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Mathematics HL Topic 8 Answers 1St Edition Gyorgyi Bruder William Larson Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF
Mathematics HL Topic 8 Answers 1St Edition Gyorgyi Bruder William Larson Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF
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Mathematics Mathematics HL Option Statistics and
Probability 1st Edition Catherine Quinn Peter Blythe
Robert Haese Michael Haese
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ANSWERS
Answers
ANSWERS
Chapter 1 – Sets
Exercise 1.1
Exercise 1.2
Exercise 1.3
a, b, d, f and g are true. (“{2}” is the set containing the number 2, which is not the same as “2”.)
Exercise 1.4
b. 2 ∈ A, F. 2 ∉ B, C, D, E.
Exercise 1.5
2. ∅, {1}, {3}, {7}, {1, 3}, {1, 7}, {3, 7}, {1, 3, 7}.
Exercise 1.6
Exercise 1.7
1
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
Exercise 1.8
Exercise 1.9
1. a. {a, b} b. {e} c. 2
d. 1 e. {a, b, e} f. 3
g. A h. {e, c, d} i. {c, d}
j. {e}
2. {1, 3, 4, 5} has 24 = 16 subsets. Adding “2” to each of these sets gives all of the subsets of A
with “2” as an element, hence the answer is 16.
3. A∩(A⋃B’)∩(B⋃A’)=A∩(B⋃A’)=(A∩B)⋃(A∩A’)=(A∩B)⋃∅=A∩B.
4. [(A⋃B)∩(A⋃B’)]⋃[(A’⋃B)∩(A’⋃B’)]
=[(A⋃(B∩B’)]⋃[(A’⋃(B∩B’)]=[(A⋃∅]⋃[A’⋃∅]=A⋃A’=U.
5. [[A⋃(B∩C’)]∩[B⋃(A∩C’)]]’=[A⋃(B∩C’)]’⋃[B⋃(A∩C’)]’=[A’∩(B’⋃C’’)]⋃[B’∩(A’⋃C’’)]
=[A’∩(B’⋃C)]⋃(B’∩(B’⋃A')]=[(A’∩B’)⋃(A’∩C)]⋃[(B’∩A’)⋃(B’∩C)]
=(A’∩B’)⋃(A’∩C)⋃(B’∩A')⋃(B’∩C)= (A’∩B’)⋃(A’∩C)⋃(B’∩C).
6. A\(A∩B)=A∩(A∩B’)=A∩(A’⋃B’)=(A∩A’)⋃(A∩B’)=∅⋃ (A∩B’)=A∩B’=A\B.
A B A B
7. No.
C C
A B\C
8. Venn diagrams sugges that this is true: B∩(A\B) = B∩(A∩B’) = (B∩B’)∩A = ∅∩A = ∅
2
Answers
9. (A∆B)⋃(A∩B)=(A\B)⋃(B\A)⋃(A∩B) = ((B\A))∪(A∩B)
= [(A∪B)∩(A∪A’)∩(B’∪B)∩(B’∪A’)]∪(A∩B) = [(A∪B)∩U∩U∩(B’∪A’)]∪(A∩B)
= A∩B
Let x ∈ A
x ∈ A ⋃ B if x is in A, it must be in A ⋃ anything
x ∈ A ∩ B given
x ∈ B if x is in A∩B, it must be in B
A⊆B
Let x ∈ B
x ∈ A ⋃ B if x is in B, it must be in B ⋃ anything
x ∈ A ∩ B given
x ∈ A if x is in A∩B, it must be in A
B⊆A
Since A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, A = B.
3
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
2. The Venn diagrams are
A B A B
A\B B\A
B∩(A\B) = ∅, but B∩(B\A) = B\A, so they are not equal
3.
A B A B
C C
A∪B C C∩A C∩B
C∩(A⋃B) is the doubly shaded region. (C∩A)⋃(C∩B) is region with any shading.
