the earth, fertilize the soil, pollinate flowers, and decorate both life and
the air. It is very likely that the butterflies to which this myth refers are monarchs, which
arrived as winter began and departed as it ended. The Purepecha Indians thought that the
monarchs were the souls of the dead, and their arrival near November 2nd, the Day of the
Dead, announced visits by departed loved ones. The Mazahua and Otomí Indians associ-
ated monarchs’ arrival with agricultural production cycles, calling them reapers because
the crop was ready when the butterflies arrived and when they left it was time to prepare
for planting. People in the area continue to use monarchs in embroidery, knitting, poetry,
music, and other artistic venues.
The three chapters in this section illustrate the long fascination people have had with
monarchs, and introduce themes that will continue through the rest of the book. The
chapters describe educational, scientific, and conservation programs that focus on mon-
archs from many perspectives.
First, Young-Isebrand and colleagues summarize school- and non-school based edu-
cation programs for children and adults throughout North America. In 1992, several
educational programs that continue today started in Canada (Monarchs without Borders
at the Insectarium of Montréal), the United States (Monarchs in the Classroom at the
University of Minnesota and Monarch Watch at the University of Kansas), and Mexico
(Correo Real through the non-profit organization Profauna). Thanks to these programs
and many others that began later, schoolchildren, visitors to nature centers, and many
other people have developed strong personal connections to both monarchs and the natu-
ral world that supports them. These connections can benefit monarchs, as generation after
generation develops awareness and appreciation of this amazing insect.
Next, Oberhauser and colleagues introduce citizen science efforts that address all
phases of the monarchs’ annual cycle—breeding, migrating and overwintering—and sum-
marize how these programs have contributed to scientific knowledge of monarch biology,
thus previewing key data sources used in the rest of the book. While many scientists have
dedicated their professional lives to increasing our understanding of monarch biology,
important advances stem directly from the work of citizen scientists, people who are not
professional scientists. Thanks to this ‘research army,’ we understand where North Ameri-
can monarchs go in the fall, winter, and spring; how monarch numbers vary from year
to year; and details about their interactions with other species. Brief descriptions of these
projects and their history are included in this section, and their scientific findings feature
heavily in other chapters (Altizer and De Roode, Nail et al., Jepsen and Black, Pleasants,
Howard and Davis, Batalden and Oberhauser, and Ries et al., this volume, Chapters 7, 8,
12, 14, 18, 19, and 24). One could argue that the input of citizen scientists to our scientific
understanding of monarchs is greater than for any other single organism; certainly no
other species has as many different citizen science programs dedicated to it. In Chapter
2 we describe 11 different programs dedicated solely to monarchs, and nine projects that
collect data on other species, but for which monarchs are key focal subjects.
Finally, Shahani and colleagues summarize government and NGO-based efforts to
conserve monarchs throughout North America. Because the continuing migratory phe-
nomenon of monarchs flying to both the coast of California and central Mexico depends
on the continuing availability of habitat for egg laying and caterpillar development, migra-
tion, and overwintering, all three North American countries must cooperate to preserve
this endangered phenomenon (Wells et al. 1983). Monarch habitat loss (summarized by
Jepsen and Black, Ramirez et al., and Pleasants, this volume, Chapters 12, 13, and 14) has
led to declines in the both the eastern (Brower et al. 2011) and western (Jepsen and Black,
this volume, Chapter 12) monarch populations. It is clear that now is a crucial time for
monarchs, and the other, less well-documented species with which they share habitats.
Shahani et al. summarize actions by government agencies and non-profit organizations,
although organizational action alone will not be enough to preserve monarchs. Individual
home owners, farmers, and businesses have control over land that is potential monarch
habitat, and there is much that we can do collectively to ensure that this land contin-
ues to be available to future generations of monarchs, and people. People living in and
near habitats used by monarchs are united by the common goal of monarch conservation.
Like the great-grandchildren of the monarchs that return to Mexico year after year, our
great-grandchildren deserve to experience these amazing creatures.
1
Environmental Education and Monarchs
Reaching across Disciplines, Generations, and Nations
Elisabeth Young-Isebrand, Karen S. Oberhauser, Kim Bailey, Sonya Charest,

Brian Hayes, Elizabeth Howard, Jim Lovett, Susan Meyers, Erik Mollenhauer,
Eneida B. Montesiños-Patino, Ann Ryan, Orley R. Taylor, and Rocío Treviño
Educational programs across North America utilize monarchs to engage thousands of chil-
dren, educators, and people of all ages in environmental learning. Although the audiences and
methods of the programs vary, they are unified in their efforts to conserve monarchs through
education and action. Here we summarize the goals and achievements of eight successful pro-
grams. Key features of these programs include connections to formal K-12 education through
curriculum and teacher professional development, emphasis on conservation through programs
to restore and improve monarch and pollinator habitats, connections with citizen science pro-
grams, cross-cultural connections, and the use of living monarchs. We discuss risks and benefits
of mass rearing of monarchs for educational purposes, and conclude that, in some cases, the
biological knowledge and environmental literacy that result from monarch rearing are valuable
enough to outweigh these risks, with careful attention to release practices. We also highlight
the value of activities that do not rely on captive-reared monarchs, as these can promote greater
awareness of the monarch’s natural behavior, population biology, and habitat needs.
INTRODUCTION science. Monarchs are captivating subjects owing to

their easily observed life cycle, fascinating migration,
Environmental educators across North America and aesthetic beauty, all of which contribute to the
use monarchs to make connections between science success of projects described in this chapter.
education, conservation, and research. These educa- The goals of environmental education programs
tors, working in formal K-12 classrooms and non- that use monarchs vary with the audience and set-
formal settings at parks and nature centers, engage ting. Many educators use monarchs to foster both
youth and adults in understanding elements of basic a personal connection with the natural world and
organismal biology, environmental conservation, increased student achievement. Often, monarch
and connections between humans and nature. For study takes place outside, and learning outdoors in
example, preschoolers might learn about the devel- a natural setting boosts children’s confidence and
opmental stages of monarchs, elementary students academic performance, especially in science (Lieber-
can investigate or enhance monarch habitat, middle man and Hoody 1998; Carrier 2009). Interacting
and high school students might conduct original with nature can reduce stress and increase cogni-
research on monarch ecology, and children and tive functioning (Berman et al. 2008) and nurture
adults can contribute to scientific research by par- self-discipline (Taylor et al. 2001). Environmental
ticipating in monarch citizen science projects (Plate educators also utilize monarchs to promote multi-
1). Many teachers bring live monarchs into their disciplinary learning in natural settings. For exam-
classrooms to inspire students’ natural curiosity for ple, a student studying monarch migration can learn
6 Elisabeth Young-Isebrand et al.
c oncepts and skills from math, geography, meteorol- tagging project; citizen science aspects involving
ogy, social studies, languages, reading, and writing tag-recovery data are described by Oberhauser et al.
in the context of a real-world project that begins in a (this volume, Chapter 2). Monarch Watch also pro-
school, garden, or local nature center. vides information about monarch biology and their
A key benefit of environmental education efforts spectacular migration to the general public, with
is that they enhance awareness of conservation chal- the goal of promoting monarch habitat restoration
lenges and motivate people to contribute to solutions and protection throughout North America. The pro-
for a healthy planet. Encouraging children and adults gram is supported through the sale of promotional
to spend time outdoors can also counter recent and educational materials (tagging kits, rearing kits,
trends of reduced physical activity and disconnec- Monarch Waystation signage, etc.), private dona-
tion from nature (Pergams and Zaradic 2007). For tions, and grants from the Monarch Joint Venture.
example, a 2010 survey (Kaiser Family Foundation In 2005, Monarch Watch initiated the Monarch
2010) revealed that 8 to 18 year-olds in the United Waystation program, designed to encourage citizens
States spend about 7.5 hours a day plugged into elec- to plant milkweeds and suitable nectar plants in gar-
tronic media. The resulting lack of direct experience dens. This program reaches homeowners and gar-
with the natural world could impact the way future deners, business owners, park personnel, zoos, and
generations make decisions about the environment, nature centers through online resources that include
since direct experience with nature as a child can an international habitat registry and milkweed pro-
lead to a life of action on behalf of the natural world files. By fall 2013, more than 7300 Monarch Waysta-
(Chalwa 1998; Louv 2008). We argue that monarchs tions had been certified. In 2010 the “Bring Back
provide a powerful antidote to apathy toward the the Monarchs” program was launched to promote
natural world; the programs described below were restoration of 20 region-specific milkweed species
developed on the premise that increasing aware- throughout the United States. This program has led
ness and appreciation of monarchs will help foster to collaborations with the National Resources Con-
concern for other organisms (plants, animals, and servation Service (NRCS), U.S. Forest Service, U.S.
microbes) that share monarchs’ habitat. Environmental Protection Agency, native plant soci-
Here, we review eight monarch-based programs eties, and nurseries. Monarch Watch now coordi-
that offer people across North America opportuni- nates seed collection and germination as well as the
ties to engage in environmental outreach (Table 1.1), distribution and planting of milkweeds in regionally
increase environmental literacy among diverse appropriate areas.
audiences, and give both children and adults the Monarch Watch sells Monarch Rearing Kits to
awareness and understanding necessary to meet educational institutions and individuals in locations
the complex challenges of biodiversity conserva- east of the Rocky Mountains; no sales are made to
tion. Collectively, these programs cover diverse locations west of the Rocky Mountains to prevent
regions and emphasize that the environmental chal- eastern and western monarch populations from
lenges facing monarchs and humans alike are best mixing. These kits include monarch larvae and rear-
resolved when people work together across borders, ing instructions and reach thousands of children in
languages, and cultures. To provide a historical per- schools across the eastern monarch flyway each year.
spective on the development of these programs, we The goal is to provide hands-on monarch rearing
describe them in chronological order, beginning experiences and allow children to follow the devel-
with the earliest founding dates. opmental life cycle. Some of the adult monarchs
reared from these kits are tagged and released during
the fall migration in conjunction with the Monarch
MONARCH WATCH Watch tagging program.
The Monarch Watch website provides free mon-
Monarch Watch, based at the University of Kan- arch biology and conservation resources; it also gives
sas and directed by Orley “Chip” Taylor, is a coop- visitors access to communication forums via social
erative network of students, teachers, volunteers, media sites, a blog, and an e-mail listserv dedicated to
and researchers dedicated to the study of monarchs. monarchs. Local public engagement occurs through
The program was launched in 1992 as a monarch events each year (such as a fall open house) that
Environmental Education and Monarchs 7
Table 1.1. Monarch environmental education programs highlighted in this chapter.
Project (year founded) Focus Web address
Monarch Watch (1992) Citizen science, distribution of live monarchs monarchwatch.org

for educational purposes, Monarch Waystation
program, sale of monarchs, Bring Back the
Monarchs campaign.
Correo Real (1992) Professional development for educators, Profauna.org.mx/monarca/
citizen science, curriculum and online
resources.
Monarchs in the Classroom Professional development for educators, monarchlab.org
(1992) educational materials, youth research fair,
citizen science, garden grants.
Monarchs Without Borders Distribution of live monarchs for classroom ville.montreal.qc.ca/insectarium
(1992) rearing, professional development for
educators, general insect education for the
public.
Journey North (1994) Online educational resources about monarchs learner.org/jnorth/
and other migratory organisms and seasonal
phenomena, citizen science.
Monarchs Across Georgia Professional development for educators, monarchsacrossgeorgia.org
(2000) pollinator habitat education, literacy promotion
in Mexican villages of the overwintering
grounds, and educational travel to Mexico.
Monarch Teacher Network Professional development for educators in monarchteachernetwork.org
(2001) the US and Canada, trilingual curriculum and
educational materials. Educational tours of
Mexico and California overwintering sites.
MBBR Workshops (2006) Professional development for adults in monarchbutterflyfund.org
Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve
(Mexico), curriculum and other resources,
guide training.
attract thousands of visitors. Staff also give tours of curriculum, and other materials has made monarchs
their facility at the University of Kansas to school or an important focus of environmental education pro-
gardening groups, and they visit local schools, zoos, grams in parks, museums, and schools. Based in
and nature centers. Most recently, a team of monarch Saltillo, Coahuila, the program has fostered school
and habitat advocates called Monarch Conservation festivals and media reports focused on monarchs,
Specialists was formed to promote monarch conser- especially in the states of Coahuila and Nuevo León
vation in their regions. (in Northern Mexico). In Coahuila, the Secretariat of

