THE SECOND CHIMURENGA / THE ARMED STRUGGLE IN ZIMBABWE [1964-1979]

The war of liberation in Zimbabwe started in 1964. It can be divided into three phases.
The first phase stretched from 1964 to 1968. The second phase [1968-1972] has been
referred to as the re-assesment period. The nationalists in Zimbabwe used this time to
re-evaluate their fighting strategies in the light of the failures of the first phase. The last
phase covers the period 1972-1979.
Causes of the Second Chimurenga
Economic causes
-The land issue caused the second Chimurenga in Zimbabwe. The blacks resented land
alienation through various acts like the Land Apportionment Act and the Land Husbandry
Act. The blacks valued land so much as it was their source of livelihood [crop cultivation
and animal rearing]. Hence the armed struggle was inevitable as the blacks wanted to
repossess their land.
Social causes
-Racial discrimination [segregation] also made the blacks to wage the armed struggle. For
example, there was job colour bar where skilled jobs were for the whites and unskilled
jobs were for the blacks. More so, there was also discrimination of blacks in public places
like cinemas and lavatories. There were also separate accommodation places for whites
and blacks. Discrimination in the education and health sectors also made the blacks to
take up arms against the whites.
Political causes
-The influence from ex-servicemen caused the war of liberation in Zimbabwe. The ex-
servicemen from the Second World War spread ideas of liberty [freedom], equality,
justice and nationalism.
-Loss of independence by the blacks caused the second Chimurenga. Africans wanted
majority rule as opposed to white minority rule. They resented the fact that the white
minority controlled resources and means of production.
-The Unilateral Declaration of Independence [UDI] by Ian Smith caused also caused this
war. During UDI more and more draconian laws were put in place and these made
Rhodesia a police state. For example, there was arrest and detention of African political
activists without trial through the Law and Order Maintenance Act. There was also the
banning of African political parties through the Unlawful Organisation Act. Hence war
was necessary as the Africans wanted to do away with UDI.
Recruitment of guerillas used by political parties
-When the war of liberation in Zimbabwe began, very few recruits joined the war. Many
people were reluctant to sacrifice their lives for the independence of Zimbabwe. Many
people did not understand the importance of the armed struggle because of lack of
political education. Some Africans believed that Smith’s troops were invincible so they
were afraid of confronting them in battle. Others thought that peaceful politics would lead
to independence and they did not the armed struggle. This forced the both ZANU and
ZAPU to recruit the young Zimbabweans who were already in Zambia. These people had
fled the repressive laws of the Smith Regime in Zimbabwe.
-To recruit guerillas, ZANU and ZAPU also used force or abducted young Zimbabweans.
-Both also used tricks to recruit guerillas. For example, they advertised scholarhips for
young Zimbabweans to study abroad. When they arrived in Zambia the young
Zimbabweans were taken to other countries to receive military training. The late national
hero, Air Marshal Josiah Tungamirai joined was one of the victims of this method.
-However, as the war progressed many young men and women joined ZIPRA and ZANLA
voluntarily. This was largely because they had received political education. They crossed
to Mozambique and Zambia.
The first phase of the armed struggle [1964-1968]
-After realising that negotiations with the Smith Regime would not bring about
independence, the nationalists in Zimbabwe decided to take up arms against the whites.
Some nationalist leaders from ZANU and ZAPU left the country for Zambia to organise the
war of liberation. Zambia had just attained independence in 1963.
The Crocodile Commando [1964]
ZANU deployed a commando group called the Crocodile Commando [Gang] into
Manicaland in July 1964 to confront the enemy [the whites]. The group was led by
William Ndangana. On 4 July the group created a roadblock in Chimanimani and killed a
Rhodesian Front branch chairman. The Whiteman Pieter Johannes Andries Oberholtzer,
became the first Whiteman to die in this war. His death marked the beginning of the
armed struggle.
