REVIEWER
Lagoon: A shallow pond where sunlight, oxygen, and
STORAGE COVER
Storage covers are not a manure treatment technology
per se, but provide a barrier between stored manure
and the environment. Covers may prevent precipitation-
induced overflows and cross-contamination between
manure and the environment.
Solids separation is a pre-treatment step that divides
the liquid and solid portions of manure. Solids
separation makes storage of the solids easier and safer
by reducing the potential for pollutants to contaminate
groundwater. Separation may allow the use of further
treatments that would otherwise be
incompatible with the raw manure.
Aerobic digestion uses bacteria to break down manure
in an oxygen-rich environment. Aerobic digestion can
reduce nutrients, pathogens, and can prepare the
manure for other treatment processes, including land
application. Anaerobic digestion uses bacteria to break
down manure in an oxygen-free environment.
Anaerobic digestion reduces pathogens and manure
gases while making the manure more stable for storage
and further treatment, but it does not reduce the
nutrient content.
Nitrification-denitrification uses different populations
of bacteria to convert ammonia, a potential air and
water pollutant, to dinitrogen (N2) gas which can be
harmlessly released to the atmosphere. Constructed
wetlands make use of microorganisms and plants to
break down dilute manure, absorb nutrients, settle
solids, and kill pathogens.
Black soldier flies consume manure, killing pathogens
and transferring the nutrients to their bodies,
creating a value-added product than can be exported
off the farm.
Vermicomposting uses worms to digest manure,
creating pathogen-free, nutrient-rich products that can
be sold and exported off the farm.
Phytoremediation uses plants to absorb nutrients and
other pollutants from contaminated soils, preventing
polluted runoff and the migration of contaminants to
groundwater.
bacteria degrade and transform compounds in manure.
Manure gases: Volatile compounds released from
animal manure that may cause problems ranging from
offensive odors to adverse environmental and human
health impacts.
Anaerobic: An oxygenfree environment or requiring an
oxygen-free environment to survive. Greenhouse gas: A
gas that captures heat emitted from the earth,
contributing to global climate change.
Biogas: A combustible gas produced during the
anaerobic decomposition of organic material. Biogas is
primarily composed of methane, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide.
Ammonia volatilization: A process in which gaseous
nitrogen- ammonia is released into the atmosphere.
Acid rain: Any form of precipitation with a pH less than
5.6, the normal pH of rain. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
sulfur dioxide (SO2) released into the atmosphere,
generally by anthropogenic sources, turn into acids,
lowering the pH of precipitation. Acid rain is harmful to
vegetation, soils, and waterbodies.
Airshed: A geogra- phical area sharing the same air.
Eutrophication: A pro- cess where a water body
becomes nutrient- enriched and eventually unable to
sustain plant and animal life.
Manure gases: Volatile compounds released from
animal manure. Many cause problems ranging from
offensive odors to adverse human health and
environmental impacts.
Methane: A gas (CH4) produced when anaer- obic
bacteria decompose organic matter. Methane is a
strong greenhouse gas. Methane can be used as fuel.
Flare: A method of burning biogas to pre- vent explosive
gases from accumulating or entering the atmosphere.
The design of a cover system should take into account
the local wind, rain, and temperature ranges.
Bank-to-bank covers extend across the entire span of
the storage facility. The edges are buried in trenches
around the perimeter of the pond, pit, basin, channel or
lagoon. Bank-to-bank covers are continuous with the
ground surface or extend only slightly above the ground
profile. The bank-to-bank design can collect all of the
gases produced during storage and can provide a barrier
to precipitation and air intrusion. This is the only design
that is capable of creating a completely anaerobic
environment, if the correct material is used.
A balloon cover is a variation of the bank-to-bank cover
design. Balloon covers can contain manure gases and
shield the storage facility from precipitation. They are
essentially fabric pulled over the surface of the storage
facility and kept aloft with fans and blowers. While the
materials used in balloon covers are more durable than
materials such as straw or foam, they are considerably
more expensive. However, they are often less expensive
than wood, concrete, or steel covers. Balloon covers
may be fitted with vents and air traps, depending on
other treatment process goals. The vent-air trap system
allows liquid water to enter the storage area, but does
not
allow gases to escape to the atmosphere. Balloon
covers are not appropriate for creating anaerobic
conditions as air is pumped into the headspace above
the manure to keep the cover aloft.