LHS = RHS
=[(A∩(A'∩B')⋃(C∩(A'∩B')]⋃[(A∩(A’∩C’))⋃(B∩(A’∩C’)]
=∅⋃(C∩(A'∩B')⋃∅⋃(B∩(A'∩C')=(A'∩B'∩C)⋃(A'∩B∩C') = RHS
4
Answers
Exercise 2.1
3. a) (3, 4)R(0, 4), b) (3, 4)R(3, 4), c) R = {((3, 4), (3, 4)), ((0, 4)), (0, 4)), ((7, 23), (7, 23))} (0, 4)
R(7, 23), (0, 4)R(3, 4).
6. 1__ R ___
–1R0, ___ 3 R__
1__ , __ 3 and ___
4 but 4R6, 4R __ 5__ .
1__ R ___
2 √
√ 2 5 5 5 √2 √3
Exercise 2.2
1. It is not symmetric since many counter examples can be given. One of them is 12 and 1. 1 is
a divisor of 12 but 12 is not a divisor of 1.
Exercise 2.3
1. It is transitive since if a is the same age as b and b is the same age as c, then a and c must be of
the same age.
2. It is transitive since if a is at least as tall as b and b is at least as tall as c, then a is at least as tall
as c.
3. It is transitive since if a lives in the same city as b and b lives in the same city as c, then a and c
also live in the same city for every a, b, c ∈ H.
5. It is not transitive. One counter example is 12R-6 and -6R4, but 12R4.
6. It is transitive. This is a bit hard to see, so let’s do algebra. Given (a, b)R(c, d) and (c, d)R(e, f),
we must prove (a, b)R(e, f) for all (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ D. We are given that d + a = b + c (1) and
that c + f = d + e (2).
5
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
We must prove that a + f = b + e (3).
7. It is not transitive. One counter example is 4R3 and 3R56, but 4R56.
Exercise 2.4
1. a. It is reflexive since 1 + 1, 2 + 2, 3 + 3, 4 + 4 are all even. Therefore 1R1, 2R2, 3R3 and 4R4. It
is symmetric since if x + y is even then y + x is even, too. Hence if xRy then yRx for every x,
y∈A. It is transitive since if x + y is even and y + z is even then (x + y) + (y + z) and so x + z
are even as well. We can conclude that if xRy and yRz then xRz for every x, y, z ∈ A.
b. 1 is in relation with 3 and 2 is in relation with 4. Hence there are two equivalence classes:
{1, 3} and {2, 4}.
2. a) It is not an equivalence relation, because it is not symmetric, because it contains (b, a) but
not (a, b).
b. It is reflexive because (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5) are all in R.
It is symmetric because for all of the pairs (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), and (2, 3), (3, 2), both
members are in R.
It is transitive. Unfortunately checking transitivity can be laborious. Since (1, 2) and (2, 3)
are in R then (1, 3) must be too and it is. Also (1, 3) and (3, 1) requires (1, 1), check. (1, 3)
and (3, 2) requires (1, 2), check, and so on. They are all there.
3. It is sufficient to show that one of the three properties does not hold. It is not reflexive: 3R3
since 3 = 3. (Symmetry is also ruled out because 4R3 but 3R4 and since 4 > 3 but 3 > 4. R is
transitive.) Remark: If the inequality is changed to ≥ then the relation is not an equivalence
relation. It is reflexive and transitive but R is still not symmetric.
4. a. R is reflexive since (x, y)R(x, y) holds for every (x, y) ∈ ℝ × ℝ since [x + y] = [x + y]. R is
symmetric, since if [x + y] = [a + b] then [a + b] = [x + y]. R is transitive. If (x, y)R(a, b) and
(a, b)R(c, d) then (x, y)R(c, d) as well for every (x, y), (a, b), (c, d) ∈ ℝ×ℝ, since if [x + y] =
[a + b] and [a + b]= [c + d] , then [x + y] = [c + d]. Therefore it is an equivalence relation.
b. Let us choose two pairs of numbers (2.2, –1.6) and (–2, 2.7). Are they in relation? [2.2,
–1.6]=0 and (–2, 2.7)=0, so (2.2, –1.6)R(–2, 2.7). Which (x, y) ∈ ℝ × ℝ are in relation with
(2.2, –1.6)? We need (x, y) such that [x + y] = 0, that is 0 ≤ x + y < 1.