Chinhoyi Battle [April 1966]
One group of seven guerillas under the command of Simon Nyandoro infiltrated the
country from Zambia and fought a fierce, long battle in Chinhoyi with the Rhodesian
forces on 28 April 1966. The guerillas fought gallantly against a stronger opponent who
was using powerful weapons such as jet bombers, machine guns and helicopters. The
seven guerillas only had AK47s. The seven guerillas were however, overwhelmingly
defeated and were all killed. The seven guerillas who died at this battle were Godwin
Dube, Chubby Savanhu, Arthur Maramba, David Guzuzu, Godfrey Manyerenyere,
Christopher Chatambudza and Simon Chingosha Nyandoro. It must be noted that the
seven guerillas wanted to hit Kariba Hydro Electric Power Station pylon that supplied
Rhodesia with electricity. They wanted to attack at night so that the whole of Rhodesia
would be in total darkness. In this time of darkness, the other groups would start
attacking the Rhodesian forces. However the plan failed because when they attacked the
pylon only Chinhoyi was in darkness. This is what made the whites to come and fight the
guerillas.
Wankie Battle [13 August 1967]
ZIPRA forces formed an alliance in Zambia with African National Congress [ANC] of South
Africa and they entered Rhodesia. Their plan was that the ANC forces were to pass
through Rhodesia and fight for their independence in South Africa. The Rhodesian
soldiers on patrol saw them in Wankie. The Rhodesian forces attacked both the ZIPRA
freedom fighters and the ANC forces.
The ANC and ZIPRA fighters fought the whites heroically using conventional warfare.
Though the battle was a failure, it marked the beginning of the armed struggle in
Matabeleland. Rhodesian forces lost 2 African soldiers, 2 white police officers and an
army officer. While the Rhodesian forces suffered casualties, there were more losses on
the side of ZIPRA / ANC forces [uMkonto weSizwe]. Five freedom fighters died in Wankie.
The ZIPRA and ANC fighters were using AK47S and LMGs while the Rhodesian forces had
jet bombers, helicopter gunships and machine guns.
Guruve / Sipolilo Battle [18 March 1968]
ZIPRA and ANC forces attacked the whites in Guruve so as to open another war front in
the east. The group had 74 ZIPRA guerillas and 26 ANC forces. Moffat Hadebe was their
commander. The Rhodesian forces used aircraft to drop soldiers with parachutes. This
attack proved fatal as they once again lost large numbers of guerillas. ZIPRA’s side lost 11
guerillas while the Rhodesian forces lost one soldier and two Rhodesian forces were
wounded.
Reasons for the failure of the First phase
-The Rhodesian forces had superior weapons which were supplied in large quantities.
These weapons included jet bombers, helicopter gunships and machine guns. In the
contrary, the freedom fighters only had AK47 rifles and in most cases they ran out of
ammunition in the midst of the battles.
-The guerillas used poor strategies. During the first phase they used the conventional
warfare tactic.
-The guerillas were outnumbered by the Rhodesian forces. For instance, at Chinhoyi
Battle, only 7 guerillas fought the whole Rhodesian army. At Wankie Battle, only 21
freedom fighters fought against the bulk of the white forces.
-The guerillas were sold out. This explains why the Rhodesian forces attacked first in
most of the battles. There is a common belief that there was an official in Zambia who
supplied information to the Rhodesian authorities about the plans and whereabouts of
the freedom fighters. Another belief was that the Rhodesian forces received information
from local sellouts [African].
-The guerillas lacked support from the civilian population. Thus they could not get
shelter, food, clothes and information about enemy movement.
The second phase of the armed struggle [1968-1972]
-The period 1968-1972 was also known as the re-assessment period. This was a period
that Zimbabwean nationalists used to re-strategise their fighting technics. They had
learnt a lot of lessons from the failures of the first phase especially Chinhoyi and Wankie
battles.
-The nationalists realised that they were going to fight a long war thus careful planning
was a pre-requisite.
-ZANU external wing led by Herbert Chitepo was reorganised.
ZANU War Council
ZANU formed the War Council [Dare reHondo] in 1968. Herbert Chitepo was its chairman.
Other members of this council included Rex Nhongo [Solomon Mujuru], Teurai Ropa
Mujuru [Joice Mujuru], Josiah Magama Tongogara, Emmerson Mnangagwa, Rugare
Gumbo, Enos Nkala, Edgar Tekere and Henry Hamadziripi. The function of this council
was to direct the war.