Public Education designated October as “monarch
butterfly conservation month”; during this month,
CORREO REAL when monarchs begin entering Mexico in fall migra-
tion, children study monarchs and create posters to
Correo Real, started in 1992, is run by Project inform their communities about monarch migration
Director Rocio Treviño and is part of the Mexican and the importance of its conservation. Correo Real’s
nonprofit organization Protección de la Fauna Mexi- participation in the Journey North symbolic migra-
cana (Profauna). While Correo Real is primarily a tion (see below) has enabled children and teachers
citizen science program (see Oberhauser et al., this in Coahuila and Nuevo León to exchange messages
volume, Chapter 2), the extensive training it provides of good will with children in the United States and
to teachers and children through manuals, online Canada.
MONARCHS IN THE CLASSROOM or natural areas). MITC also sponsors an annual

student research fair, at which students (in grades
Monarchs in the Classroom (MITC) was started 3–12) present research projects and receive feed-
in 1992 by Karen Oberhauser and Elizabeth Goeh- back from scientists and peers. From 1996 to
ring at the University of Minnesota. The program 2013, more than 3300 students participated in the
focuses on improving K-12 student achievement Research Fair.
in science, connections to nature, and awareness Finally, the Driven to Discover (D2D) proj-
of monarch biology and conservation. MITC also ect, supported by a National Science Foundation
includes programs for informal educators and is grant, provides 10–14-year-olds the opportunity
closely linked to a citizen science project (the Mon- for authentic science inquiry by extending work in
arch Larva Monitoring Project, MLMP; see Ober- established citizen science projects. D2D builds on
hauser et al., this volume, Chapter 2). MITC has the structure of existing citizen science projects by
been supported by the National Science Founda- training adult mentors—teachers, Master Garden-
tion, the Minnesota Office of Higher Education, the ers, Scout leaders, 4H leaders, Master Naturalists,
Medtronic Foundation, and the U.S. Forest Service. and parents—to lead youth research clubs focused
Materials to support student learning include cur- on monarchs (through the MLMP) or birds (through
riculum guides, field guides, and digital media for the Cornell Lab of Ornithology). From 2009 to 2013,
presentations. more than 300 youth learned to collect data, draw
MITC staff (including scientists and K-12 conclusions based on their data, and report the
teachers) have conducted teacher workshops every results of their investigations to peers at an annual
summer since 1997. In 2002, the focus of these Research Summit. The eventual goal is to adapt
intensive 10-day workshops was expanded beyond the curriculum for a wide variety of citizen science
monarchs to include other classroom-friendly and projects.
locally abundant invertebrates. These workshops
help teachers prepare to engage their students in
natural history learning and research, with a strong MONARCHS WITHOUT BORDERS
focus on activities that can be conducted in school-
yards. More than 800 teachers from more than 400 The Monarchs Without Borders program was
schools, mostly in Minnesota, have completed the developed in 1992 by the Insectarium of Montréal.
courses. A partnership with the U.S. Forest Service The goal of the program is to facilitate the rearing of
International Programs has engaged teachers from live monarchs in classrooms. For the first two years,
throughout the United States in a related program the Insectarium’s involvement was modest; about 30
called the North American Monarch Institutes monarch-rearing kits were distributed in schools.
(NAMI). These three-day workshops bring teachers, Interest in the program grew quickly and kit sales
nonformal science educators, and scientists together increased dramatically over the years. Today, the
to study monarchs and their habitat and to build Insectarium sells about 1000 kits every fall.
lasting collaborations. More than 350 participants Participants pick up their kits in person, receiv-
attended NAMI workshops from 2010–2013. Partic- ing one milkweed plant, four caterpillars, two pupae,
ipants from El Valor, a community-based organiza- and Monarch Watch tags. The monarchs are reared
tion in Chicago for preschool children, illustrate the in captivity, with new parent stock (originating in
impacts of NAMI workshops. El Valor has sent 21 Quebec) each summer. On distribution day, an
educators to NAMI workshops who have returned to information kiosk answers participants’ questions
lead professional development for all staff, including about monarchs and the rearing process. Insec-
home-based teachers and parents. tarium staff also provide group presentations and
To support outdoor instruction, MITC devel- encourage participants to take part in workshops on
oped the Schoolyard Garden Grant program in topics that include tagging, rearing monarchs, and
2006 to support easily accessible habitats for out- monarch ecology. Participants have exclusive access
door learning. From 2006 to 2013, more than 80 to a blog containing steps to successful monarch
schools received grants to plant or improve school- rearing and teaching; the blog addresses topics such
yard habitats (native plant or vegetable gardens, as monarch metamorphosis and migration, includes
regular posts by experts, and allows participants to United States, and Canada. More than 60,000 stu-
ask questions and share experiences. dents in the United States and Canada create sym-
Most participants (70%) in Monarchs without bolic paper butterflies and send them to Mexico for
Borders are elementary school teachers and their the winter. Schoolchildren in Mexico protect the but-
students, but the number of other participants is terflies and return them to the north in the spring.
growing. Various social institutions, including hos- Through the Symbolic Migration, children across
pitals, prisons, and organizations in low-income North America are united by monarchs and a con-
neighborhoods, have purchased monarch rearing tinental celebration of their spectacular migration.
kits. In one hospital, a group of girls being treated The symbolic migration is tied to authentic lessons
for anorexia were allowed to take care of the cater- of ambassadorship, conservation, and international
pillars when their eating habits stabilized. The girls cooperation. Estela Romero, who coordinates the
observed the caterpillars consume milkweed leaves, Symbolic Migration in the overwintering region in
grow in size and complete their metamorphosis. The Mexico, describes the strong impact of this program
Insectarium is working to develop connections with on students in this region: “Students are proud to
people along the migratory path, and in Mexico. In learn that our part of the world is unique and impor-
2013, it launched a Monarch Gardens certification tant. Now they see the forest that surrounds us with
program for Quebec. new eyes, and they see themselves as part of an inter-
national community.”
JOURNEY NORTH
MONARCHS ACROSS GEORGIA
Journey North is a nonprofit organization whose
mission is to engage citizen scientists in a global The mission of Monarchs Across Georgia (MAG)
study of migration and seasonal change, focusing on is to inspire future caretakers of the natural environ-
a range of species including monarchs, humming- ment through education about monarchs and other
birds, whales, and flowering plants. It was established pollinators. MAG was founded in 2000 by a group of
in 1994 by Elizabeth Howard, with a grant from the educators led by Susan Meyers and Kim Bailey; this
National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Ongoing group became MAG’s steering committee and, later, a
support is provided by the Annenberg Foundation. working committee of the Environmental Education
Journey North reaches 980,000 students at 45,000 Alliance (EEA) of Georgia. Today, the MAG steer-
sites through free, web-based resources. Citizen sci- ing committee includes environmental education
ence components of the program are described by volunteers and professionals. An advisory commit-
Oberhauser et al. (this volume, Chapter 2); here we tee includes horticulturists, educators, and research
focus on the program’s educational aspects. scientists from universities in Georgia, Kansas, and
Journey North summarizes the status of the Minnesota. Funding for MAG comes from member-
monarch migration through weekly online newslet- ship dues and event fees paid to the EEA, as well as
ters during the spring and fall migrations, and it pro- from donations, grants, program fees, and plant and
vides news from the overwintering region in Mexico. merchandise sales.
Every week, citizen scientists tell the monarch’s story MAG’s target audience includes teachers, stu-
through images and observations shared from across dents, families, businesses, gardeners, nature enthu-
North America. The website is rich with educational siasts, and others interested in studying monarchs
resources, images, video clips, maps, activities, and and restoring pollinator habitat. MAG uses many
lesson plans built on citizen science observations. outreach strategies, including community presenta-
While other programs described in this chapter have tions, a website, and strong social media presence,
branched out to include other plants and animals liv- and a biannual newsletter called The Chrysalis. Other
ing in monarch habitat, Journey North is distinct in activities directly benefit monarch habitat, including
its focus on phenology and the inclusion of organ- selling native nectar plants and milkweed and spon-
isms that are far removed from monarchs. soring a pollinator habitat certification program that
Journey North also coordinates an annual cul- has resulted in more than 115 certified habitats as of
tural exchange between children in Mexico, the 2013. Other MAG activities aimed at K-12 educators
in the United States and Mexico include field trips about 4900 people from 30 U.S. states, 8 Canadian
to the monarch wintering colonies in Mexico, dona- provinces, and 5 other countries had attended MTN
tions of books and supplies to Mexican schools, and workshops. Currently about 500 people are trained
professional development workshops for Georgia at MTN workshops annually. Workshop participants
educators. experience two days of hands-on instruction and
From 2000 to 2013, MAG held more than 30 edu- receive rearing cages, a curriculum, a trilingual film
cator workshops in 15 counties throughout Georgia, called Journeys and Transformations, and a trilingual
reaching nearly 450 teachers who have carried the monarch life cycle poster. After the workshops, MTN
message of monarchs to more than 20,000 students provides ongoing support and networking opportu-
across grades K-12. The workshops, approved by nities through a variety of social media, and it orga-
the Georgia Department of Education for teach- nizes tours of monarch winter colonies in Mexico or
ing license renewal credits, include lessons from California.
the MITC curriculum and promote engagement in
monarch citizen science projects.
One of MAG’s greatest successes has been its MONARCH BUT TERFLY BIOSPHERE RESERVE
Mexico Book Project. Since 2004, MAG has donated WORKSHOPS
more than 1000 Spanish language books and hun-
dreds of dollars in supplies to schools near the mon- In a program sponsored by the Monarch But-
arch sanctuaries in Mexico. In appreciation of MAG’s terfly Fund (MBF 2013), free monarch workshops
efforts to advance literacy in these rural areas, the have been designed, coordinated, and conducted by
book supplier, Scholastic Mexico, matched the num- Eneida Montesiños within and near the Monarch
ber of books purchased in 2008, doubling the num- Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), which houses
ber of books donated that year. the key monarch overwintering sites in central Mex-
ico. Beginning in 2006, the three-day workshops
have offered training on monarch biology and forest
MONARCH TEACHER NETWORK conservation for people who live near the monarch
overwintering areas. Local tour guides and other
The Monarch Teacher Network (MTN), started community members participate in the workshops;
in 2001, includes teachers, educators, and others because community members make decisions that
who bring the monarchs’ story to classrooms and often affect the surrounding forests, it is important
communities across North America. It is sponsored that they understand monarchs and their habitat
by the Educational Information Resource Center needs. Additionally, guides are better prepared to
(EIRC), a New Jersey public agency, and was created provide accurate biology and conservation infor-
by EIRC employee Erik Mollenhauer. MTN work is mation to tourists who visit the monarch wintering
supported by grants from private foundations and sites. The curriculum also includes monitoring pro-
includes collaborations with a variety of public and tocols with lessons and field activities to train people
private schools, universities, environmental groups, to help with research in the reserve.
and other organizations. The MTN of Canada was From 2006 to 2013, 898 people from 7 communi-
formed in 2003, sponsored by the Toronto Region ties were trained in 30 workshops. Many participants
Conservation Authority, and MTN–Western Canada now engage in conservation activities to protect
began shortly thereafter. Both Canadian networks monarch habitat and work with local schools and
work closely with their U.S. counterpart. visitors on environmental education issues. Events
Each summer MTN conducts a series of two-day in the MBBR attract a great deal of attention in the
workshops across the United States and Canada. Mexican media, and the potential of these work-
These workshops provide materials and knowledge shops to influence public knowledge in Mexico was
that support the use of monarchs as an interdisci- illustrated by an interview that aired on a Mexican
plinary learning tool for people of all ages and abili- television channel. The reporter interviewed a com-
ties. The monarchs’ story is used to explore the past, munity member as an expert on monarch migration
present, and future of North America, its people, and biology. This workshop participant could not
and the land that sustains us all. By August 2013, read or write, but she was able to communicate the
importance of the wintering sites in the monarchs’ movement, and thus the shared nature of monarch
annual migratory cycle. In fall 2012, Montesiños populations and the need for cooperative conserva-
joined MBBR and World Wildlife Fund–Mexico tion efforts.
personnel to plan and conduct a series of presen- Many programs promote monarch rearing for
tations for local schoolchildren in towns near the educational and nature engagement purposes. Of
MBBR. Although the children are very familiar the programs reviewed here, Monarch Watch and
with the overwintering phenomenon, they have no Monarchs Without Borders distribute live mon-
experience with the breeding phase of the monarch archs for educational use (Monarchs in the Class-
annual cycle, and the workshops clarified the big pic- room stopped distributing monarchs in 2012). Many
ture of the monarch migratory phenomenon. These butterfly breeders (IBBA 2012) also sell monarchs
presentations, also sponsored by the Monarch But- for educational purposes and for releases at events
terfly Fund, engaged more than 900 children from not related to education. While information on the
six schools. number of monarchs released in these programs
is not available, Pyle et al. (2010) cite a New York
Times editorial from 2006 suggesting that 11 mil-
OUTLOOK AND CHALLENGES FOR MONARCH lion human-reared butterflies, mostly monarchs
OUTREACH AND EDUCATION and painted ladies, were released annually in North
America. This practice is not without critics. A
Environmental education using monarchs has recent review highlighted concerns about the but-
the potential to develop concerned, knowledge- terfly house industry (suppliers to vivaria in which
able advocates who can effectively address pres- “curious people and beautiful insects share the same
ent and future challenges of monarch survival. space,” Boppré and Vane-Wright 2012, p. 286). Many
As these programs illustrate, monarchs capture of these concerns apply to the rearing and release of
the attention and curiosity of people of all ages purchased monarchs.
and walks of life. The educational programs high- Perhaps the most substantial concerns of cap-
lighted here have provided thousands of partici- tive rearing and releases noted by scientists involve
pants with personal connections to monarchs the proliferation of disease and effects on the genetic
and their habitat, and they have prepared these composition of wild populations. Collection of mon-
participants to support monarch conservation in archs from one area, subsequent mass breeding, and
a variety of ways. translocation to other areas could distort estimates
While these programs have different goals and of genetic diversity and gene flow in wild monarchs
audiences, they have many features in common that (Brower et al. 1995, 1996). While selling monarchs
have led to their popularity and both educational across state lines in the United States requires per-
and conservation value. Most have ties to formal mits from the USDA, and in some cases a state per-
education through curricula that are available in mit as well, a large number of growers have obtained
hard copy or on the web, and many also conduct such permits, and a repository for records on the
workshops for K-12 teachers. The curricula and numbers of monarchs shipped and sold for release
workshops have helped spread these programs into (and the locations of transfer) is lacking. Moreover,
classrooms across the continent, resulting in dissem- releases that occur within the monarchs’ native range
ination of knowledge to many additional individu- but outside their normal timing, or during times of
als. Most programs also promote monarch habitat the year when natural monarch abundance is low
restoration and protection, and many programs (such as in early spring), can confuse monitoring
combine education, research, and conservation by efforts or have unusually large influences on mon-
including citizen science as an integral part. These arch ecology and genetics. The study of monarch
data collection efforts have the educational benefit biogeography, especially in western North America,
of engaging people in authentic research, thus fos- is still in its infancy, and many important questions
tering knowledge of the practice of science, as well critical to monarch conservation are still largely
as providing data to inform conservation efforts. unanswered. Releasing monarchs into the landscape
Finally, many programs have strong cross-cultural without monitoring interferes with our ability to
components that emphasize monarchs’ trinational answer those questions.
Brower et al. (1995, 1996) raised concerns about ossible, we recommend that educators raise mon-
p
the translocation of monarchs between the west- arch eggs and caterpillars that they themselves
ern and eastern United States because of potential collect in local milkweed patches, instead of pur-
genetically distinct populations. Such movement is chasing mass-reared individuals. As long as the
illegal, as the USDA will not issue permits for mon- monarchs are reared with care and released locally,
arch transfers across the Rocky Mountains con- this practice can avoid many of the risks described
tinental divide. While recent studies suggest that above. Since the risks associated with sales of
large genetic differences between monarchs from mass-reared monarchs cannot be completely elimi-
these two regions are lacking (Pierce et al., this vol- nated, it is important that monarchs are sold only
ume, Chapter 23), the movement could result in the when clear educational benefits result.
long-distance spread of novel pathogens. Indeed, Clearly, monarchs capture the attention of many
eastern and western monarchs also harbor geneti- people. Indeed, a recent survey of U.S. households
cally distinct strains of the debilitating protozoan suggests that Americans are willing to support mon-
Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (reviewed by Altizer and arch butterfly conservation at high levels, up to about
de Roode, this volume, Chapter 7). $6.5 billion if extrapolated to all U.S. households
More generally, captive rearing of monarchs can (Diffendorfer et al. 2013). If even a small percentage
create conditions for the proliferation of disease, of people acted on this willingness, the cumulative
including the protozoan parasite Ophryocystis elek- effort would translate into a large, untapped poten-
troscirrha (OE), and anecdotal reports indicate the tial for conservation of this iconic butterfly. It is likely
potential for unexplained monarch die-offs, pre- that the monarch education programs described in
sumably associated with disease, under local cap- this chapter have played a role in people’s willingness
tive rearing operations. Although OE can be readily to support monarch conservation at such high lev-
monitored by scientists and knowledgeable breed- els; for this reason, it behooves us to do all we can
ers, not all pathogens affecting monarchs are as well to ensure that monarch education programs cham-
known. Teachers and other members of the public pion effective conservation practices and tap into
who obtain reared monarchs might be less aware of people’s desire to preserve this amazing insect. It
problems caused by pathogens, and breeders have will be especially important to continue to promote
no requirement to follow specific disease-preventing public engagement in monarch conservation in the
protocols, nor are there resources in place for rou- face of declining populations (Brower et al. 2012a;
tinely testing captive stock for most diseases. Rendón-Salinas and Tavera-Alonso 2013; Jepsen and
We acknowledge the serious risks posed by Black, this volume, Chapter 12).
mass breeding and translocation and do not con-
done the release of monarchs where recreation
or amusement are the primary goals (Boppré and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Vane-Wright 2012); however, like Boppré and
Vane-Wright, we think that the biological knowl- We thank all the individuals who take part in
edge, conservation awareness, and environmental monarch environmental education programs as
literacy resulting from monarch rearing programs funders, participants, leaders, and coordinators.
are valuable. Careful attention to education, breed- Sarina Jepsen, Michelle Solensky, Sonia Altizer, and
ing practices, and the source and destination of Patrick Guerra provided comments on earlier drafts
monarchs will minimize many risks. Whenever of the manuscript.
2
Contributions to Monarch Biology and Conservation
through Citizen Science
Seventy Years and Counting
Karen S. Oberhauser, Leslie Ries, Sonia Altizer, Rebecca V. Batalden, Janet