These are the points on the Cartesian plane which lie between the lines x + y = 0 (line
included) and x + y = 1 (line excluded).
The points in the equivalence class with (2.2, –0.6) are the points on the Cartesian plane
which lie between the lines x + y = 1 (line included) and x + y = 2 (line excluded).
6
Answers
And so on. So the equivalence classes are the regions between adjacent parallel lines in the
Cartesian coordinate system: x + y = n (line included) and x + y = n + 1 (line excluded),
n∈. One can see that these sets fill up the plane, and no point lies in more than one of the
sets.
y
2
x
–2 –1 1 2
–1
–2
6. First we determine which numbers are in relation with 0; 3 is a factor of x – 0, [0] are the
multiples of 3. x ∈ {......–6, –3, 0, 3, 6, .....}. in other words {x | x = 3k, k∈}. Now we determine
which numbers are in relation with 1. We need x such that 3 is a factor of x – 1. These are the
integers which give a remainder 1 on division by 3. x ∈ {......–5, –2, 1, 4, 7,.....}; {x | x = 3k +
1 k ∈ ℤ}. Next we determine which numbers are in relation with 2. We need x such that 3 is a
factor of x – 2. These are the integers which give a remainder 2 on division by 3. x ∈ {......–4,
–1, 2, 5, 8,.....}; {x | x = 3k + 2, k ∈ ℤ}.Which integers are in relation with 3? These numbers
are the same as the first set, because 3 is in the first set. So we can conclude that there are
altogether three equivalent classes.
7
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
Exercise 2.5
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes |a| = |a| for every a ∈ ℝ.
symmetric Yes If |a| = |b| then |b| = |a| for every a, b ∈ ℝ.
transitive Yes If |a| = |b| and |b| = |c| then |a| = |c| for every a, b, c ∈ ℝ.
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes 3|m2 – m2 = 0 for every m ∈ ℤ+.
symmetric Yes If 3|m2 – n2 then 3| –(m2 – n2) = n2 – m2 for every m, n ∈ ℤ+.
If 3|m2 – n2 and 3|n2 – k2, then 3|m2 – n2 +n2 k2 = m2 – k2 for every m,
transitive Yes
n, k ∈ ℤ+.
x x² x² (mod 3)
1 1 1
2 4 1
3 9 0
4 16 1
5 25 1
6 36 0
7 49 1
8 64 1
9 81 0
10 100 1
11 121 1
12 144 0
8
Answers
3. xRy if x, y ∈ and 2 is a factor of x2 + y2.
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes 2|x2 + x2 = 2x2 for every x ∈ ℤ.
symmetric Yes If 2|x2 + y2 then 2|y2 + x2 for every x, y ∈ ℤ.
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes a×a is a perfect square for every a ∈ ℕ+.
If a×b is a perfect square then b×a is a perfect square for every
symmetric Yes
a, b ∈ ℕ+.
mn .
If a·b = n2 and b·c = m2, then then a·c·b2 = m2× n2 and a·c = ___ ( )
2
transitive Yes b
mn is an integer.
( )
Since b is a factor of n and m as well, ___
b
5. aRb if a and b are co-primes (relative primes) a, b ∈ ℕ+. (a and b are co-primes if their
greatest common divisor is 1, gcd(a, b) = 1.)
Answer Reasoning
reflexive No “a” and “a” are not co-primes since gcd(a, a) = a ≠1 (unless a = 1).
symmetric Yes If gcd (a, b) = 1 then gcd (b, a) = 1 for every a, b ∈ ℕ+.
Since R is neither reflexive nor transitive (only one counter example is needed), it is not an
equivalence relation.
9
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
6. (x, y)R(a, b) if x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 (a, b), (x, y) ∈ 핉×핉.
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes x2 + y2 = x2 + y2 for every (x, y) ∈ ℝ×ℝ.
symmetric Yes If x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 then a2 + b2 = x2 + y2 for every (a, b), (x, y) ∈ ℝ×ℝ.
