What is Quantum computing?

Quantum computing is a multidisciplinary field comprising aspects of computer science, physics,

and mathematics that utilizes quantum mechanics to solve complex problems faster than on
classical computers. The field of quantum computing includes hardware research and application
development. Quantum computers are able to solve certain types of problems faster than
classical computers by taking advantage of quantum mechanical effects, such as superposition
and quantum interference. Some applications where quantum computers can provide such a
speed boost include machine learning (ML), optimization, and simulation of physical systems.
Eventual use cases could be portfolio optimization in finance or the simulation of chemical
systems, solving problems that are currently impossible for even the most powerful
supercomputers on the market.

What is the quantum computing advantage?

Currently, no quantum computer can perform a useful task faster, cheaper, or more efficiently
than a classical computer. Quantum advantage is the threshold where we have built a quantum
system that can perform operations that the best possible classical computer cannot simulate in
any kind of reasonable time.

What is quantum mechanics?

Quantum mechanics is the area of physics that studies the behavior of particles at a microscopic
level. At subatomic levels, the equations that describe how particles behave is different from those
that describe the macroscopic world around us. Quantum computers take advantage of these
behaviors to perform computations in a completely new way.

What is a qubit?
Quantum bits, or qubits, are represented by quantum particles. The manipulation of qubits by
control devices is at the core of a quantum computer's processing power. Qubits in quantum
computers are analogous to bits in classical computers. At its core, a classical machine's
processor does all its work by manipulating bits. Similarly, the quantum processor does all its
work by processing qubits.

How are qubits different from classical bits?

In classical computing, a bit is an electronic signal that is either on or off. The value of the classical
bit can thus be one (on) or zero (off). However, because the qubit is based on the laws of quantum
mechanics it can be placed in a superposition of states.

What are the principles of quantum computing?

A quantum computer works using quantum principles. Quantum principles require a new
dictionary of terms to be fully understood, terms that include superposition, entanglement, and
decoherence. Let's understand these principles below.

1.) Superposition
Superposition states that, much like waves in classical physics, you can add two or more quantum
states and the result will be another valid quantum state. Conversely, you can also represent
every quantum state as a sum of two or more other distinct states. This superposition of qubits
gives quantum computers their inherent parallelism, allowing them to process millions of
operations simultaneously.

2.) Entanglement
Quantum entanglement occurs when two systems link so closely that knowledge about one gives
you immediate knowledge about the other, no matter how far apart they are. Quantum processors
can draw conclusions about one particle by measuring another one. For example, they can
determine that if one qubit spins upward, the other will always spin downward, and vice versa.
Quantum entanglement allows quantum computers to solve complex problems faster.

When a quantum state is measured, the wavefunction collapses and you measure the state as
either a zero or a one. In this known or deterministic state, the qubit acts as a classical bit.
Entanglement is the ability of qubits to correlate their state with other qubits.

3.) Decoherence
Decoherence is the loss of the quantum state in a qubit. Environmental factors, like radiation, can
cause the quantum state of the qubits to collapse. A large engineering challenge in constructing
a quantum computer is designing the various features that attempt to delay decoherence of the
state, such as building specialty structures that shield the qubits from external fields.

What are the components of a quantum computer?

Quantum computers have hardware and software, similar to a classical computer.

a.) Quantum hardware

Quantum hardware has three main components.
b.) Quantum data plane
The quantum data plane is the core of the quantum computer and includes the physical qubits
and the structures required to hold them in place.

c.) Control and measurement plane

The control and measurement plane converts digital signals into analog or wave control signals.
These analog signals perform the operations on the qubits in the quantum data plane.

d.) Control processor plane and host processor

The control processor plane implements the quantum algorithm or sequence of operations. The
host processor interacts with the quantum software and provides a digital signal or classical bits
sequence to the control and measurement plane.

e.) Quantum software

Quantum software implements unique quantum algorithms using quantum circuits. A quantum
circuit is a computing routine that defines a series of logical quantum operations on the underlying
qubits. Developers can use various software development tools and libraries to code quantum
algorithms.

What are the types of quantum technology?

No one has shown the best way to build a fault-tolerant quantum computer, and multiple
companies and research groups are investigating different types of qubits. We give a brief
example of some of these qubit technologies below.

1.) Gate-based ion trap processors

A gate-based quantum computer is a device that takes input data and transforms it according to
a predefined unitary operation. The operation is typically represented by a quantum circuit and is
analogous to gate operations in traditional electronics. However, quantum gates are totally
different from electronic gates.

Trapped ion quantum computers implement qubits using electronic states of charged atoms called
ions. The ions are confined and suspended above the microfabricated trap using electromagnetic
fields. Trapped-ion based systems apply quantum gates using lasers to manipulate the electronic
state of the ion. Trapped ion qubits use atoms that come from nature, rather than manufacturing
the qubits synthetically.