Kudell-Ekstrum, Mark Garland, Elizabeth Howard, Sarina Jepsen, Jim Lovett,
Mía Monroe, Gail Morris, Eduardo Rendón-Salinas, Richard G. RuBino, Ann Ryan,
Orley R. Taylor, Rocío Treviño, Francis X. Villablanca, and Dick Walton
The public’s fascination with monarchs has inspired and sustained a rich array of monarch citizen
science programs, beginning with Dr. Fred Urquhart’s tagging program in the 1950s–1990s
that led to the discovery of monarch wintering grounds in central Mexico. No other single species
has garnered such a wide following of personally involved educators, conservation advocates,
and citizen scientist contributors. The tens of thousands of hours per year invested by these vol-
unteers have allowed scientists to answer basic questions about how and when monarchs use
available habitat, how their numbers change within and among years, how environmental pertur-
bations affect these changes, and how monarch populations are responding to contemporary
global change and conservation efforts. Here, we review past and current programs, focusing
on characteristics of successful programs and their wide-reaching scientific, environmental, and
educational outcomes. We also present a data gap analysis to ask what locations and times of
year have limited data on monarch biology, to inform the targeted recruitment of monarch citizen
scientists into current and future programs.
INTRODUCTION questions at large spatial and temporal scales, includ-

ing how and when monarchs use available habitat,
For decades, people have monitored monarchs how their numbers change over time, how environ-
in many locations using diverse methods. Citizen mental perturbations affect these changes, and how
scientists—armed with data sheets and pencils, apps, monarch populations are responding to environ-
hand lenses, butterfly nets, and binoculars (Plate 2)— mental change and conservation efforts (CEC 2009).
have been and continue to be key players in mon- Unlike most current scientific research, citi-
arch monitoring programs. Many programs assess zen science involves amateurs instead of profes-
monarch numbers, ranging from local densities of sional scientists (although most scientific research
different life stages, to the numbers and locations of was conducted by amateurs prior to the late nine-
butterflies at migratory stopover sites, to areas occu- teenth century; Vetter 2011). Citizen monitoring
pied by monarchs at overwintering sites. Other pro- has a long history, with records of locust outbreaks
grams track the timing and location of the fall and in China dating back at least 3500 years (Tian et al.
spring migrations, measure attack rates by natural 2011). Many other programs originated more than
enemies, and document milkweed emergence. These a hundred years ago (Miller-Rushing et al. 2012). In
programs have allowed scientists to answer crucial North America, the oldest large-scale biodiversity
13
14 Karen S. Oberhauser et al.
monitoring project driven by citizen observations is and now spans several programs (Table 2.1). Partici-
the Christmas Bird Count, started in 1900 (Audu- pation has also become more intense, with volunteers
bon 2012). A recent surge of interest in the value of taking a stronger role in designing their own stud-
citizen science is evidenced by the devotion of an ies and collecting more intensive data. As a case in
entire issue (Aug. 2012) of Frontiers in Ecology and point, at a meeting of monarch researchers in 2012
the Environment and a book (Citizen Science: Public (Monarch Lab 2012), more than half of 165 attendees
Participation in Environmental Research, Dickinson were citizen scientists, many of whom presented their
and Bonney 2012) to the topic of citizen science, as own research that had grown out of engagement in
well as by multiple conferences, symposia, and work- large-scale citizen science projects. We believe that
shops on the subject. this level of participation is the next frontier for citi-
Butterfly monitoring by citizen scientists also has zen scientist research and engagement.
a long history. The field notes, reports, and specimens Below, we describe current North American citi-
from Victorian collectors contributed important zen science programs that focus on various aspects
knowledge of butterfly ranges, behaviors, and abun- of monarch biology. We also include programs that
dance. One of the earliest coordinated citizen science monitor all butterflies and can therefore provide
projects involving butterflies focused on monarchs. data on monarch abundance and distribution. These
Beginning in the 1950s, Dr. Fred Urquhart’s tagging programs collectively involve well over 14,000 vol-
program engaged hundreds of volunteers in a hunt unteers (as of 2011; Table 2.1) and span thousands
for the winter destination of eastern North Ameri- of sites across the eastern and western United States,
can migratory monarchs, a goal ultimately achieved Canada, and Mexico (Figures 2.1–2.3). In 2009, the
in early 1975 (Urquhart 1976). Monarch followers leaders of several programs formed a network of
in North America are less likely to be familiar with monarch monitoring programs, called MonarchNet,
Dr. Courtenay Smithers, who engaged volunteers in with the goal of coordinating data management
Australia in a mark-release program from 1966 to efforts. The goals and accomplishments of this effort,
1970. Volunteers in about 200 locations made nearly along with a list of peer-reviewed publications based
6300 observations of monarch presence and absence on monarch citizen science data, can be found at the
from Adelaide to Brisbane, helping Smithers (1977) group’s website (www.monarchnet.org).
document monarch distributions. Their observations Technology has played a key role in fueling the
showed that monarchs in Australia cover a wide area growth of butterfly and monarch citizen science pro-
during the summer, and contract into three regions grams, which rely on relatively recent advances in
during the winter: a coastal strip from northeastern information technology (e.g., web-based reporting
New South Wales to the Cape York Peninsula, the and data management, and communication forums)
Sydney basin, and Adelaide. Smithers concluded that that would not have been possible just 20 years ago.
monarch movement allows them to use both season- Social media are likely to play a growing role in how
ally and permanently suitable habitats in Australia people obtain and communicate information rele-
(Smithers 1977). vant to their engagement in citizen science, including
Why is this single insect species the subject of data collection and transmission. A very active e-mail
such intense scientific study and public interest? We discussion list (Monarch Watch Dplex-L, Monarch
suggest that monarchs enjoy an almost iconic status, Watch 2013a) is a good example of citizen engage-
inspiring people to contribute considerable time to ment via technology; while the list is not centered on
understanding their biology. This iconic status may a specific citizen science project, participants provide
stem from the ease with which monarchs are recog- reports of monarchs in their areas in addition to shar-
nized and the accessibility of their habitats, as well ing in a lively and interactive community.
as from their beauty and unique biology. The long
history of engagement by both citizen scientists and
professional scientists who have developed monarch TRACKING A MOVING TARGET: PROGRAMS
citizen science research programs sets a precedent FOCUSED ON MIGRATION
for success and a tradition that involves thousands of
volunteers each year. Public participation in monarch Citizen scientists study monarch migration
citizen science projects has grown rapidly since 1990 through tagging, individual observations, and sur-
Table 2.1. Summary of current monarch and butterfly citizen science projects.
Project and web address Start year Type of data No. volunteers, 2011a No. observations, 2011a
Projects that monitor migration

Journey North 1994 Monarch sightings, spring and fall migrations throughout >4000 6737
www.learner.org/jnorth range
Correo Real 1992 Monarch sightings, spring and fall migrations in Mexico 128 400
www.profauna.org.mx/monarca
Monarch Watch 1992 Tagging, fall migration throughout range >10,000 ~83,000
www.monarchwatch.org
Southwest Monarch Study 2003 Fall tagging, habitat reports in Arizona Tagging: 52 1850
swmonarchs.org Monitoring: 8 20
Monarch Monitoring Project 1990 Fall censuses, tagging demonstrations in Cape May NJ Censuses: 16 170
www.monarchmonitoringproject.com Tagging demos: 4 23
St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge 1988 Fall tagging in northern FL Not available 1588
Peninsula Point Monarch Research Project 1996 Fall censuses, egg and larva monitoring, tagging in Censuses: 1 91
Michigan Upper Peninsula Monitoring: 4 24
Projects that monitor overwintering sites
Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count 1997 Counts at western overwintering sites 85 119
www.xerces.org/
Monarch Alert 2001 Fall and winter censuses and tagging at western 9 355
monarchalert.calpoly.edu overwintering sites
MBBR Surveys 1992 Biweekly measurements of area occupied by monarchs NA
www.wwf.org.mx during winter in Mexico
Projects that monitor during all phases
Monarch Larva Monitoring Project 1996 Weekly surveys of eggs and larvae, habitat, and parasitism Density: 129 1710
www.mlmp.org rates throughout range Parasitism: 27 1719
Sightings: 23 69
MonarchHealth 2006 Sampling adult monarchs for OE spores throughout range 130 2839
www.monarchparasites.org
Butterfly or Butterfly and Moth projects
North American Butterfly Association 1975 Annual butterfly censuses within 15-mile-diameter circles,
www.naba.org individual observations throughout range
Butterfly Monitoring Networks (IL, OH, FL, IA, MI) 1987 and Multiple counts within years along fixed transects at locally
Various websites later appropriate times
Butterflies and Moths of North America 2005 Photos submitted to project website and verified by experts
Sightings Program throughout range
butterfliesandmoths.org
eButterfly 2012 Photos submitted to project website and verified by experts
www.ebutterfly.ca throughout range
a
Volunteer and observation numbers shown for monarch-only projects, using 2011 numbers to illustrate annual participation.
veys in specific locations. Tagging has been used by and other seasonal phenomena in real time. Journey
multiple programs to study patterns and timing of North’s goal is to help scientists and the general pub-
monarch movement. While details of the programs lic understand how migratory species respond to cli-
vary, in each of them volunteers apply small tags to mate and changing seasons.
monarch wings. A unique code and program contact First spring sightings of adult monarchs, as
information are printed on each tag; taggers record reported by volunteers, are shown on a live migra-
the date and location when they tag a monarch and tion map on the project website. In the fall, volun-
send this information to program coordinators. teer reports of overnight roosts are also visualized
Individuals who find tagged butterflies send the on a real-time map. Journey North collects and
identifying codes, recovery date, and location to the archives other data pertaining to monarchs, includ-
program. The first tagging program was the Insect ing the first eggs, larvae, and milkweed that volun-
Migration Association, established in 1952 by Fred teers observe each year. Data can be reported via
Urquhart to determine where monarchs from the the Internet or a mobile smartphone application.
eastern population go in the winter. This program All sightings are reviewed by experts and clarifica-
lasted until 1994 and involved schoolchildren, natu- tions sought when necessary to ensure data quality.
ralists, and others in observing, capturing, and tag- Staff spend more than 1000 hours a year clarifying
ging monarchs (Urquhart 1960, 1987; Urquhart and instructions, reviewing data, and confirming accu-
Urquhart 1977). In 1975, volunteers Kenneth Brug- racy with volunteers. From 1997 to 2014, Journey
ger and his wife, Cathy Aguado, helping Urquhart in North observers contributed data on 72,299 mon-
Mexico, found the monarch wintering grounds in arch sightings (see Figures 2.1 and 2.2 for locations
central Mexico. Although the sites had been known of sightings in 2011).
by local citizens, until then no one understood that Journey North materials reach an audience far
the monarchs that blanketed these mountaintops beyond the people who contribute data; for exam-
had flown from as far away as the northern United ple, scientists and teachers use animated versions
States and southern Canada. of the real-time migration maps to illustrate mon-
Several programs monitor the size and timing arch migration patterns to many audiences. Other
of the autumn migration at specific locations. Most widely distributed products are the weekly migra-
of these programs take place on peninsulas, where tion updates which are distributed electronically
monarchs often cluster during the migration. The to 45,000 subscribers. Almost 600,000 students are
programs use a variety of methods to count mon- enrolled in registered Journey North classrooms,
archs along predetermined transects or at specific and it is likely that many others are exposed to the
stops. In addition to the projects highlighted below, findings.
others take place on Long Point on the north shore of Since 2000, scientific analyses based on Journey
Lake Erie, Ontario (begun in 1995, ongoing; Crewe North data have clarified the order in which U.S.
et al. 2007); Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge states are recolonized by monarchs during the spring
on Assateague Island, Virginia (1997–2006); and (Howard and Davis 2004), the speed of the spring
the Coastal Virginia Wildlife Observatory and the migration over several years (Howard and Davis
Eastern Shore of Virginia National Wildlife Refuge 2011), characteristics of fall stopover sites (Davis
(1998–2000). et al. 2012a), fall migration flyways (Howard and