If x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 and a2 + b2 = c2 + d 2 then x2 + y2 = c2 + d2 for every
transitive Yes
(a, b), (x, y), (c, d) ∈ ℝ×ℝ.
y
4
Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, it is an equivalence 3
relation. 2
x2 + y2 = 12. This determines a circle with the centre being the origin –4
and the radius being equal to 1. This is one equivalence class. Thus
R partitions ℝ × ℝ into equivalence classes consisting of circles centred at the origin, for
example {(x, y)| x² + y² = 1}, {(x, y)| x² + y² = 2.3}, etc. The origin is in an equivalence class
by itself.
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes |a| − |a| = 0 which is even for every real number.
symmetric Yes If |a| − |b| is even then |b| − |a| = -(|a| − |b|) is even, too.
If |a| − |b| is even and |b| − |c| is even then their sum |a| − |c|
transitive Yes
is even, too.
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes a + b = a + b for every (a, b) ∈ ℝ×ℝ.
If (a, b)R(c, d) then (c, d)R(a, b) that is if a + b = c + d then c + d
symmetric Yes
= a + b for every (a, b), (c, d) ∈ ℝ×ℝ.
If (a, b)R(c, d) and (c, d)R(e, f) then (a, b)R(e, f): If a + b = c + d and
transitive Yes
c + d = e + f then a + b = e + f for every (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ ℝ×ℝ.
Equivalence classes: We will try to find one example. We will find all of the points such
that (0, 1)R(x, y) that is where x + y = 0 + 1. Thus we need points for which x + y = 1. This
10
Answers
determines a line y = 1 – x. This is one equivalence class.
Then we will find all of the points such that (–2, 3.4)R(x, y) that is where x + y = –2+3.4.
Thus we need points for which x + y = 1.4. This determines a line y = 1.4 – x. This is another
equivalence class.
y
2
x
–2 –1 1 2
–1
–2
Answer Reasoning
reflexive Yes It is reflexive since |a| + |b| = |a| + |b| for every (a, b) ∈ ℝ2\(0, 0).
If (a, b) R(c, d) then |a| + |b| = |c| + |d|. This implies that (c, d)R(a,
symmetric Yes
b) by using |c| + |d| = |a| + |b| where (a, b), (c, d) ∈ ℝ2\(0, 0).
If (a, b)R(c, d) and (c, d)R(e, f) then |a| + |b| = |c| + |d| and |c| + |d|
transitive Yes = |e| + |f|. Therefore |a| + |b| = |e| + |f| holds. This means that (c, d)
R(e, f) for every (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ ℝ2\(0, 0).
To find the equivalence classes we first try to find the equivalence classes for all points
such that (0, 1)R(x, y) where |0| + |1| = 1 . We need points which satisfy |x| + |y| = 1. If we
investigate points in the first quadrant then we need points such that x + y = 1 holds.
So y = 1 – x. This means a segment with endpoints (0, 1) and (1, 0). If we investigate points
in the second quadrant then we need points when –x + y = 1.
So y = 1 + x. This means a segment with endpoints (0, 1) and (–1, 0). After drawing the
other two segments in the third and fourth quadrant we have the locus which is a square
with vertices (0, 1), (0, –1), (1, 0) and (–1, 0).
11
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
y y
2 2
1 1
x x
–2 –1 1 2 –2 –1 1 2
–1 –1
–2 –2
The other equivalence classes are all other squares with the centre of origin and vertices on
the axes. If origin is included then one more class is the origin alone.
10. (x, y)R(a, b) if x, y, a, b ∈ ℝ and [a] = [x], [b] = [y], where [z], the floor function, means the
greatest integer less than or equal to z. Notations: int(x) or [x]. It is called the integral or
integer part of a number.
reflexive Yes (a, b)R(a, b) since [a] = [a] and [b] = [b] for every (a, b) ∈ ℝ × ℝ.
If (a, b)R(c, d) then (c, d)R(a, b). If [a] = [c] and [b] = [d] then [c] = [a]
symmetric Yes
and [d] = [b] for every (a, b), (c, d) ∈ ℝ × ℝ.
If [a] = [c], [b] = [d] and [c] = [e], [d] = [f] then [a] = [e] and [b] = [f]
transitive Yes
for every (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ ℝ × ℝ.