2.) Gate-based superconducting processors

Superconductivity is a set of physical properties that you can observe in certain materials like
mercury and helium at very low temperatures. In these materials, you can observe a characteristic
critical temperature below which electrical resistance is zero and magnetic flux fields are expelled.
An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power
source.
Superconducting quantum computing is an implementation of a quantum computer in
superconducting electronic circuits. Superconducting qubits are built with superconducting
electric circuits that operate at cryogenic temperatures.

3.) Photonic processors

A quantum photonic processor is a device that manipulates light for computations. Photonic
quantum computers use quantum light sources that emit squeezed-light pulses, with qubit
equivalents that correspond to modes of a continuous operator, such as position or momentum.

4.) Neutral atom processors

Neutral atom qubit technology is similar to trapped ion technology. However, it uses light instead
of electromagnetic forces to trap the qubit and hold it in position. The atoms are not charged and
the circuits can operate at room temperatures

5.) Rydberg atom processors

A Rydberg atom is an excited atom with one or more electrons that are further away from the
nucleus, on average. Rydberg atoms have a number of peculiar properties including an
exaggerated response to electric and magnetic fields, and long life. When used as qubits, they
offer strong and controllable atomic interactions that you can tune by selecting different states.

6.) Quantum annealers

Quantum annealing uses a physical process to place a quantum system's qubits in an absolute
energy minimum. From there, the hardware gently alters the system's configuration so that its
energy landscape reflects the problem that needs to be solved. The advantage of quantum
annealers is that the number of qubits can be much larger than those available in a gate-based
system. However, their use is limited to specific cases only.

How do companies use quantum computing?

Quantum computing can revolutionize industries. We give some example use cases below:

a.) ML
Machine learning (ML) is the process of analyzing vast quantities of data to help computers make
better predictions and decisions. Research in quantum computing studies the physical limits of
information processing and is breaking new ground in fundamental physics. This research leads
to advances in many fields of science and industry, such as chemistry, optimization, and
molecular simulation. It is also a growing area of interest for financial services to predict market
movements and for manufacturing to improve operations.

b.) Optimization
Quantum computing can improve research and development, supply-chain optimization, and
production. For example, you could apply quantum computing to decrease manufacturing
process–related costs and shorten cycle times by optimizing elements such as path planning in
complex processes. Another application is the quantum optimization of loan portfolios so that
lenders can free up capital, lower interest rates, and improve their offerings.
c.) Simulation
The computational effort required to simulate systems accurately scales exponentially with the
complexity of drug molecules and materials. Even using approximation methods, current
supercomputers cannot achieve the level of accuracy that these simulations demand. Quantum
computation has the potential to solve some of the most challenging computational problems
faced in chemistry, allowing the scientific community to do chemical simulations that are
intractable today. For example, Pasqal built their QUBEC computational software to run chemistry
simulations. QUBEC automates the heavy lifting necessary to run quantum computational tasks
from automatic provisioning of the computing infrastructure to running pre- and post-processing
classical calculations and performing error mitigation tasks.

Reference: https://aws.amazon.com/what-is/quantum-computing/

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

What Is Quantum Computing?

Quantum computing is an area of computer science that uses the principles of quantum theory.
Quantum theory explains the behavior of energy and material on the atomic and subatomic levels.

Quantum computing uses subatomic particles, such as electrons or photons. Quantum bits, or
qubits, allow these particles to exist in more than one state (i.e., 1 and 0) at the same time.

Theoretically, linked qubits can "exploit the interference between their wave-like quantum states
to perform calculations that might otherwise take millions of years."

Classical computers today employ a stream of electrical impulses (1 and 0) in a binary manner to
encode information in bits. This restricts their processing ability, compared to quantum computing.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
● Quantum computing uses phenomena in quantum physics to create new ways of
computing.
● Quantum computing involves qubits.
● Unlike a normal computer bit, which can be either 0 or 1, a qubit can exist in a
multidimensional state.
● The power of quantum computers grows exponentially with more qubits.
● Classical computers that add more bits can increase power only linearly.
Understanding Quantum Computing
The field of quantum computing emerged in the 1980s. It was discovered that certain
computational problems could be tackled more efficiently with quantum algorithms than with their
classical counterparts.

Quantum computing has the capability to sift through huge numbers of possibilities and extract
potential solutions to complex problems and challenges. Where classical computers store
information as bits with either 0s or 1s, quantum computers use qubits. Qubits carry information
in a quantum state that engages 0 and 1 in a multidimensional way.

Such massive computing potential and the projected market size for its use have attracted the
attention of some of the most prominent companies.