ZAPU War Council
ZAPU also formed a war council in 1972 under Jason Ziyapapa Moyo and Dumiso
Dabengwa. Its function was to plan and direct ZIPRA fighting efforts.
-ZANLA and ZIPRA adopted different fighting technics. This was largely because of their
different training backgrounds. ZANLA was Chinese backed and ZIPRA was Soviet
[Russian] backed.
-ZANLA abandoned conventional warfare and adopted Maoist guerilla tactic of mass
mobilisation. This approach required political education of the masses before confronting
the opponent.This was because for them to win the war, the guerillas at first had to win
the support and confidence of the masses. Actual fighting would involve hide, hit and run
tactics against the enemy forces. The Maoist guerilla warfare tactic was meant to keep the
enemy on the run and to make the countryside to be uncontrollable by the whites. This
would force Ian Smith to give up the colony.
-ZIPRA unlike ZANLA, used a limited policy of mass participation. This explains why when
the war resumed, the number of ZIPRA fighters was fewer than that of ZANLA guerillas.
ZIPRA fighters remained largely equipped for conventional warfare. However, the new
strategy was to embark on quick invasions which were followed by fast withdrawals to
their bases.
-It was also during the second phase that ZANLA established links with with FRELIMO
which was fighting the Portuguese in Mozambique. In 1968 ZANU attached a group of its
combatants to FRELIMO in Tete province. The rationale behind was to apprentice ZANLA
guerillas into practical lessons of fighting a guerilla war. ZANLA cadres were taught how
to encourage good relations with the masses and how to mobilise them. Thus this link
with FRELIMO was very helpful for ZANLA.
The last phase of the armed struggle [1972-1979]
-On 21 December 1972, a nine member ZANLA group under the command of Solomon
Mujuru [Rex Nhongo] attacked and injured Mr Mazde Barchgrave at his Altena Farm in
Centenary. One of his sons was also injured though not much. This tobacco farmer was
targeted largely because he had bad relations with his workers.
-On 23 December 1972, Mr Mazde Barchgrave was again attacked while taking refuge at
a neighbouring farm. He and another child of him were injured.
-A settler vehicle which intended to attend the scene detonated a landmine. This resulted
in the death of one of the soldiers. The Altena Farm attack led to many other attacks by
ZANLA forces.
-On a positive note, between 1971 and 1979, the ZANLA forces in Zimbabwe had
increased from about 100 to about 10000.
-Between 1969 and 1971 ZAPU was ravaged by internal conflicts that led to a standstill
in as far as the struggle was concerned. However ZAPU recovered and in 1972 ZIPRA
forces blew up a goods train on the Bulawayo-Victoria Falls route.
-Both ZANLA and ZIPRA forces intensified their attacks on the whites between 1971 and
1974. Planting landmines, closing clinics, churches and dip tanks, sabotaging
infrastructure and intensive harassment of the whites were some of the strategies they
used.
Mgagao Declaration
Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole was accused of not showing support to the detained war
Committee, of belittling the importance of the war of liberation that Herbert Chitepo and
his war committee were waging. He was also accused of separately holding talks with Ian
Douglas Smith among other things. The War Committee was imprisoned at Mpima in
Lusaka. As a result, ZANLA leaders and guerillas declared their opposition to Ndabaningi
Sithole. A letter that contained the information about Ndabaningi Sithole’s accusations
was sent to Mgagao Camp in Tanzania where ZANLA fighters were being trained. The
document was endorsed by 43 ZANLA field commanders in what was known as the
Mgagao Declaration. Mgagao Declaration supported the armed struggle as the only option
to majority rule, they declared support for the leaders who were imprisoned and the
declaration also condemned Ndabaningi Sithole, Bishop Abel Muzorewa, James
Chikerema, Jeremiah Chirau and Joshua Nkomo for involvement in ANC [African National
Council. However, it must be noted that Mgagao Declaration actually did not proclaim
Robert Gabriel Mugabe as the leader of ZANU and ZANLA. He was accepted as he was the
one supporting their objectives. Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole was now doomed and his
claim to leadership was gone. Thus Robert Gabriel Mugabe would speak for them in
future discussions with the ANC and Frontline states like Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania
and Botswana. Since Mozambique attained independence in 1975, ZANLA guerillas
received a boost. FRELIMO allowed ZANLA to open new operational areas and additional
bases in Mozambique. One must note that under the new leadership of Robert Mugabe
fighting became continuous. Robert Mugabe was determined to fight until final victory.