Modular covers may cover part or all of a storage
facility—typically 50 to 100 percent of the facility’s
surface. Modular covers are particularly well suited for
storage facilities that undergo frequent solids removal
or for facilities with local climate or topographical
features that demand only partial coverage. The
modular units can be secured to the bank by trenching
along the perimeter or by tether ropes. Floatation
devices must be incorporated into the design to keep
the inside edges of the units from tipping and sinking
into the manure.
Capillary action:The movement of a liquid through
small spaces in a porous medium by the forces of
adhesion, cohe- sion, and surface tension.
Hydrogen sulfide: A colorless, flam- mable, toxic gas
(H2S) that smells like rotten eggs, produced during the
decomposition of organic matter.
Straw and polystyrene are cheap, but require annual
replacement.
Geotextile and plastic covers are more durable, but
more expensive and may require special disposal fees.
Wood, concrete, and steel are permanent and durable,
but are expensive.
Straw is the cheapest cover available and is appropriate
when odor control and moderate gas containment are
the main goals. Straw covers have several limitations.
The straw may be blown from the manure surface by
wind.
Barley is the most effective straw cover. It floats the
best and lasts the longest. As a general rule, the longer
the stalk the better—shorter straw has a greater
tendency to sink.
Like straw covers, floating foam board is relatively
inexpensive. It is a common material used for modular
covers. The cover is constructed from five centimeter
(two inch) polyethylene foam made from recycled
polyethylene chips. Foam boards may be used alone or
paired with zeolite or a geotextile. Foam board is UV
resistant and can have a lifespan of ten to 20 years
under favorable conditions. The foam material is an
ideal habitat for microorganisms.
Geotextile material is made from a non- woven
permeable material like polypropylene. Geotextile is
light- weight, porous, and feels like tough felt.
Geotextile material may be used for bank-to-bank,
modular, or balloon cover designs. Geotextile covers
require special landfill disposal at the end of their life,
adding to their cost. Since geotextile covers are
permeable, they are not appropriate for creating
anaerobic conditions. However, they are able to capture
some gases.
Zeolite: An ammonia- absorbing material.
Aerobic: An oxy- genated environment or requiring an
oxy- genated environment to survive.
Protozoa: A one- celled animal that is larger and more
com- plex than bacteria.
Plastic covers are impermeable, flexible, and easy to
remove for facility maintenance. They can be used for
bank-to-bank, balloon, or modular covers; however, if
used as a modular cover, they need floatation devices.
The plastic used in the covers may be estane
polyurethane or XR-5 (marketed as ShelterRite).
Plastics, such as Hypalon, PVC, chlorinated
polyethylene, and neoprene do not work as well as
estane polyurethane. Plastic covers must be tough and
withstand damage from sunlight, ozone, cold weather,
wind, sulfuric acid, and microbial attack. The strength of
a plastic cover comes from scrim molded within the
plastic material.
Polyester scrim is resistant to acid, sunlight, water
solutions, and microbial attack.
Nylon scrims are stronger than polyester, resistant to
water and soil organisms, but more susceptible to
damage by acid and sunlight.
Fiberglass may also be used, but is sensitive to water
and subject to microbial degradation.
Air intrusion can contaminate and lower the quality of
the biogas produced and cause failure of the gas
combustion equipment.
Concrete is a common and economically accepted
building material. Good quality concrete is essential for
durability and must be reinforced with rebar.
Wood is readily available, even from trees harvested on
the farm. However, wood deteriorates over time. While
steel is more costly than concrete or wood, it is more
resistant to corrosion if coated with a polymer.
Unprotected steel will corrode rapidly in the presence
of biogas; galvanization does not protect against this
kind of corrosion.
Scrim: Woven fabric.
SUMMARY
Storage covers can be used to isolate manure and
biogas from the environment—reducing air and water
quality hazards. Covers can be either impermeable and
prevent all gas and liquid transfer with the external
environment or be permeable and allow some
controllable transfer. Storage covers may be bank-to-
bank, balloon, or modular in design and can be
constructed from straw, foam, geotextile, plastic,
concrete, wood, or metal. Cover costs depend on the
material as well as the design.
SOLID SEPARATION
Solids separation is the separation of solids from liquid.