Davis 2009), the pace of the fall migration (Howard
and Davis, this volume, Chapter 18), mortality from
Journey North
a storm event (Howard and Davis 2012), and mon-
Arguably the largest and best-known active arch overwintering in the southern United States
monarch monitoring program involves volunteers (Howard et al. 2010).
who report individual sightings of spring and fall
migrating monarchs. Journey North, founded in
Correo Real
1994, is supported by the Annenberg Foundation
and directed by Elizabeth Howard. Citizen scien- Correo Real, started in 1992, is the Mexican
tists report their first sightings of multiple organ- counterpart to Journey North. Project founder
isms, thus tracking the moving front of migrations and director Rocio Treviño, from the nonprofit
Contributions through Citizen Science 17
rganization Protección de la Fauna Mexicana (Pro-

o provides directions for reporting monarch obser-
fauna), manages a network that currently includes vations during workshops for teachers and other
more than 200 volunteers who collect data on the fall educators.
monarch migration through northern Mexico. Most Participants record the number of butterflies
Correo Real observations come from schools in the they observe; the time, location, and date of their
states of Coahuila and Nuevo Leon (see Figure 2.1c), observations; monarch behavior (such as flying,
although contributions from other groups (e.g., biol- feeding, or resting); plants on which the butterflies
ogists, engineers, and agronomists) have increased feed or rest; and weather conditions. Most obser-
since 2003. When the program began, all commu- vations are made in urban areas, but an increasing
nication took place by mail, thus the name Correo number come from rural areas as the project is now
Real (Spanish for “Royal Mail”). The goal of Correo integrated into the technical program of Natural
Real is to understand and conserve habitat along the Protected Areas (NPAs) in northern Mexico. Correo
monarchs’ migration route through Mexico. Treviño Real provides information on monarch movement
a
Sightings
JN
CorReal
Surveys
MLMP
SWMS
Tagging
MonWatch
SWMS
Fixed-site surveys
Figure 2.1. Maps of monarch citizen science data collection sites in 2011 based on location data provided by projects. The verti-
cal line through the middle of the maps roughly divides the eastern and western populations (see Pyle this volume, Chapter 21,
for a discussion of the “fuzziness” of this line). Northern boundary shows monarch summer range, determined using data from
butterfly sightings programs. Note that dates do not correspond exactly to calendar seasons. (a) Spring migration and breeding
(8 March–16 May; Journey North, Monarch Larva Monitoring Project). (b) Summer expansion and breeding (17 May–15 August;
Journey North, Monarch Larva Monitoring Project). (c) Autumn migration (16 August–31 October; Journey North, Monarch Larva
Monitoring Project, Correo Real, Southwest Monarch Study, Monarch Watch, Cape May, Peninsula Point, St. Marks). (d) Winter
(1 November–7 March; Journey North, Monarch Larva Monitoring Project, Western Thanksgiving Monarch Count [inset], Monarch
Butterfly Biosphere Reserve).
b
Sightings
JN
CorReal
Surveys
MLMP
SWMS
Tagging
MonWatch
SWMS
Fixed-site surveys
Figure 2.1b.
through Mexico, a passage of utmost importance localized data on migratory patterns. Monarch Watch
that has received less attention from both citizen is funded by the sale of tagging kits, educational mate-
scientists and researchers than other portions of the rials, and promotional items, as well as donations and
migration. Findings are communicated to govern- support from the Monarch Joint Venture.
ment officials, educators, and the media. Every fall, uniquely coded wing tags are issued
to thousands of participants who tag 30,000–105,000
monarchs throughout the range of the eastern
Monarch Watch
migratory monarch population (see Figure 2.1c
Monarch Watch, under the direction of Orley for 2011 tagging locations). The recovery rate for
“Chip” Taylor, established a citizen-science tagging tagged butterflies in Mexico ranges from 0.6 to 4.5%
program in 1992 to address the dynamics of mon- per year, depending on the size of the overwinter-
arch migration, orientation, and navigation. Mon- ing population and winter mortality. Information
arch Watch engages students, teachers, volunteers, from the recovered tags can be used to estimate the
and researchers in the cooperative study of the mon- origins, timing, sex ratio, and pattern of the migra-
arch’s fall migration, with additional goals of promot- tion, and to understand influences of weather events.
ing science education and monarch conservation. In Data from Monarch Watch’s tagging program, along
1997, Monarch Watch introduced an improved tag- with new analyses of Urquhart’s tagging data, have
ging system using circular, lightweight, and weath- addressed influences of weather and other environ-
erproof tags with a strong adhesive; this system mental factors that vary from year to year (Rogg et al.
is now used by other tagging programs to provide 1999), and regional migratory patterns (McCord and
Figure 2.1c.
Davis 2010). General observations have been used nectar plants, and adult and immature monarchs in
in several papers (Brower et al. 1996, 2006, 2012b). about 20 sites in Arizona. One focus of the SWMS is
Monarch Watch has produced a dataset with records to determine the migratory destination of monarchs
of more than 1 million tagged butterflies and 16,000 in the desert Southwest. To achieve this goal, both
recoveries (Monarch Watch 2013a). Nine years of wild and “farmed” (commercially raised in Cali-
recoveries were published in season summaries fornia and purchased by the Desert Botanical Gar-
(1993–2001, Monarch Watch 2001) and the entire den in Phoenix) monarchs are tagged and released.
recovery dataset is available via a searchable database The project website distinguishes between wild and
on the Monarch Watch website. farmed monarchs to avoid confusing data interpreta-
tion (see Pyle, this volume, Chapter 21).
SWMS findings are posted on their website and
Southwest Monarch Study
have been shared in several presentations. A key
The Southwest Monarch Study (SWMS), based finding of the SWMS is that monarchs in Arizona
in Arizona, was founded in 2003 by Chris Kline and migrate to both Mexico and the coast of California
is currently led by Gail Morris. Goals are to identify during their fall migration (Morris 2012). Addition-
and describe migration and breeding patterns of ally, a small number of monarchs winter along the
monarchs in the southwestern United States and to Salt River in Phoenix and the Colorado River in
encourage monarch conservation. While it is mainly Yuma. Monarchs at the Rio Salado Habitat Resto-
a tagging program (with tagging sites shown in Fig- ration Area (in Phoenix) appear to be in diapause
ure 2.1c), SWMS volunteers also monitor milkweeds, during the winter and can survive a hard freeze.
Figure 2.1d.
A small number of breeding monarchs are some- through West Cape May and Cape May Point, New
times observed in Phoenix and Yuma during warm Jersey, a peninsula bordered by the Atlantic Ocean
winters. Monarchs use three evergreen milkweeds and Delaware Bay (see Figure 2.1c). They tag mon-
(Asclepias subulata, A. angustifolia, and A. linaria, archs; conduct driving censuses along a standard
which grow throughout southern Arizona and in route that traverses beach, dune, light residential,
urban gardens) as fall host plants, and breeding and garden, grassland, marsh, and forest habitat through-
oviposition are common from September through out September and October; and conduct informa-
mid-October. Despite the frequency of fall sightings, tional programs on monarch biology and tagging
observations of monarchs in the spring are limited. that are open to the public. Initiated by Dick Walton
and Lincoln Brower, the MMP is managed by a field
coordinator, communications director, and intern.
Monarch Monitoring Project
Scientists have used MMP annual count data to
The Monarch Monitoring Project (MMP), affili- document fluctuating monarch numbers at Cape
ated with the Cape May Bird Observatory and New May (Walton and Brower 1996; Walton et al. 2005),
Jersey Audubon Society, was established in 1990 to and to compare trends at different fall monitor-
focus on monarch fall migration along the Atlantic ing sites (Gibbs et al. 2006). Data are available on
coast. MMP volunteers census monarchs moving the MMP and MonarchNet websites (Monarch Net
2012). Cape May is a destination for many people tagging (through Monarch Watch) and the Monarch
interested in nature viewing, and the MMP engages Larva Monitoring Project (MLMP, described below),
thousands of visitors with formal and informal pre- and conduct a variety of habitat improvement proj-
sentations about monarch biology, migration, and ects. The project has received funding from Wildlife
conservation. Unlimited of Delta County, The Nature Conser-
vancy, and the Superior Watershed Partnership.
Since the project began, 1646 censuses have been
Fall monarch tagging at St. Marks National
conducted. Peninsula Point monarch numbers are
Wildlife Refuge
correlated with wind direction, temperature, and
St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge (SMNWR) cloud cover but do not demonstrate a consistent tim-
covers about 68,000 acres across parts of three coun- ing of peak migration as was observed at Cape May
ties in the Florida panhandle: Wakulla, Jefferson, and (Meitner et al. 2004). Moreover, total annual migra-
Taylor (Figure 2.1c). The SMNWR monarch tagging tion count numbers at Peninsula Point do not corre-
program was started in 1988 by Tonya Van Hook, late well with numbers seen at east coast flyway sites,
who managed it from 1988 to 1993, and again in indicating that the size of breeding monarch popu-
1998 (there was no monitoring from 1993 to 1997). lations in the north central region might not match
Richard RuBino oversaw the program from 1999 well to monarchs in the northeastern United States.
to 2003, and David Cook from 2004 to the present.
Project goals are to monitor fall migrating monarchs,
provide management recommendations to refuge ALL TOGETHER NOW: OVERWINTERING
staff, and provide experience-oriented environmen- MONARCH COUNTS
tal education opportunities (Van Hook 1990). While
Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count
records of volunteer participation are not kept,
somewhere between 100 and 200 volunteer days The Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count
(one volunteer working on one day) are tallied each (WMTC) estimates total abundance at overwin-
year. From 1988 to 2014, about 50,000 monarchs tering sites in California, documenting changes in
were counted, and about 30,000 tagged and released. monarch occupancy of individual sites and the over-
An important finding of the project is that very all status of monarchs in the western United States.
few monarchs migrating through this area success- Volunteers monitor forested groves in California
fully reach Mexico. Only 0.03% of the monarchs (inset, Figure 2.1d) that have hosted or currently
tagged at the Refuge from 1988 to 2011 (R. RuBino host seasonal monarch aggregations. Most of the
unpublished) were found in Mexico, an order of mag- sites contain non-native Eucalyptus trees, but many
nitude below the overall Monarch Watch return rate also contain native trees, such as Monterey cypress,
reported above. This has led to speculation that these Monterey pine, and western sycamore. Monitor-
monarchs may be flying to other locations, such as ing locations extend throughout much of Southern
the Caribbean or Central American countries. and Central California, ranging from San Francisco
to Santa Monica, and include several high-profile
sites that are frequently visited by the public as well
Peninsula Point Monarch Research Project
as many smaller, less-visited sites on public and