These include IBM, Microsoft, Google, D-Waves Systems, Alibaba, Nokia, Intel, Airbus, HP,
Toshiba, Mitsubishi, SK Telecom, NEC, Raytheon, Lockheed Martin, Rigetti, Biogen,
Volkswagen, and Amgen.
Uses and Benefits of Quantum Computing
Quantum computing could contribute greatly to the fields of security, finance, military affairs and
intelligence, drug design and discovery, aerospace designing, utilities (nuclear fusion), polymer
design, machine learning, artificial intelligence (AI), Big Data search, and digital manufacturing.

Quantum computers could be used to improve the secure sharing of information. Or to improve
radars and their ability to detect missiles and aircraft. Another area where quantum computing is
expected to help is the environment and keeping water clean with chemical sensors.

Here are some potential benefits of quantum computing:

1.) Financial institutions may be able to use quantum computing to design more effective and
efficient investment portfolios for retail and institutional clients. They could focus on
creating better trading simulators and improve fraud detection.
2.) The healthcare industry could use quantum computing to develop new drugs and
genetically-targeted medical care. It could also power more advanced DNA research.
3.) For stronger online security, quantum computing can help design better data encryption
and ways to use light signals to detect intruders in the system.
4.) Quantum computing can be used to design more efficient, safer aircraft and traffic
planning systems.

Features of Quantum Computing

Superposition and entanglement are two features of quantum physics on which quantum
computing is based. They empower quantum computers to handle operations at speeds
exponentially higher than conventional computers and with much less energy consumption.

a.) Superposition
According to IBM, it's what a qubit can do rather than what it is that's remarkable. A qubit places
the quantum information that it contains into a state of superposition. This refers to a combination
of all possible configurations of the qubit. "Groups of qubits in superposition can create complex,
multidimensional computational spaces. Complex problems can be represented in new w

b.) Entanglement
Entanglement is integral to quantum computing power. Pairs of qubits can be made to become
entangled. This means that the two qubits then exist in a single state. In such a state, changing
one qubit directly affects the other in a manner that's predictable.

Quantum algorithms are designed to take advantage of this relationship to solve complex
problems. While doubling the number of bits in a classical computer doubles its processing power,
adding qubits results in an exponential upswing in computing power and ability.

c.) Decoherence
Decoherence occurs when the quantum behavior of qubits decays. The quantum state can be
disturbed instantly by vibrations or temperature changes. This can cause qubits to fall out of
superposition and cause errors to appear in computing. It's important that qubits be protected
from such interference by, for instance, supercooled refrigerators, insulation, and vacuum
chambers.

Limitations of Quantum Computing

Quantum computing offers enormous potential for developments and problem-solving in many
industries. However, currently, it has its limitations.

Decoherence, or decay, can be caused by the slightest disturbance in the qubit environment. This
results in the collapse of computations or errors to them. As noted above, a quantum computer
must be protected from all external interference during the computing stage.
Error correction during the computing stage hasn't been perfected. That makes computations
potentially unreliable. Since qubits aren't digital bits of data, they can't benefit from conventional
error correction solutions used by classical computers.
Retrieving computational results can corrupt the data. Developments such as a particular
database search algorithm that ensures that the act of measurement will cause the quantum state
to decohere into the correct answer hold promise.

Security and quantum cryptography is not yet fully developed.

A lack of qubits prevents quantum computers from living up to their potential for impactful use.
Researchers have yet to produce more than 128, as of 2019.

According to global energy leader Iberdola, "quantum computers must have almost no
atmospheric pressure, an ambient temperature close to absolute zero (-273°C) and insulation
from the earth's magnetic field to prevent the atoms from moving, colliding with each other, or
interacting with the environment."
"In addition, these systems only operate for very short intervals of time, so that the information
becomes damaged and cannot be stored, making it even more difficult to recover the data."

Quantum Computer vs. Classical Computer

Quantum computers have a more basic structure than classical computers. They have no memory
or processor. All a quantum computer uses is a set of superconducting qubits.

Quantum computers and classical computers process information differently. A quantum

computer uses qubits to run multidimensional quantum algorithms. Their processing power
increases exponentially as qubits are added. A classical processor uses bits to operate various
programs. Their power increases linearly as more bits are added. Classical computers have much
less computing power.

Classical computers are best for everyday tasks and have low error rates. Quantum computers
are ideal for a higher level of task, e.g., running simulations, analyzing data (such as for chemical
or drug trials), creating energy-efficient batteries. They can also have high error rates.

Classical computers don't need extra-special care. They may use a basic internal fan to keep
from overheating. Quantum processors need to be protected from the slightest vibrations and
must be kept extremely cold. Super-cooled superfluids must be used for that purpose.