Solids separation is not a manure treatment technology
per se—it does not advance biodegradation or change
the nutrient content of the manure as a whole.
However, solids separation makes manure handling and
storage easier, and prepares the manure future
treatment.
Emulsion: A mixture of two liquids that do not form a
true solution, but are instead held together by a
surfactant, keeping droplets of one liquid dispersed
throughout the other.
Anaerobic: An oxygen-free environment or requiring an
oxygen-free environment to survive.
Nitrification: The conversion of ammo- nia to nitrite and
then to nitrate by the autotrophic aerobic bacteria
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, respectively.
Denitrification:The conversion of nitrate to dinitrogen
gas by heterotrophic facultative bacteria.
Inert: A material or compound that does not chemically
react with other elements.
Lagoon: A shallow pond where sunlight, oxygen, and
bacteria degrade and trans- form compounds in
manure.
Aerobic: An oxygenated environment or requiring an
oxygenated environment to survive.
Soil amendment: Compounds used to build and
maintain the physical properties of soil.
Fertigation: The irrigation of nutrient- rich water for fer-
tilizer using irrigation equipment.
Tilth: The physical condition of a soil in relation to its
ability to sustain plant growth.
Macropore: Large opening in unsaturated soils formed
by the shrinking and cracking of soils, plant roots, soil
fauna, or by tillage operations. The presence of
macropores may en- courage preferential flow of water
and contaminants to groundwater.
Tile drain: Also called a pipe drain; a buried pipe that
conveys drainage water to a central drain or outflow to
a stream. Flow from tile drains may be considered
point- source pollution.
There are two categories of solids separations systems
—source separation systems and delayed separation
systems.
Source separation divides the liquid and solids fractions
before they have had time to combine.
Gravity and mechanical systems are used for source
separation.
Delayed separation partitions the fractions after they
have been mixed. Delayed separation may be driven by
gravitational, mechanical, or chemical means.
The enzyme responsible for converting the urea in urine
to ammonia is found in fecal matter. If the urine and
the fecal matter are kept separate the enzymatic action
will not occur.
Belt separation is the most common type of source
separation. Belts are relatively easy to integrate into
existing infrastructure, especially housing with slatted
floors. Swine housing often uses slatted floors for
manure collection. Conveyor belts are placed beneath
the slatted floor. The belt should either be concave or
positioned at an angle, allowing the urine to flow into a
gutter, and away from the solids dropping onto the belt.
The liquids flow down the gutter by gravity and into a
collection tank. The manure solids are scraped off the
belt and into a separation collection area.
Acid rain: Any form of precipitation with a pH less than
5.6, the normal pH of rain. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
sulfur dioxide (SO2) released into the atmosphere,
generally by anthro- pogenic sources, turn into acids,
lowering the pH of precipi- tation. Acid rain is harmful to
vegetation, soils, and water- bodies.
Larvae: (pl. of larva) Insects that are in the immature,
worm-like stage after hatching from the egg.
Delayed separation processes occur after the urine and
the fecal matter have been mixed or diluted with flush
water.
There are two physical traits of the manure that
determine the effectiveness of the methods used to
separate the solids from the mixture.
The first is the density of the solids in relation to the
density of the liquid. If the solids are less dense than the
liquid, they will float. Skimming devices may then be
used to remove the solids. If the solids are denser than
the liquid, they will sink. Gravity separation, such as
settling basins, may be best suited in this case.
The second characteristic is the particle size of the
solids. Screening may be used to selectively remove
solids of certain sizes.
There are three kinds of delayed solids separation
processes—gravity, mechanical, and chemical.
There are three main types of settling patterns.
1. The first situation usually occurs when the
manure has a high concentration of solids in
suspension. These suspended solids are often bedding
and waste food.
2. The second situation occurs when the solids
have a greater density than that of water. Swine
manure often falls into that category.
3. The third situation is often seen with cattle
manure. A crust composed of solid particles less dense
than water forms on top of the liquid.
Gravity systems can be settling channels, settling
basins, or settling ponds; these systems all require
additional storage for the separated liquid as well as
periodic removal of the settled solids. Care must be
taken to prevent catastrophic spills caused by
inadequate freeboard or from a breach of the
embankments and leaching of contaminants to
groundwater.
Freeboard: The vertical space between the surface of a
water body and the top of the surrounding
embankment.