The Peninsula Point Monarch Research Project, private land.
started in 1994, is located on the northern shore of Citizen scientists have been monitoring western
Lake Michigan at a migratory stopping point (see overwintering sites since the 1980s, but the WMTC
Figure 2.1c) in Hiawatha National Forest. It was did not formally begin until 1997. The project was
founded by C. J. Meitner and Anne Okonek and has proposed by Walt Sakai and other monarch scien-
been led by C. J. Meitner, Gina Badgett, Pat Landry, tists, initiated by the Monarch Program, and adopted
Therese Fix, and Sue Jamison. Volunteers census by the Xerces Society in 2000. Mía Monroe, acting as
roosting monarchs three times a day, traveling along a Xerces volunteer, coordinates volunteers and Den-
a walking transect in early morning, late morn- nis Frey manages the data, which are maintained
ing, and early afternoon from mid-August through by the Xerces Society (Xerces 2012b). Volunteers
mid-September. They also participate in monarch use a standardized protocol for estimating monarch
a bundance and receive training from Monarch Alert volunteer force that makes a substantial contribution
(see below) or the Xerces Society. A conservative to the WMTC.
estimate of the total number of people involved since
the project began is 500; these individuals made 2011
Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Monitoring
site visits from 1997 to 2014.
WMTC data provide the only overall picture of Since the early 1990s, CONANP (Comisión
the status of the western monarch population to date Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas) person-
and have been used in scientific publications (Frey nel in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve
and Schaffner 2004; Stevens and Frey 2010), unpub- (MBBR, see Figure 2.1d) and staff of the World
lished reports (Frey et al. 2003a; Stevens and Frey Wildlife Fund–Mexico (WWF-Mexico) have mea-
2004) and legal documents (IELP 2012). Findings are sured the areas occupied by monarchs at mul-
also used by the media, in docent talks at overwin- tiple overwintering sites in Mexico throughout
tering sites, and to prioritize outreach to landown- the wintering season (Garcia-Serrano et al. 2004;
ers who manage habitat with monarch aggregations. Rendón-Salinas and Tavera-Alonso 2013). Begin-
WMTC data include information on how monarchs ning in 2004 and currently coordinated by Eduardo
historically and currently use overwintering sites Rendón of WWF-Mexico, monitoring activities
and can thus guide conservation decision-making include biweekly measurements from November to
when projects with potential to impact overwinter- March. Goals of MBBR monitoring include assessing
ing sites are proposed. the overall size of the eastern migratory population,
and determining rates and causes of overwintering
mortality. Because this is the only time that most of
Monarch Alert
the eastern migratory population can be assessed
Monarch Alert is also focused on monitoring together, the findings are used widely to describe
overwintering monarchs in California. It was started monarch population trends (e.g., Brower et al. 2012a,
in 2001 by Sarah Hamilton and Sarah Stock of the 2012b; Journey North 2012a, Monarch Watch 2012;
Ventana Wildlife Society, and Dennis Frey of Cali- Pleasants and Oberhauser 2012; Rendón-Salinas
fornia Polytechnic State University. The size of its and Tavera-Alonso 2013; Ries et al., this volume,
volunteer program, extent of geographic focus, and Chapter 24).
research objectives have varied over the years. In its This monitoring project is conducted within a
smallest incarnations the focus has been on popu- protected preserve, thus limiting the ability of citi-
lation census and monitoring in Monterey County. zen scientists to participate. We include the effort
At its largest it has addressed postwinter disper- here because it provides key data that allow tracking
sal patterns through tagging studies, censuses, and of population numbers from year to year. Further,
monitoring of overwintering populations in San while most MBBR monitoring is conducted by paid
Luis Obispo and Monterey counties; microclimate personnel, the efforts are aided by local residents.
attributes of trees and wintering groves; and popula- To carry out research within the Reserve, a formal
tion dynamics and connectivity between individual request, establishing the protocol and goals for the
overwintering sites (e.g., Frey et al. 2003a; Frey and project, must be submitted and approved. Local resi-
Schaffner 2004; Griffiths 2006). dents can take part in specific activities if the permits
Volunteer opportunities are currently directed allow this participation, and a current program sup-
at museum docents and students, who tag and sight ported by the Monarch Butterfly Fund (MBF 2013)
monarchs to monitor within and between colony includes residents in monitoring activities that sup-
movement, and enter data. While professional port those of WWF-Mexico.
researchers have conducted most of the censuses,
citizen scientists contribute counts of overwinter-
ing populations for some locations and some years. AN EXPANDING POPULATION: MONARCH
These counts, and replication by Monarch Alert REPRODUCTION AND DISEASE
researchers, provide for calibrated census data. Such
calibration and training for citizen scientists has Traditionally, butterfly citizen science p
rojects
allowed Monarch Alert to maintain a well-prepared involve counting or observing adults and, less
often, tracking movement. Recently, a new focus engagement of students, teachers, and nonformal
has emerged for citizen science programs to youth groups in the MLMP. Project staff compile
engage “super” volunteers in the collection of more newsletters to share MLMP findings and volunteer
process-oriented data (Dickinson et al. 2012). Mon- contributions; from 2000 to 2011 these newsletters
arch researchers have been pioneers in such efforts, were published annually in hard copy format and
with volunteers who collect data that delve deeply archived on the project website, and beginning in
into the biology of the organisms they study. Here, late 2011, monthly newsletters are e-mailed to par-
we describe two programs that exemplify the devel- ticipants and then archived.
opment of super volunteers, the Monarch Larva From 1996 through fall 2014, over 1000 MLMP
Monitoring Project and Monarch Health. These volunteers monitored over 900 sites, raised 18,158
projects collect data on larval development, para- monarchs for the parasitism study, and reported 960
sitism, and disease. Other smaller projects involve other sightings (for site locations in 2011, see Figures
local groups in studies of monarch development. For 2.1 and 2.2).
example, Richard RuBino and Ron Nelson led the The MLMP has produced a field guide (Rea
Eden Monarch Fields Spring Migration Augmenta- et al. 2011) and peer-reviewed papers on spatial and
tion Project in Tallahassee, Florida. Volunteers raise temporal patterns in monarch densities (Prysby and
monarchs with the primary goal of augmenting the Oberhauser 1999, 2004), predators and parasitoids
migrating population and a secondary goal of study- (Prysby 2004; Oberhauser et al. 2007; Oberhauser
ing the spring migration in the Tallahassee area. In 2012), potential impacts of climate change (Batalden
the 12 years of this project, more than 1700 mon- et al. 2007) and genetically modified crops (Ober-
archs have been raised to maturity and tagged as part hauser et al. 2001; Pleasants and Oberhauser 2012),
of the Monarch Watch Tagging Program. winter breeding by monarchs in the United States
(Batalden and Oberhauser, this volume, Chapter
19), and conservation (Oberhauser and Prysby
Monarch Larva Monitoring Project
2008) and educational (Kountoupes and Oberhauser
The Monarch Larva Monitoring Project (MLMP) 2008; Oberhauser and LeBuhn 2012) impacts of the
was begun by Michelle Prysby and Karen Ober- MLMP. Lindsey et al. (2009) and Bartel et al. (2011)
hauser at the University of Minnesota in 1996. Goals synthesized MLMP and MonarchHealth data to
of the MLMP are to understand the factors that affect detect relationships between monarch density and
monarch reproduction and development during the parasite incidence. The program’s website (MLMP
breeding season, and to enhance volunteers’ appre- 2013) includes real-time summaries of monarch
ciation and concern for monarchs and their habitat. densities and parasitoid incidence, which can be
MLMP volunteers conduct up to six data collection downloaded. Other data are made available on a
activities. Every year, they provide (1) a site descrip- case-by-case basis.
tion and (2) an estimate of milkweed density. In
addition to these annual activities, they (3) conduct
Monarch Health
weekly surveys of monarchs and milkweeds. Addi-
tional, optional activities include (4) comparing Project MonarchHealth, started in 2006 by
plants occupied by monarchs to random plants, (5) Sonia Altizer at the University of Georgia, engages
measuring rates of parasitism by parasitoids by col- citizen scientists in measuring the prevalence of a
lecting and rearing larvae, and (6) collecting rainfall protozoan parasite of monarchs, Ophryocystis elek-
data. Beginning in 2004, volunteers have also been troscirrha (OE), throughout North America. Proj-
able to report sightings of monarchs at locations ect goals are to track spatial and temporal variation
other than regularly monitored sites. Volunteers in parasite infections, and to enhance awareness of
choose their own monitoring sites, which include the biology and impacts of monarch parasites. Vol-
backyard gardens, abandoned fields, pastures, and unteer citizen scientists sample monarchs (either
restored prairies located throughout the monarch’s adults captured from the wild or wild caterpillars
breeding range. they rear to adulthood) by swabbing their abdomens
Grants from the National Science Foundation to collect parasite spores that are present on infected
have supported project dissemination, and butterflies. They return swabs to the University of
a b
JN MLMP-Parasitism
MLMP-Survey MonHealth
NPN
Figure 2.2. Multitrophic interactions (shown only in the eastern United States since few data from the West are available). (a) Host
plant (emerging milkweed). (b) Natural enemies.
Georgia, where MonarchHealth scientists analyze (Bartel et al. 2011), who may not be vigorous
the samples. Participants include families, adults, enough to travel the long distance to overwintering
classrooms, and nature centers. They register elec- sites. More recently, initiatives of MonarchHealth
tronically (by e-mailing monarch@uga.edu), and are have been launched in the southern United States
mailed supplies needed to conduct sampling. Indi- (starting in 2011, to track infection levels in winter
vidual volunteers receive the results of their sam- breeding monarchs at sites with tropical milkweed
pling efforts by mail, and the data are also posted on plants) and in the western United States (starting
the project website. From 2006 to 2011, volunteers in 2013).
submitted 12,553 samples (for locations of sites in

2011, see Figure 2.2).
MonarchHealth data have shown that about MONARCHS, AMONG OTHERS: GENERAL
12% of monarchs collected by volunteers are BUT TERFLY PROGRAMS
infected with OE (Monarch Parasites 2012), but
infection levels increase from early to late in the Many programs collect butterfly survey and
breeding season and then decline over the course of sighting data. The fact that these programs are
the migration (Bartel et al. 2011). Because breeding not focused on monarchs results in more reli-
habitats are more heavily infected, migration may able absence data, because participation is not
allow monarchs to flee areas with large numbers driven by volunteer interest in monarchs. Absence
of parasites. Additionally, monarchs’ long-distance data (information on when and where monarchs
movements might weed out infected individuals are not present) are important to understanding
opulation dynamics. For example, communica-

p The North American Butterfly Association’s
tion with volunteers in the MLMP suggests that Count Program
they are less likely to monitor when they feel
The longest-running butterfly monitoring
they will not observe monarchs (K. Oberhauser,
program is run by the North American Butterfly
pers. observ.), and this may be true for other
Association (NABA), directed by Jeffrey Glassberg.
monarch-specific programs as well. Three main
This program, modeled after the National Audu-
types of programs collect data on butterfly popu-
bon Society’s Christmas Bird Counts, was started
lations: counts, transects, and opportunistic sight-
by the Xerces Society in 1975 (Swengel 1990) and
ings. Below, we describe groups that organize each
adopted by NABA in 1992. It provides information
of these program types (see Table 2.1 and Figure
about butterfly distributions and population sizes,
2.3), and highlight results pertaining to monarchs.
promotes interactions among butterfly enthusiasts,
These programs have received little attention from
and encourages interest in butterflies and their con-
the scientific community until recently, and have
servation. Each volunteer count coordinator estab-
thus resulted in few published papers to date.
lishes a fixed, 15-mile-diameter search area (called
Figure 2.3. Butterfly monitoring programs. Observational monarch sightings are shown by an open symbol and come from
BAMONA and both NABA sighting programs; NABA Count Surveys have a center point. Season is indicated by shape: triangle
(winter), diamond (spring), circle (summer), or square (fall). Regional state-based butterfly monitoring programs (shaded) run from 10
to ~200 transects, depending on state. Massachusetts has a field trip program (shading not visible) that reports surveys of hundreds
of nonfixed sites each year.
a count circle) and recruits volunteers to census 2010, coordinated by Monika Egerer, Kalamazoo
all butterflies sighted within the circle on a single Nature Center), and Cascades National Park (started
day. These counts are held throughout the summer in 2011, coordinated by Regina Rochefort, National
depending on the optimal timing for each location. Park Service). Several other states are currently orga-
In 2008, NABA began encouraging count coordina- nizing their own BMNs, including Tennessee, Colo-
tors to conduct three counts per year, one each in the rado, and southern California.
spring, fall, and summer (although most counts are
still conducted only once per year).
Opportunistic data collection
Currently, about 450–475 counts are conducted
annually (see Figure 2.3 for locations). Multiple loca- Three programs currently collect butterfly obser-
tions are visited within a count circle on a given day, vations that are not part of a fixed protocol. These
but even the largest groups cannot survey an entire programs run the gamut from websites that allow
circle. Groups report all adult butterflies observed people to log random observations, to organized
and the number of party-hours (an hour spent by a field trips where all butterflies observed are recorded
group at a given site, regardless of the group size) and (so absences can be assumed). In addition to the
party-miles (a mile traveled on foot by each party) programs described below, general interest nature
spent on the survey. NABA data were used for one observation programs, like iNaturalist, have also
of the first published accounts of year-to-year fluc- started to accumulate monarch occurrence data.
tuations in monarch numbers (Swengel 1995) and While none of these programs currently constitute
by Ries et al. (this volume, Chapter 24) to document a major data source on monarch distributions, if the
monarch population dynamics. growth of bird citizen-science programs can be used
as an indicator, their potential importance should
not be downplayed. Currently, the main entry port
Butterfly Monitoring Networks (Transect Programs)
for bird observation data, eBird, logs up to 3 million
Butterfly Monitoring Networks (BMNs) assess occurrence records per month (Kelling et al. 2013).
the abundance of butterflies in specific survey loca- NABA runs two national programs to collect obser-
tions (Figure 2.3). These programs involve repeated vation data. The larger of these is a program called
measures each year along fixed transects, and dur- “Butterflies I’ve Seen.” This program allows users
ing set observation periods. Compared with count to record single observations or all sightings from
programs, they use stricter protocols, adapted from field trips and track their life lists. It was launched
those proposed by Pollard (1977), and thus pro- in 2001 and by 2014 had recorded data from more
vide more rigorous data on butterfly habitat use than 18,000 separate field trips. Another NABA pro-
and population dynamics within and across years. gram is strictly for individual sightings, with a focus
All volunteers are trained in survey protocols and on alerting members to the presence or emergence of
identification. species of interest. The “Recent Sightings” program
The first U.S. BMN began in 1987 in Illinois was started in 2000 and had logged nearly 162,000
with support from The Nature Conservancy. The records by 2014. A similar program is run by another
Illinois network currently monitors more than 100 NABA chapter, the Southern Wisconsin Butterfly
sites. The program is run from the Peggy Notebaert Association. This program, launched in 2005, allows
Nature Museum in Chicago by Doug Taron, who users to record multiple species observed at one site
also provides support and assistance to other BMN along with notes and photos. In 2011, there were
programs throughout the United States. The Ohio 1277 count postings (Wisconsin Butterflies 2012).
Lepidopterists’ Society began conducting a similar One of the most active opportunistic programs
program in 1995; Ohio BMN data were used to show is run by the Massachusetts Butterfly Club, a NABA
the effects of climate on yearly monarch population chapter that manages its program and data locally.
growth in Ohio (Zipkin et al. 2012). Other regional The club organizes field trips that are similar to
programs are based in Florida (started in 2003, coor- NABA counts, except the locations are not fixed and
dinated by Jaret Daniels, University of Florida), Iowa they are not necessarily repeated from year to year.
(started in the 2007, coordinated by Nathan Brock- Since 1992 approximately 9000 trips have been orga-
man, Iowa State University), Michigan (started in nized, so the available data are quite dense. A recent
analysis used these data to identify species showing for certain stages. To identify data gaps, we focused
declines or increases near their northern and south- on biological dynamics during the four phases of
ern range limits (Breed et al. 2012). Monarchs, while monarchs’ annual cycle, which roughly correspond
trending down, showed no significant pattern. to the four seasons: overwintering, spring migra-
The Butterfly and Moth Information Network, tion and breeding, summer expansion and breed-
directed by Kelly Lotts and Thomas Naberhaus, ing, and fall migration. We have used occurrence
hosts another growing program for sightings data data from the programs described above to define
called Butterflies and Moths of North America monarch ranges, combining these ranges with our
(BAMONA 2012). This web-based project originally knowledge of monarch phenology to determine gaps
presented presence records based on historical and that should be filled in each season to provide a full
current records submitted by regional coordinators. picture of monarchs’ complex spatiotemporal popu-
Along with distribution records, the website offers lation dynamics, as well as conservation threats and
information and photos of each species and is one of challenges. To determine where and when monarch
the most popular butterfly sites, based on traffic and populations are or are not well covered by existing
Google search results. Starting in 2005, a separate programs, we overlaid monitoring locations on these
sightings database allows citizen scientists to submit maps, presented separately for each season in Figure
photographs of butterflies and moths to the website 2.1. Our goals are to illustrate both the remarkable
(Figure 2.3). Quality control is provided by volunteer amount of data available and gaps that could be
lepidopterists who serve as regional coordinators. filled by establishment of new programs or increased
Standardized data are accessible through the website recruitment for existing programs. In many cases,
via checklists, species profiles, maps displaying point these data gaps probably reflect less dense concen-
occurrence data, and individual record details. Qual- trations of humans or differing cultural and educa-
ity control is high, with the trade-off that the proto- tional priorities among regions of North America, as
col requiring photo confirmation of each record may well as lower monarch population densities, making
limit the number of observations ultimately flowing recruitment difficult.
into this site. An obvious conclusion is that monarch monitor-
The newest large-scale project for observations is ing is much more dense and active in the eastern than
eButterfly (eButterfly 2013), run from the Montréal the western United States during all seasons (Figure
Insectarium and the University of Ottawa. Contribu- 2.1), likely caused by a combination of sparser
tors report sightings and upload photos of butter- human populations in the West and lower over-
flies (both current and historical records) in North all monarch densities, making it harder to engage
America using a checklist system. Despite its short volunteers. However, conservation of the western
history (it began in 2012), the project had already population would benefit from more data regard-
logged nearly 110,000 new observations and will ing monarch habitat use and numbers. We have little
have about 300,000 historical observation records knowledge of pathways taken as the western popula-
in 2015. The website also offers a portal for entering tion recolonizes its breeding ground, whether move-
new sightings. As with BAMONA, experts review ment occurs from Mexico into the western United
all submitted records. The program provided strong States, or even where key breeding areas are located.
documentation of the unusual spring migrations of As a start, we recommend targeted recruitment of