Quantum computers are more expensive and difficult to build than classical computers.

Quantum Computers In Development

Google
Google is spending billions of dollars to build its quantum computer by 2029. The company
opened a campus in California called Google AI to help it meet this goal. Once developed, Google
could launch a quantum computing service via the cloud.

IBM
IBM plans to have a 1,000-qubit quantum computer in place by 2023. For now, IBM allows access
to its machines for those research organizations, universities, and laboratories that are part of its
Quantum Network.

Microsoft
Microsoft offers companies access to quantum technology via the Azure Quantum plat

Others
There’s interest in quantum computing and its technology from financial

Reference: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/q/quantum-computing.asp

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Areas of greatest opportunity

 a. Discovery of new qubit technologies. The ideal qubit technology has not yet been
discovered or invented.
b. Modular quantum computers. For greater flexibility and greater capacity.
c. Ongoing research in basic physics. At the atomic, subatomic, molecular, and condensed
matter levels. No telling what discoveries might lead to better qubit technology.
d. Development of methods for transforming non-quantum application ointo quantum
algorithms.
e. Development of high-level application problem statement languages to which
transformation rules can be applied to generate quantum algorithms.
f. Development of higher-level programming models.
g. Development of quantum-native high-level quantum programming languages. Syntax is
irrelevant — it’s the semantics which matters.
h. Development of more powerful algorithmic building blocks.
i. Better classical quantum simulators. More realistic. More efficient. Higher capacity. Aim to
reach the 50-qubit barrier. Or even the 60-qubit barrier. Closely matched hardware
expected in two to five years.

Critical gaps
These are the most critical areas where deeper research is most desperately needed for quantum
computing:

1. More qubits. Hundreds, thousands. And more.

2. Greater qubit fidelity.
3. Longer coherence time. Support much deeper circuits.
4. More reliable gate execution. Needed for greater qubit fidelity.
5. Need for greater qubit connectivity. Need for full any to any connectivity.
6. More reliable qubit measurement.
7. Need for finer granularity of phase and probability amplitude. Support quantum Fourier
transform (QFT) and quantum phase estimation (QPE).
8. Larger simulations. Current 50-qubit limit (actually 40 qubits.)
9. More realistic simulations. Simulators aren’t generally configured to closely match realistic
quantum computer operating conditions — they’re too ideal or too arbitrary with noise
models. Developers should be able to easily run simulations of quantum computers
expected to become available in two to five years — or to closely match existing quantum
computers or those expected over the coming year.
10. Lack of debugging capabilities. How to debug algorithms and applications for more than
the qubit and quantum state capacity of even the largest classical quantum simulators is
an interesting challenge.
11. Quantum computing is (currently) far too complicated for all but the most elite of
professionals. To do anything useful, that is. When will that change? Maybe, or in theory,
The FORTRAN Moment.
12. Quantum computing is too different from classical computing. Difficult to transfer
knowledge, expertise, and data between the two domains.
 13. Difficulty of transforming application requirements into quantum algorithms.
14. Lack of high-level programming models.
15. Lack of a robust collection of algorithmic building blocks.
16. Need for much more powerful algorithmic building blocks.
17. Need for a high-level quantum programming languages.
18. Whether order-finding (AKA period-finding) can be made practical.
19. Whether Shor’s factoring algorithm is practical even for much more moderate size integers
(64–512 bits.)
20. Whether Grover’s search algorithm has any practical utility which can ever deliver
dramatic quantum advantage.
21. Dearth of 40-qubit algorithms.
22. Dearth of scalable algorithms. Automatically scalable.
23. Whether dramatic quantum advantage can ever be achieved without quantum Fourier
transform (QFT) and quantum phase estimation (QPE).
24. Whether variational methods can ever achieve dramatic quantum advantage.
25. Need a better collection of example algorithms. That are clearly scalable and could
achieve dramatic quantum advantage when the needed hardware is available.
26. Practical test case for scaling to dramatic quantum advantage. Need to identify a practical
application with a relatively simple algorithm which is scalable and could achieve dramatic
quantum advantage when the needed hardware is available.

Reference: https://jackkrupansky.medium.com/essential-and-urgent-research-areas-for-
quantum-computing-302172b12176

COURSEWORK 01: QUANTUM COMPUTING

Direction:
Identify at least 1 Critical Gap above and work on coursework 1 to provide possible solutions to
address these gaps. This is an individual requirement and shall be presented in May 2024. The
coursework format in powerpoint slides should be:
Identified Critical Gap
Overview
Proposed Solution to Address the Gap
Systems Diagram of the Solution
Technical Requirements
Solution Approach to Implement
Conclusion
References

Deadline: May 2, 2024 (Thursday)

Format: Powerpoint