Zimbabwe People’s Army [ZIPA]
-So as to unite ZANLA and ZIPRA’s war efforts, ZANLA and ZIPRA in 1976, formed ZIPA
which was a military alliance. Rex Nhongo [Solomon Mujuru] was its leader. The Frontline
states and the Organisation of African Unity Liberation Committee had also put pressure
on the two military wings to form a military alliance against Ian Douglas Smith.
*However, ZAPU and ZANU failed to bury their differences. This made it difficult for
ZANLA and ZIPRA forces to work together. The two military wings also differed in
military training and fighting strategies. Thus before the end of 1976 ZIPA was no more.
-Robert Mugabe was confirmed as president of ZANU in January 1977.
-One must note that despite of the collapse of ZIPA, ZANLA and ZIPRA intensified the war.
For instance, ZIPRA fighters shot down a civilian Air Rhodesia commuter plane near
Kariba on 3 September 1978. ZIPRA fighters also shot another Air Rhodesia commuter
plane on 12 February 1979.
Measures taken by the Rhodesian Government during the war
-There use of compulsory military service by the Smith Regime so as to increase the
number of Rhodesian soldiers. Black and white boys were required to join the Rhodesian
forces for about half a year [6 months].
-The Smith Regime also made use of informers. It paid some people [informers] who lived
within the masses huge sums of money so that they provide information about the
movement and whereabouts of the guerillas as well as people who supported the
guerillas. The surprise attacks on guerillas was due to this information. It must be noted
that, in some instances, the whites burnt the houses of villagers who supported the
guerillas.
-There was use of propaganda by the Smith Regime. The Smith Regime spread falsehoods
about the freedom fighters through radio, television, pamphlets and newspapers. The
African Times [newspaper] was distributed freely to the people in the countryside. More
so, a radio programme, Padare was also broadcast daily against the freedom fighters. For
example, they described the freedom fighters as cruel people who cut of people’s lips,
legs, arms and private parts. They also described them as murderers, terrorists and
rapists who wanted to spread communism. Propaganda also spread the news that the
guerillas were being killed like flies. Propaganda was used so as to discourage the masses
from supporting the guerillas and to discourage people from joining the struggle.
-Protected villages [keeps] were also set up by the Smith Regime. For example, villagers
in Chiweshe, Chiredzi, Mutasa and Chipinge among others were put in protected villages.
This was done very much against their will. The keeps were security fenced, gated and lit
by flood lights at night. There were security guards who manned these villages 24 hours
a day. The main aim of these villages was to stop villagers from supporting the guerillas.
The whites wanted to starve the freedom fighters of food and peasant political support.
It must be noted that by 1977, the Smith Regime had created about 203 protected villages
nationwide and up to 300000 people were living in these protected villages. People in
these villages were affected by diseases like malaria and typhoid because the health
conditions in these keeps were poor.
-There was also use of secret agents by the Smith Regime. For instance, they were used
to assassinate leaders of the nationalist movements. This was exemplified by Jason
Ziyapapa Moyo, the Second Vice President of ZAPU, who was killed by a parcel bomb by
secret agents in 1974. Apart from that, Rhodesian secret agents also planted a bomb that
killed the ZANU Chairman, Herbert Chitepo when his car exploded in 1975.
-There were also cross-border aerial bombardments by the Rhodesian forces. For
instance, the Smith Regime used aircraft to bombard guerilla camps in Zambia,
Mozambique and Botswana. In Zambia, they bomed Freedom Camp and Mboroma. In
Mozambique they bombed Chimoio, Nyadzonia and Tembwe. These raids were meant to
make young Zimbabweans afraid of joining the war and the whites thought that they
could finish off the freedom fighters in the external bases before they even entered the
Rhodesia. It must be noted that these external raids by Ian Smith led to the death of many
refugees and those people who were awaiting training in camps, for instance, in Mumbwa
in Francistown in Botswana. There are mass graves in these territories where the people
were buried.