monarchs, painted ladies, and red admirals in spring individuals reporting spring sightings (via Journey
2012. The focus on migrations could provide impor- North and Correo Real) in northwestern Mexico
tant information regarding monarch distributions and in all regions in the western United States. More
under changing climate regimes. western MLMP observers would provide valuable
information on use of breeding habitat in this region,
and help to inform conservation efforts focused on
DATA GAPS AND RECOMMENDATIONS breeding habitat.
FOR VOLUNTEER RECRUITMENT Journey North data have good spring coverage
in the eastern United States (Figure 2.1a), although
A tremendous amount of data stream in from the there are few reports from potentially impor-
programs detailed above, but some areas still lack data tant regions in North and South Dakota, the far
ortheastern United States, and northwestern Min-

n fewer monarchs (Frey and Schaffner 2004). Addi-
nesota. Additional spring observers in northeastern tionally, while WWF-Mexico monitors throughout
Mexico (recruited through Correo Real) would help the winter in Mexico, there is less repeated monitor-
us to better understand key spring migration habi- ing of California sites. Because movement between
tats as monarchs move northward. Broader distribu- sites appears to be an important part of western
tion of MLMP observers in the spring would provide winter dynamics (Villablanca 2012a), programs that
valuable information on the start of oviposition and monitor throughout the season would be valuable.
development, monarch use of milkweed resources, Both Journey North and MLMP volunteers
and pressures from parasitoids in the south. Recent report milkweed emergence dates, and these reports,
research suggests that the success of the spring gen- combined with some data from the National Phenol-
eration produced by migrants from Mexico is critical ogy Network (NPN), provide fairly extensive cover-
to summer population growth (Zipkin et al. 2012), age of the eastern United States (but not the West,
so more spring data from the South would allow us Figure 2.2). Continuing to encourage volunteers to
to understand the factors that drive successful breed- report milkweed phenology will be important in the
ing during this critical stage. Ideally, recruitment face of global climate change and potential mon-
efforts would include northern Mexico, for which we arch range changes (Batalden et al. 2007). Data on
have little understanding of the importance of spring monarch parasitoids (through the MLMP) and OE
breeding. (through MonarchHealth) are clumped around the
Summer and fall coverage is strong in the Upper Great Lakes and the East Coast, and it would be use-
Midwest and Northeast (Figures 2.1b and c) through ful to recruit more broadly for these programs.
the MLMP, Monarch Watch, and Journey North. General butterfly projects like BAMONA and
More MLMP volunteers in the midcentral and NABA sample broadly and can help us locate data
southern regions would help to document whether gaps (Figure 2.3) and potentially recruit new volun-
monarchs actually do vacate these regions in the heat teers. For example, BAMONA sightings in south-
of the summer, as suggested by Prysby and Ober- western Canada informed our range map (Figure
hauser (2004), and the dynamics of reproduction as 2.1); we know that there are monarchs in southern
monarchs are moving north in the early summer and Alberta, but little monarch-specific monitoring. We
south in the fall (Batalden and Oberhauser, this vol- encourage monarch researchers to take advantage of
ume, Chapter 19). these valuable data and volunteer sources.
In the winter, sampling adult presence and
reproduction in the southern United States and
northern Mexico will help us determine the degree CONSERVATION IMPACTS
to which monarchs use locations other than their
traditional wintering grounds. There is fairly good Many organizations that coordinate monarch
eastern coverage from Journey North in the winter citizen science projects have explicit conservation
(Figure 2.1d). Additional MLMP volunteers could goals. For example, Monarch Watch’s Monarch
provide more detailed information about the degree Waystation and Bring Back the Monarchs programs
to which winter reproduction is increasing or associ- engage volunteers in activities that promote monarch
ated with environmental factors such as the presence habitat conservation; Xerces and Monarch Watch
of the non-native A. curassavica (Batalden and Ober- are working to make milkweed available for habitat
hauser, this volume, Chapter 19). Given the potential restoration projects; and Xerces, Monarch Watch,
importance of monarch movement through the des- and Monarchs in the Classroom (which runs the
ert Southwest (e.g., Pyle 2001; Brower and Pyle 2004; MLMP) are part of the Monarch Joint Venture (Sha-
Pyle, this volume, Chapter 21), additional SWMS, hani et al., this volume, Chapter 3). Here, we focus
Journey North, and MLMP volunteers in this region on the conservation impacts of the citizen science
would be beneficial. The WMTC has fairly good cov- programs themselves; these impacts led Oberhauser
erage of western wintering sites, although the sites at and Prysby (2008) to call monarch citizen scientists
the north and south ends of the wintering range tend a “research army for conservation.”
to have less regular monitoring, probably because it An obvious conservation value of all programs
is difficult to motivate volunteers to visit sites with stems from their ability to collect thousands of
bservations throughout monarchs’ annual life

o of the impact of the hurricane on this important
cycle; these data can be used in formal analyses to monarch habitat.
advance conservation science on monarchs and In addition to providing data with conserva-
inform specific actions. Data collected by monarch tion value, monarch monitoring engages citizens in
citizen scientists have identified main migration actions that affect their understanding of the impor-
pathways and critical times of passage (Howard and tance of conservation and, we argue, fosters connec-
Davis 2004), weather events or human activities tions between participants and local, national, and
that affect the population (Stevens and Frey 2010; international natural communities. Many monarch
Howard and Davis 2012; Pleasants and Oberhauser citizen scientists engage in education activities with
2012), potential impacts of climate change on mon- children, and many programs are school-based
arch migration and range (Batalden et al. 2007), and (Journey North, MonarchHealth, Correo Real) or
habitat types that are important to monarchs during include programming for adults working with chil-
the fall migration (Davis et al. 2012a). dren (MLMP, Monarch Watch). Monarch citizen
Citizen science data have also been used to scientists also share their findings and knowledge
influence specific policies or actions. On a small about monarchs in a variety of settings, such as local
scale, many volunteers engage in stewardship activi- presentations and with news media and elected offi-
ties on the land they monitor, basing management cials. The expertise developed through volunteers’
decisions on their observations of what constitutes long-term involvement builds confidence and thus
quality monarch habitat. For example, MLMP vol- encourages outreach activities. Finally, many vol-
unteers often plant milkweed or nectar plants at unteers engage in environmental advocacy, often
their monitoring sites, and they manage their land in as a result of a specific experience, such as losing a
more environmentally friendly ways, such as chang- monitoring site to development. Such experiences
ing mowing regimes to avoid monarch presence and increase volunteers’ awareness of habitat loss, and
promote milkweed growth. On larger scales, WMTC encourage advocacy to prevent further loss.
data are used to inform management that promotes Citizen science programs can support volun-
long-term use of wintering sites by monarchs and to teers’ conservation actions in many ways. We can
try to stop harmful development (e.g., Villablanca explicitly support outreach and education activities
2012b). Correo Real data have illustrated the impor- by providing materials or other support, such as tips
tance of the state of Coahuila on monarchs’ migra- on working with news media. We can support vol-
tory route, and resulted in the publication of a State unteers in their training efforts by providing materi-
Ministry of the Environment document that recom- als and advertising. Finally, many volunteers ask for
mends suspending mosquito spraying during the our help in their communications with individuals
migration, and alerting drivers to the importance of and organizations that have control over monarch
slowing down to avoid hitting monarchs. habitat. For example, they ask for information about
Data from the fall monitoring project on the potential impacts of wind turbines or broad-scale
Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge informed a pesticide applications to control insect pests. The
plan that included habitat enhancement and man- degree to which we can engage citizens and provide
agement to benefit monarchs. Tragically, the pri- them with tools to foster monarch conservation
mary dune that provided nectar plants and roosting would greatly expand the benefits of these programs
shrubs on Assateague Island was wiped out by Hur- beyond simply helping us to collect data.
ricane Sandy in fall 2012. Denise Gibbs provided this
account of the destruction to the Monarch Watch
e-mail discussion list: “In the 50 years I have been CONCLUSION
coming here, that dune stood firm through every
hurricane. It is now just wide expanses of flat sand Every year, tens of thousands of volunteer hours
right up to deadened edge of the maritime forest. No are invested in monitoring monarchs, and the value
interdune area, no transition zones; just a lot of dead of this investment is incalculable. Thanks to mon-
and broken loblolly pine trees or their remaining arch citizen scientists, we are better equipped to face
stumps.” Without the data provided by Gibbs and her the challenge of ensuring that monarchs and their
colleagues (2006), we would have no u nderstanding incredible migratory phenomenon are around to
fascinate future generations of children, scientists, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

and citizens. As references noted above illustrate,
the data generated in these projects provide ways We thank the thousands of volunteer citizen
to answer questions that could never be addressed scientists throughout North America who have
through traditional academic research programs. contributed so much to our understanding of mon-
The assortment of monarch citizen science arch biology. As leaders of these programs, we feel
projects and their widespread use in scientific pub- incredible gratitude and awe toward these individu-
lications illustrate the value of both very simple als. We thank the past and current funding sources,
reporting procedures, such as reporting a sighting all noted in the text, for supporting these programs
of a single monarch to Journey North, and more and promoting their conservation, education, and
involved ones, such as weekly site monitoring that basic research outcomes; and Priya Shahani and
requires reporting the stages and numbers of imma- Scott Black for their helpful comments on a previous
ture monarchs, blooming plants, and weather condi- version of the manuscript.
tions to MLMP. This impressive range of programs
provides opportunities to engage citizens at all levels
of involvement.
3
Monarch Habitat Conservation across North America
Past Progress and Future Needs
Priya C. Shahani, Guadalupe del Río Pesado, Phil Schappert,

and Eligio García Serrano
Preserving monarchs and their remarkable migration requires protecting habitats crucial for
monarch breeding, migrating, and overwintering across North America. In Mexico, the Monarch
Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR) was created to protect the overwintering sites, and the
Monarch Fund (Fondo Monarca) compensates landowners for conservation measures taken
on these lands. Twenty-five different NGOs work on conservation and community issues in the
MBBR, and most of these collaborate through the Monarch Network. In the United States,
14 organizations collaborate through the Monarch Joint Venture to plant milkweed and nectar
plants for monarchs, restore breeding habitats, and support citizen science projects to bet-
ter understand monarch conservation needs. In Canada, legal protections and on-the-ground
habitat improvement projects to conserve breeding habitat are achieved through collaboration
between agencies and engaged volunteers. Future work should focus on identifying the links
between monarch population size and habitat changes, and predicting shifts in monarch habitat
needs in response to environmental change.
INTRODUCTION proliferation of herbicide-tolerant crops and the

suburbanization of agricultural land in the United
The remarkable migration of North American States have caused the loss of milkweed and nec-
monarchs relies on a wide range of habitats in tar plants required for monarch reproduction and
Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Conserv- migration (CEC 2008; Pleasants and Oberhauser
ing monarch migration requires that each phase 2012; Pleasants, this volume, Chapter 14). Prior
of their annual cycle of breeding, migrating, and work using stable isotopes to infer monarch natal
overwintering receives conservation attention. origins showed that the U.S. Upper Midwest was
Historically, the relatively small size of the mon- the major source of the monarchs overwintering
archs’ wintering sites in Mexico and California in Mexico (Wassenaar and Hobson 1998), and
and human encroachment on these sites has made between-year variation in the numbers of over-
their protection of paramount concern (CEC wintering monarchs in Mexico is predicted by the
2008). In Mexico, monarch wintering sites are abundance of monarch caterpillars in the Midwest
threatened by commercial and subsistence-scale (Pleasants and Oberhauser 2012). These findings,
timber harvesting (Ramírez et al., this volume, combined with recent declines in overall monarch
Chapter 13); in California, real estate development population sizes (Brower et al. 2011), underscore
with lack of integrated protection and habitat that habitat protection in monarch wintering
management threatens the persistence of monarch sites alone is inadequate to protect the spectacu-
wintering colonies along the coast (Jepsen and lar North American migration from intensifying
Black, this volume, Chapter 12). More recently, the human pressures.
31
32 Priya C. Shahani et al.
Other threats monarchs face in their breeding MONARCH PROTECTION EFFORTS SUPPORTED
range and along migratory routes include non- BY INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
target impacts of insecticide use; frequent mow- AND COLLABORATION
ing regimes in roadsides, parks, and other lands;
and contemporary climate change that can inten- In 1983, shortly after the scientific discovery of
sify severe weather events (floods, droughts) and monarch wintering sites in Mexico (Urquhart 1976),
might shift the location of suitable breeding habi- concern over the loss of monarch overwintering
tats (Oberhauser and Peterson 2003; Batalden habitat motivated the International Union for Con-
et al. 2007; Stevens and Frey 2010; Brower et al., servation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
this volume, Chapter 10; Ramírez et al., this vol- to designate protected areas for winter roost sites in
ume, Chapter 13). The planting and prolifera- Mexico and California (Wells et al. 1983). This action
tion of invasive species is an issue as well. As one was taken to protect the monarchs’ migration rather
example, monarchs will lay eggs on two non-native than to save the species per se, and thus was the first
plant species, Cynanchum louiseae and C. rossicum, designation of protected areas for a biological phe-
on which their larvae cannot feed and develop nomenon in the history of international conserva-
(Casagrande and Dacey 2007). These plants serve tion. In other words, the action recognized that the
as sinks for monarchs, and their spread is of con- migratory phenomenon was imperiled, even if the
cern. In Canada, milkweeds are listed as noxious species as a whole was not in imminent danger of
weeds, preventing their planting (and causing their extinction.
eradication) in some places (Schappert 1996). In 1995, Canada and Mexico signed a declara-
In the United States, milkweed species are not tion to create an International Network of Monarch
included on the primary noxious weed list of any Butterfly Reserves and pledged to jointly expand
state (National Plant Board 2013), but some states this network. In Mexico, the five sites included in
include milkweed species on secondary lists that the Monarch Butterfly Special Biosphere Reserve
allow their listing at the county level. Conserv- were also included in this network. Canada desig-
ing the monarch migration will require efforts in nated three migratory stopover sites in Southern
Mexico, the United States, and Canada to ensure Ontario, where large numbers of monarchs aggre-
that (1) sufficient suitable habitat is available on gate each fall prior to crossing the Great Lakes (Long
the monarchs’ wintering grounds in California Point National Wildlife Area, Prince Edward Point
(U.S.) and Mexico; and (2) sufficient breeding and National Wildlife Area, and Point Pelee National
migration habitat is available in all three countries Park).
to maintain, and ideally enhance, North American In March 2006, the Trilateral Committee of
monarch recruitment and survival. In this chapter, Wildlife and Ecosystem Conservation and Manage-
we first detail the legal status and conservation rec- ment (headed by the directors of the Canadian Wild-
ognition afforded to monarchs internationally. We life Service [CWS], the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
then describe legal protections and habitat conser- [USFWS], and the Ministry of Environment and
vation efforts under way in each North American Natural Resources of Mexico) established a network
country. In reviewing these efforts, we note the of monarch conservation areas in each North Amer-
very different approaches taken by each country to ican country, where monarch habitat conservation,
address their unique habitat challenges. Multiple research, monitoring, and environmental educa-
chapters in this volume, including those by Brower tion would be prioritized. This “Sister Protected
et al., Brower and Fink, and Ramírez et al. provide Area” network (see map in CEC 2008) includes 13
more detailed accounts of specific threats to mon- protected areas administered by the USFWS, US
archs, and yet others, including those by Borders National Park Service (USNPS), CWS, Parks Canada
and Lee-Mäder, Baum and Mueller, and Jepsen and Agency (PCA), and Mexico’s National Commis-
Black, highlight specific effects underway aimed at sion of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP). While
monarch habitat conservation. Our aim here is to no new protections for monarchs were conferred
provide a broad summary of the variety of efforts by these designations, specific actions on each site
undertaken to protect and conserve monarchs and range from outreach activities to habitat restora-
their habitats across North America. tion and protection, and the creation of the network
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
hyrähti vaimoraukalta, kun hän sitten kiulu kädessä kyyristyi
lypsämään ja ajatteli, miten ikävältä tuntuisi, jos nyt tähän iltaan olisi
loppunut se vuosia toivottu ilo, olla lehmän omistajana ja saada
ammentaa lasten tuoppiin piimää omasta piimäkorvosta. Hän tahtoi
laulaa: "minäpä lypsän Kaunikki piikaa", mutta ei voinut tällä kertaa
saada heleätä ääntä.
Naapurit.
Savolainen ja Tenhunen asuivat naapureina. Heidän peltojensa

aidat juoksivat yhteen, mutta talojen väliä oli kilometri, ei päälle eikä
vaille, sen näki selvästi siitä, kun maantien kilometripylväät seisoivat
molempain talojen kohdalla. Tenhusen talon kujan suulla seisoi vielä
toinen muhkeampi pylväs, jonka yläpäätä kaunisti kaksi valkoiseksi
maalattua lautavyötä, joka oli siinä kievarin- eli majatalon merkkinä.
Tenhunen oli ijäkäs, karski näöltään ja käytökseltäänkin, ei
kumartanut viranomaisia herroja ammattinsa eduksi, vaan käski
niiden ottaa tuon merkkipylvään selkäänsä, jos ei heille kelpaa
majatalon järjestys.
Tenhusen naapuri, Savolainen, oli paljon nuorempi, kekseliäs

tekemään silloin tällöin pieniä tepposia, mutta muuten vakava kuin
luostarin pappi.
Ohran kynnön aikana, aikaisin aamusella, meni Tenhunen

naapurinsa rajaa vasten olevalle pellolle siementä kylvämään ja
käski kyntömiesten tulla perästä siementämään. Yhden saran hän
ennätti kylvää, kun näki naapurinsa Savolaisen kävelevän sinne
väsyneen ja tuiki totisen näköisenä.
— Huomenta, tervehti se raukeasti, jouduttuaan saran toiseen
päähän.
— Huomenta, huomenta, vastasi Tenhunen, oikaisten selkäänsä

ja korjasi samalla kylvyvakkansa kannakehihnaa. Etkö sinäkin jo ala
siemeniä syytää näin kauniina aamuna.
— Pitäisihän tässä niitäkin syytää, sanoi Savolainen, kohottaen

olkapäitään. Mutta minulla on ollut vähän rauhaton yö, kun
matkustavainen tuli siihen keskellä yötä häiritsemään.
— Minkä tähden se ei tullut kievariin? sanoi Tenhunen, rypistäen

kulmiaan.
— Mikä tuolla lienee ollut, kun se siihen vaan tuppautui, selitti

Savolainen.
— Etkö sinä sanonut, että tuolla on kievari?
— Eihän sen kanssa tule puhumisesta mitään, joka on "ummikko",

ei osaa suomea, ei halaistua sanaa. — Ne ne ovat parhaita
tollukoita, kiivastui Tenhunen naapurinsa puolesta. Niiden,
moseroiden, kanssa sitä on välistä pääsemättömissä.
— Eläs enää sano, vahvisti Savolainen. Jo minä olen siitä tänä

yönä uhoon yhtynyt… Ja sitä vartenhan minä tänne tulin, että jos
sinä, hyvä naapuri, tulisit vähän avuksi sitä puhuttelemaan.
— Mitäpä sille minäkään hyvin osannen, sanoi Tenhunen,

kynsäisten korvallistaan.
— Kyllä sinä jotain paremmin kykenet, kun olet ennenkin ollut

niiden kanssa tekemisissä, pyyteli Savolainen. Jos ei muuta, niin
pitäisi siltä ainakin saada maksu ruuasta ja muusta, kun sitä on siinä
monissa miehin pitänyt hoitaa.
Silloin kiepautti Tenhunen kylvövakan hihnan kaulastaan ja sanoi

päättävästi:
— No sen minä kyllä saan aikaan, ettei maksutta pääse, vaikka ei

osaisi muuta kuin turkkilaisten kieltä.
Yhtä rintaa lähtivät he astumaan Savolaisen kotiin.
— Kuka kuteus sillä oli kyytimiehenä, kun ei sekään osannut

kievariin tulla, ihmetteli Tenhunen matkalla.
— Sepä se on pahinta, kun se ajaa omallaan, selitti Savolainen.
— Kaikki ne nyt nykyaikana ajavat omallaan, murisi Tenhunen,

vaan onhan tuo hyväkin näin ohran panon aikana.
Savolainen vei naapurin omaan kamariinsa.
— Odotellaanhan täällä, sanoi hän, taitaa vielä nukkua. Se

rupesikin vasta tässä auringon nousun edellä.
— Mutta kohta se kumminkin täytyy herättää, muistutti Tenhunen.

En minä jouda täällä kauan odottamaan.
— Kyllä, kyllä. Vaan otetaanhan tässä aamuryypyt. Minä jo äsken

nämä nostin esille, että jos sekin matkustavainen haluaa niin siitä
saapi.
— Niin, eihän sitä tiedä, sanoi Tenhunen. Jos se on saksalainen,

niin kyllä se ryypyt ottaa, mutta sille pitäisi olla olutta. Kerran minä
muutaman saksalaisen kanssa jouduin ihmeeseen. Se murittaa ja
murittaa, ja aina osoittaa juomalasia ja taksaa seinällä. Minä kannan
sen eteen viinaa, konjakkia ja viiniä, mutta yhä vaan murittaa ja
pyörittelee päätään. No minä käsken vaimon tuoda maitoa, sahtia ja
vettäkin mutta ei mikään kelpaa. Ymmärsinhän minä sitten, että
olutta se tahtoo ja selitin että ei ole nyt olutta. Mutta eihän se
murikko helpoita. Silloin minua jo suututti ja minä hihkasin niin että
ikkunat helähtivät, että "tuossa kaiketi ne ovat kaikki, mitä meillä on;
muuta sinä, jos saat, ne olueksi." Ja ymmärsipäs selvän suomen.
Heti tukkesi suunsa ja meni taipaleelle, jo. Eikä tässä nytkään kovin
pitkiin puheisiin ruveta, vaan sanotaan selvät sanat, hui — Niin
tehdäänkin, vahvisti Savolainen. Mutta sitä sietää tässä otella
ryyppyjä, ettei hätäytä.
— Ei sen vuoksi, vakuutti Tenhunen ryypätessään. Minä en ole

vielä ikänäni hätäytynyt suurtenkaan herrain edessä. Näyttääkös
tämä miten suurelta herralta?
— Eihän sitä tiedä, kun se on ummikko.
— Näkee sen päältä päinkin, selitti Tenhunen. Jos sillä on kirstuja

ja muita matkalaukkuja, niin ei se ole kuin jokin kauppamatkustelija.
Suurilla herroilla on harvemmin mitään rojakkata muassaan ja mitä
niillä on, niin ne ovat hyviä.
— Ei tälläkään ole tavaroista puhetta, niin että voisi se siihen

katsoen olla suurikin herra, selitti Savolainen ja kopautti samalla
lasin pohjaa pöytään maistamisen merkiksi.
Tenhunen sanoi jo korvallisissaan kihahtelevan, eikä ollutkaan

ihme niin aamutuimaan. Ei hän siltä unhottanut ohran kylvämistä,
kun vaan olisi saanut tämän tulkkina olonsa suoritetuksi.
— Kyllä se jo nyt täytyy havauttaa, kiirehti hän. Siellä kylvös
loppuu.
— Aikaisia miehiähän tuolla on, kylväkööt itse, rauhoitteli

Savolainen. Se on niin vaarallinen mennä aikaisin herättelemään, jos
se on miten suuri herra. Istutaanhan ja kahvia odotellessa ryypätään.
— Tässä on jo ryypättynäkin, sanoi Tenhunen liikahdellen entistä

kepeämpänä. Minun jo haluttaisi päästä vähän venskailemaan sen
herran kanssa. Pian siitä selvä tulee mistä maasta hän on. Onko sillä
parta?
— Ei, ei sillä ole partaa.
— Ei se sitten ole venäläinen, jos ei liene poika loppi. Ja kyllä

minä venäjän ja ruotsin kielistä tunnen eroituksen, mutta jos se on
saksalainen tai englantilainen, niin niistä minä en ymmärrä mitään ja
silloin ei auta muu kuin selvä suomi… Tokko sinä osaat yhtään
sanaa ruotsia tai venättä?
— En kerrassa yhtään.
— Minä niitä paukauttelen. Jos arvelee ruotsalaiseksi ja sanoo,

että "huru mykky", niin silloin se alkaa mongertaa vastaan, jos
ymmärtää. Ja jos luulee venäläiseksi, niin heti se alkaa niesnittää
kun sanoo "trastuit, harassoo". Jos taas sattuu, että ruotsalaiselta
yrittää unehtua otokset maksamatta, niin heti se puistaa lantit, kun
sanoo: "ikke petaalar, myntit tänne". Ja pianpa kääntyy
venäläinenkin kun muistuttaa että "tengat hospotai".
Tenhunen innostui näitä kielinäytteitä tehdessään niin, että kävellä

humaili ympäri huonetta. Savolainen istui paikoillaan pöydän päässä
ja naurahteli rauhallisesti. Hän oli nuorempi mies kestämään
ryyppyjä ja käytti jo viimeseltä toverinsa liikkeellä oloa hyväkseen,
kaatamalla sen lasiin uutta, vaan ei omaansa.
Jopa viimeinkin tuli apumiehelle kiire.
— Tässä päihtyy hiiteen ja kylvöt jääpi tekemättä. Nyt jos et aja

ylös, niin minä lähden… Vai etkö sinä uskalla? Missä huoneessa se
nukkuu? Kyllä minä uskallan… Minä sanon että "moron herrar!"
Hän seisoi niin juhlallisessa asennossa kuin ainakin suuren herran

vastaan ottaja. Savolaisen ei käynyt enää viivytteleminen.
— No nyt se katsotaan, sanoi hän, nousten seisalleen. Se nukkuu

tässä viereisessä huoneessa. Minä aukasen hiljaa oven, niin katso
sinä, naapuri, minun olkapääni ylitse, että minkä maan mieheksi tuon
arvaat.
Tenhunen asettuu aivan selän taakse, olkapään yli kurkoittamaan,

kun
Savolainen väänsi lukkoa auki.
— Katsos veitikkata, puhui oven avaaja, tirkistettyään ensiksi oven

raosta. Se on vetäytynyt minun vaimoni viereen.
Samassa aukasi hän enemmänkin ja Tenhunen näki ihmeekseen,

että siinä naapurin emännän vieressä lepäsi pieni, kapaloon kääritty
olento kaikessa rauhassa.
— Semmoistako se olikin, sanoi hän ja tarrautui toverinsa

kaulukseen. Nyt jos olisit vähänkään pahempi naapuri, niin nyt saisit
korvillesi, että soisi.
— Elä veikkonen, elä veikkonen, houkutteli Savolainen. Enhän
minä valehdellut. Kyllä se on ummikko ja mennä yönä tullut.
— Niin, niin, vaan minua ei ole vielä ikäpäivänäni saatu näin

pitkältä narratuksi, ja sen vuoksi se läheltä piti, etten antanut sinua
korvalle.
— No, eiköhän tuo sillä asetu, jos ryypätään vielä tämän herran
terveydeksi, että se jäisi tähän pitemmäksi aikaa.
— Onko se edes poika? kysyi Tenhunen, kiukuissaan,
— Aivan varmasti, vakuutti Savolainen kohennellen lasia

naapurinsa eteen. En minä ole valehdellut yhtään.
— Elä edes puolustele itseäsi. Mutta kun tuo on poika ja vielä

ensimmäinen sinulla, niin ryyppään häntä.
Notkeana koetti Savolainen palvella vähän pahastunutta