*NB It must be noted that all these dirty tactics used by Ian Douglas Smith did not stop
people from supporting the armed struggle.
The end of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe
-The armed struggle in Zimbabwe came to an end after the signing of the Lancaster House
Conference in December 1979. Josiah Magama Tongogara, the ZANLA Commander died
in a car accident in 1979 in Mozambique. There was also an assassination attempt on
Robert Mugabe. After the realisation by Ian Douglas Smith that he could not win the war,
he finally opted for negotiations.
Zimbabwe Rhodesia [March 1979] / The Internal Settlement
Ian Douglas Smith formed a transitional government after signing an agreement with
Ndabaningi Sithole of ZANU and Chief Chirau of Zimbabwe United People’s Organisation
[ZUPO]. This agreement was known as the Internal Settlement and was meant to pave
way for majority rule. A referendum for the whites endorsed a new Zimbabwe-Rhodesia
constitution. Bishop Abel Muzorewa won the elections and became the Prime Minister of
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. It must be noted that the Patritic Front boycotted the elections. Abel
Muzorewa did not have control over Foreign Affairs, Defence, Finance, Home Affairs and
Justice. This implies that Ian Douglas Smith was still in power. This explains why Abel
Muzorewa, Ndabaningi Sithole and Jeremiah Chirau were disowned by the freedom
fighters. Thus the Internal Settlement was meaningless as it did not represent the
majority in Zimbabwe. This made the armed struggle to continue. It must also be noted
that no country recognised the Internal Settlement.
The Lancaster House Conference
The Lancaster House Conference was held in October 1979 in London.There were
convoys which attended this conference. The delegation from Britain was under Lord
Carrington. Zimbabwe-Rhodesia delegation consisted of Abel Muzorewa’s UANC and Ian
Smith’s RF, ZAPU was led by Joushua Nkomo and ZANU was led by Robert Mugabe. The
agreement was reached in December 1979. Ian Douglas Smith walked out of the
conference because he was losing to the the Patriotic Front [PF].
Provisions of ther Lancaster House Conference
-A cease fire came into effect in 1979.
-Armies were to be deactivated.
-Pension schemes were introduced to protect the interests of whites who would not serve
under the new government.
-There was to formation of commissions such as the Public Service Commission.
-There was to be separation of powers, that is, Executive, Judiciary and Legislative.
-They agreed on a new constitution.
-The constitution was not to be amended for 10 years.
-General Elections were to be held.
-Commonwealth monitors were to supervise elections in Zimbabwe.
-There were to be 100 members of parliament. The whites were to be represented by 20
members of parliament [20 seats]. The blacks were to be represented by 80 members of
parliament [80 seats].
-There was to be a senate [Upper House]. The senate was supposed to have black and
white members chosen by major parties represented at Lancaster.
-There was to be a ceremonial president and a prime minister.
-The government was to buy land from willing commercial farmers [willing buyer willing
seller]. These restrictions were meant to prevent the new government from taking land
from the settlers.
-The internal settlement was nullified.
-On 17 April 1980 at midnight, the British Flag [The Union Jack] was lowered forever in
Zimbabawe.
-The Zimbabawean flag was raised forever.
The 1980 General Elections in Zimbabwe
-The end of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe was followed by general elections in 1980.
ZANU and ZAPU contested the elections separately as PF-ZAPU and ZANU-PF. ZANU-PF
under President Robert Gabriel Mugabe won majority seats [57 seats], PF-ZAPU won 20
seats and Bishop Abel Muzorewa’s UANC won 3 seats and Ndabaningi Sithole’s ZANU
[Mwenje] won nothing of the 80 seats reserved for the blacks. Ian Douglas Smith’s
Rhodesian Front Party won 20 seats reserved for the whites. Robert Mugabe formed
Zimbabwe’s first independent government as Prime Minister and Canaan Banana was the
first President of the Republic of Zimbabwe. The independence of Zimbabwe was
declared on 18 April 1980