naapuriaan ja ystävällisesti he jo kilistivätkin pojan onneksi. Mutta
vielä portailla mennessään tämä jahkaili sitä, että eipä häntä ole
vielä ennen näin pitkältä narrattuna ja päätti, että ei narrata toista
kertaa.
Kahden puolen ikkunata.
Ikkunan ulkopuolella surisi kaiken kokoisia hyönteisiä,

pitkäkoipisesta hapsinkkiaisesta ja pikalentoisesta kiiltokärpäsestä
aina jouhen pään kokoiseen hyttyseen asti. Aukenemattoman
ikkunan puoliskon puitteisiin, ulkopuolelle, oli hämähäkki kutonut
verkkonsa ja tehnyt samoista aineista itselleen pesän puitteen
nurkkamaan. Pilvisinä ja sateisina päivinä jurotti se pesässään
liikkumatta, takapuoli ulospäin, ei välittänyt mitään verkon
korjaamisesta eikä saaliin tarttumisesta. Ne olivatkin mitättömän
pieniä nuo, jotka sateella kävivät. Siipiä heillä oli sen verran, että
hyvästi sotkeutuivat verkkoon, jossa sitten tuuli heilutteli, kunnes
kuolivat. Nyt lämpimänä, poutaisena päivänä liikkui kookkaampiakin.
Tuossa takertui pieni kärpänen, tempoi verkkoa, että se heilahteli.
Kiireesti kapusi hämähäkki luokse, tarttui saaliseen kiinni, käänteli
sitä muutamia kertoja ympärinsä, kunnes karttui tarpeeksi asti
pidäkkeitä.
Kuului kauvempata surinata ja koko verkko isosti heilahti, mutta

luokse ehdittyä näkyi siinä vaan aukko, joka oli ensi työksi paikattava
umpeen.
*****
Hän, joka istui toisella puolen ikkunaa pöytänsä ääressä

laskemassa kesän kuluessa tulleita voittoja, vieläpä arviolta suuntaili
vastaisiakin voittoja aina vuoden loppuun asti, lopetti laskunsa
hyräillen tyytyväisenä jotain sotamarssia, ja asetteli vasta tulleita
vekseleitä järjestykseensä entisten päälle. Ikkunan pielessä
naulassa riippui pitkä paperiliuska, täynnä nimiä. Se oli luettelo tällä
kuulla "lankeavista". Hän tarkasteli luettelon päästä päähän, otti
sitten lyijykynän, merkitsi muutamia nimiä, sekä kirjoitti uusia.
Ovi aukeni ja huoneesen astui kolme miestä. Tavanmukaiset

kuulumiset kyseltyä alotti ensimmäinen mies asiansa.
— Tuota, se minun vekseli taitaa huomenna langeta

maksettavaksi.
— Taitaapa langeta. Joko te nyt maksatte?
— Nythän se olisi maksettava, vaan miten tuo käynee, kun minä

en saanutkaan rahoja.
— Se on oma asianne.
— Sopisiko sitä uudistaa?
— En minä tavallisesti niin pieniä asioita uudista, mutta samapa

se, kun kirjoitatte kuukauden päästä maksettavaksi 45 markan
vekselin.
— Kuukauden päähän 45 markan vekseli! ihmetteli mies. Kaksi

kuukautta sitten sain teiltä 25 markkaa ja nyt se nousee niin
suureen.
— Ei se kuulu tähän, minkä te saitte. Huomenna lankeava vekseli

on 35 markan kokoinen ja kun tuotte rahat, niin se on sillä hyvä.
Ei auttanut, vekseli täytyi kirjoittaa.
— Taitaahan täällä olla minunkin paperini, alotti toinen mies

naurahdellen. Mikähän keino se sille keksitään?
— Ne ovat hyvin yksinkertaisia ne minun keinot, naurahteli hänkin

puolestaan. Toinen keino tässä nähtiin ja toinen kuultiin.
— Liika kova on tuo äskeinen keino, en minä siihen suostu.
— Sen parempi. Toinen on siihen sijaan helppo.
— Ei sekään ole minulle helppo. Eikö kävisi näitä ehtoja

huojistaminen?
— Jospa hiukkasen, tuo kun on vähän isompi asia. Pannaan
kymmenen sadalle kuussa.
— Eikö viisi riitä?
— Ei riitä.
— No, sitten täytyy heittää kunnan veron maksu ja muut asiat

tuonnemmaksi.
Mies otti lompakkonsa ja maksoi.
Kolmas mies, varakkaan näköinen isäntä, ei puhunut asiastansa

ennen kuin toisten mentyä.
— Minun pitäisi saada taas vähintäin neljäsataa markkaa.
— Mitäpä siitä vähemmästä onkaan. Ehkä se jatketaan entisen

päähän, niin saat kirjoittaa täyteen kaksituhatta, selvän luvun.
— Elä nyt! Lupailithan sinä kevätkesällä, että annat tavallisella

korolla.
— Ne lupaukset eivät merkitse mitään. Lupailihan Jumalakin

kevätkesällä antaa tavallisia eloja, mutta kuinkahan monen pellolla
niitä tavallisia eloja on, ennenkun on leikki lukossa.
— Ei sinun rahojasi halla pane.
— Ei pane, mutta hinta niillekin nousee.
Puhe keskeytyi, kuin oven avaimessa ramuiltiin ja huoneesen tuli

mies, kuluneissa vaatteissa.
— Nythän minä tulin sitä viikollista puhetta perustamaan, alotti
mies alakuloisena.
— Niin, niistä lehmistäsi, jotka olit pannut kauppiaalle

kauppaukseen.
— Aivan niistä. Nyt minä sain parkkikuormalla suunnille sen

verran, että kykenen ne lehmät paluuttamaan, vaan kun täällä on se
vekseli, niin kumpaiseenko nämä ylettynevät.
— Tottahan nyt vekseliin ensimmäiseksi. Näytäpä minkä verran

sinulla on rahaa.
— Vaan jos te otatte nämä rahat siitä entisestä, ettekä annakaan

verestä.
— No, elä hätäile tyhjää, tuo pois. Vapisevalla kädellä kaivoi mies
rahansa ja laski ne epäillen pöydälle.
— Ohoo, kylläpä näitä on tarkasti.. markka puuttuu.
— Taitaa puuttua, vaan minä ajattelin, että lisää sen markan siihen
nyt tehtävään vekseliin.
— Vaikkapa niinkin. Ja mitäpä tuo yksi markka. Tuossa on

paperisi.
— Minkä verran te nyt annatte?
— Mitenkä suuresta summasta ne lehmät olivatkaan kaupassa.
— En muista oikein markoilleen, vaan minä otin siitä kaksi säkkiä

jauhoja, hehtarin suoloja ja kunnan veron maksuksi viisi markkaa
rahaa.
— Niistä on sitten kaksi lehmää kauppauksessa?
— Niin. Kaksi lehmää, ja ovat oikein uhalla hyviä lehmiä.
— Lehmät kun lehmät. Niillä tuntuu olevan tavallinen hinta, niin

että saat antaa mennä. Minä en maksaisi niistä sitäkään.
— No, tuotahan minä jo pelkäsin, huokasi mies ja kyynele herahti

silmään.
— Mitä pelkäsit! Sinä lunastit vekselisi ja sillä hyvä. Tavarasi olet

menettänyt ja samalla luottamuksesi. Ne kaksi lehmää sinulla on
tänä päivänä, vaan viikon kuluttua ei niitäkään.
Mies poistui haikealla mielellä, hyvästiä sanomatta.
— Tuommoisten kanssa se on vahinko tarjona ja sillähän tässä

täytyy korkoa nostaa, puheli hän hyvissään ystävällensä, jolla oli
onni saada neljäsataa markkaa, kun kirjoitti 2,000 markan vekselin,
entisen 1,400 markan kokoisen vekselin sijalle.
Ei kulunut monta minuuttia, kun tuli taas joku, joka oli aivan
ensikertalainen täällä.
— Tulinhan minä kysymään, että saisiko sitä rahaa ja

minkälaisella korolla?
— Ehkäpä sitä löytyy ja korko on vähän miehiä myöten. Te saatte

viidellä sadalta kuussa.
— Miksikä minulta niin paljon?
— Ei se ole paljo. Se on kaikkein halvin korko.

— No, mutta onko tämä enää vähääkään Jumalan lain mukaista?
Mehän ollaan kaikki veljiä ja raamattu käskee antamaan
lähimmäisille ilman korotta.
— Saman tekevä. Minäkin voin antaa teille ilman ja korotta. Mutta

kun ollaan veljiä ja lähimmäisiä, niin teidän tulee maksaa kaikki ne
tappiot, joita minulle sattuu tulemaan, kun lainaaja ennättää perin
köyhtyä.
— En rupea siihenkään. Täytyy katsoa velaksi antaissaan,

neuvotteli mies.
— Kyllä minä katsonkin, mutta jos sattuu, Kumpaisillako ehdoilla

nyt otatte?
Tämäkin tyytyi maallisen lain mukaan.
*****
Hän katsahti taas ulos ikkunasta.
Tuolla jo satutti itikka hienot koipensa verkon silmiin ja lentää

härritti siinä hyvän aikaa, ennenkun pahemmin sotkeutui. Hämähäkki
rienti kamppauspaikalle, vaan ei tarttunut kiinni, ennenkun siipien
surina lakkasi. Sitten se vapautti sen potkimisen vaivoista, kääräsi
hienoon kapalokseen kuin taitava äiti lapsensa. Siinä se sai
rauhoittua, kunnes toisten luota joutui.
Kärpänen tuolla verkon keskipalkalla ei enää potkinut. Sen vierelle

pysähtyi hämähäkki, tunki kärsänsä syvälle saaliinsa ruumiin
tuoreimpaan paikkaan, imi ja kaiveli kuiviin kaikki elon nesteet.
Tyynesti tutki se joka ytimen, ettei vaan mitään jäisi huomaamatta.
Kun oli kaikki imettynä, hylkäsi se onton raadon ja siirtyi
täyteläisemmän kimppuun.
Nuo kuivat kuoret roikkuivat vielä jonkun aikaa verkossa, vaan

tuuli ne siitä viimein heitteli alas tallattaviksi.
(Iisalmi, 1892).
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Monarchs in A Changing World Biology and Conservation of An Iconic Butterfly 1st Edition Karen S Oberhauser Kelly R Nail Sonia Altizer

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Monarchs in A Changing World Biology and Conservation of An Iconic Butterfly 1st Edition Karen S Oberhauser Kelly R Nail Sonia Altizer

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Monarchs in a Changing World Biology

and Conservation of an Iconic Butterfly

Essentials of Abnormal Psychology In A Changing World

An Introduction to Multilingualism Language in a

An Introduction to Conservation Biology 3rd Edition

Computational Systems Biology in Medicine and

Cultures and Societies in a Changing World 4th Edition

Conservation Biology in Sub Saharan Africa 1st Edition

Gentile Bellini s Portrait of Sultan Mehmed II Lives

Revaluing Modern Architecture Changing conservation

comstock publishing associates, a division of

cornell university press

First published 2015 by Cornell University Press

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Monarchs in a changing world : biology and conservation of an iconic

Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and

our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu.

part i Model Programs for Citizen Science, Education,

part ii Monarchs as Herbivores, Prey, and Hosts: An Overview

part iii Monarchs in a Changing Climate: An Overview

9. Microclimatic Protection of Overwintering Monarchs Provided by Mexico’s

part iv Conserving North American Monarch Butterflies: An Overview

part v New Perspectives on Monarch Migration, Evolution,

Color plates are at the end of the e-book

Model Programs for

Elisabeth Young-Isebrand, Karen S. Oberhauser, Kim Bailey, Sonya Charest,

INTRODUCTION science. Monarchs are captivating subjects owing to

Table 1.1. Monarch environmental education programs highlighted in this chapter.

Project (year founded) Focus Web address

Monarch Watch (1992) Citizen science, distribution of live monarchs monarchwatch.org

vation in their regions. (in Northern Mexico). In Coahuila, the Secretariat of

MONARCHS IN THE CLASSROOM or natural areas). MITC also sponsors an annual

Karen S. Oberhauser, Leslie Ries, Sonia Altizer, Rebecca V. Batalden, Janet

INTRODUCTION questions at large spatial and temporal scales, includ-

Projects that monitor migration

(1998–2000). et al. 2012a), fall migration flyways (Howard and

­ rganization Protección de la Fauna Mexicana (Pro-

as many smaller, less-visited sites on public and

submitted 12,553 samples (for locations of sites in

­ opulation dynamics. For example, communica-

documentation of the unusual spring migrations of As a start, we recommend targeted recruitment of

­ ortheastern United States, and northwestern Min-

­bservations throughout monarchs’ annual life

fascinate future generations of children, scientists, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Priya C. Shahani, Guadalupe del Río Pesado, Phil Schappert,

INTRODUCTION proliferation of herbicide-tolerant crops and the

Savolainen ja Tenhunen asuivat naapureina. Heidän peltojensa

Tenhusen naapuri, Savolainen, oli paljon nuorempi, kekseliäs

Ohran kynnön aikana, aikaisin aamusella, meni Tenhunen

— Huomenta, huomenta, vastasi Tenhunen, oikaisten selkäänsä

— Pitäisihän tässä niitäkin syytää, sanoi Savolainen, kohottaen

— Minkä tähden se ei tullut kievariin? sanoi Tenhunen, rypistäen

— Mikä tuolla lienee ollut, kun se siihen vaan tuppautui, selitti

— Etkö sinä sanonut, että tuolla on kievari?

— Eihän sen kanssa tule puhumisesta mitään, joka on "ummikko",

— Eläs enää sano, vahvisti Savolainen. Jo minä olen siitä tänä

— Mitäpä sille minäkään hyvin osannen, sanoi Tenhunen,

— Kyllä sinä jotain paremmin kykenet, kun olet ennenkin ollut

Silloin kiepautti Tenhunen kylvövakan hihnan kaulastaan ja sanoi

— No sen minä kyllä saan aikaan, ettei maksutta pääse, vaikka ei

Yhtä rintaa lähtivät he astumaan Savolaisen kotiin.

— Kuka kuteus sillä oli kyytimiehenä, kun ei sekään osannut

rganization Protección de la Fauna Mexicana (Pro-

opulation dynamics. For example, communica-

ortheastern United States, and northwestern Min-

bservations throughout monarchs’ annual life