12
Answers
R is symmetric since if a² ≡ b² (mod n), then b² ≡ a² (mod n) for every a, b ∈ the set.
x x² x2 (mod 6)
1 1 1
2 4 4
3 9 3
4 16 4
5 25 1
6 36 0
7 49 1
8 64 4
9 81 3
10 100 4
11 121 1
12 144 0
13 169 1
14 196 4
The equivalence classes are: {1, 5, 7, 11, 13}, {2, 4, 8, 10, 14}, {3, 9} and {6, 12}.
Symmetric: If (a, b)R(c, d), then ad = bc, then cb = da, so (c, d)R(a, b) for every (a, b) ∈
ℝ+×ℝ+, so symmetric.
ad = __
Transitive: (a, b)R(c, d) and (c, d)R(e, f), then ad = bc and cf = de, so ___ bc , so af = be, so
de cf
(a, b)R(e, f) for every (a, b) ∈ ℝ × ℝ , so transitive.
+ +
ii. ab x. So the equivalence classes are points in the first
If (a, b)R(x, y), then ay = bx or y = __
quadrant on straight lines through the origin with slope __ ab .
So R is an equivalence relation.
13
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
ii. If y² – 4y = x² – 4x, then 0 = x² – y² – (4x – 4y), so (x – y) (x + y) – 4 (x – y) = 0, so (x – y)(x +
y – 4) = 0, so either x = y (which unhelpfully means that every number is in an equivalence
class with itself) or x + y = 4 (which means equivalence classes are ..., {2, 2}, {3, 1}, {4, 0} {5,
-1}, {6, -2}, {7, -3}, {0.2. 3.8}, {-3.9, 7.9}, {6.4, -2.4} ...
iii. {2}
Transitive: If 2x ≡ 2y (mod 10) and 2y ≡ 2z (mod 10), then 2x - 2y = 10n and 2y - 2z = 10m,
n, m ∈ ℤ; adding gives, 2x - 2z = 10(n + m), so 2x ≡ 2z (mod 10) for every x, y, z ∈ ℤ+, so
transitive.
x 2x 2x (mod 10)
1 2 2
2 4 4
3 8 8
4 16 6
5 32 2
6 64 4
7 128 8
8 256 6
9 512 2
10 1024 4
11 2048 8
12 4096 6
ii. The equivalence classes are {1, 5, 9, …}, {2, 6, 10, …}, {3, 7, 11, …}, {4, 8, 12, …}; that
is the equivalence classes are 4k, 4k + 1, 4k + 2, 4k + 3, k ∈ ℤ.
6. i. Reflexive: Since x2 - y2 = x2 - y2, (x, y)R(x, y) for every (x, y) ∈ ℝ+ × ℝ+, so reflexive.
Transitive: If x2 – y2 = a2 – b2 and a2 – b2 = c2 – d2, then x2 – y2 = c2 – d2 for every (x, y), (a, b),
(c, d) ∈ ℝ+ × ℝ+, so transitive.
R3 is reflexive because gRg, hRh, iRi; symmetric because gRi and iRg; and transitive. So R3 is
an equivalence relation.
ii. For R3 the equivalence classes are {h} and {g, i}.
14
Answers
Exercise3.1
2. f(x) = x³ – x. It is not an injection because f(0) = f(1). It is a surjection because its range is ℝ,
codomain.
3. a. Injective because it passes the HLT; surjective because the range = {a, b} is codomain.
b. Injective because it passes the HLT; not surjective since range = {a, b, c} ≠ B.
d. Injective because it passes the HLT, surjective because the range = ℝ+ is codomain.
15
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
n. Fails HLT so not injective, range is [–1, 1] so surjective.
q. Injective, surjective.
4.
b. Fails HLT, so not injective, not surjective, since range = ]0, 1] ≠ ℝ = codomain.
16
Answers
5. Since it is an odd polynomial, range = ℝ = codomain,
2
6. 2 2– 2x 2 f '(x) = 0 when x = ±1; f ' changes sign at x = ±1,
f '(x) = _______
( x + 1 )
7. 1__ > 0 for x > 0, so injection; range y > 0 which is not the codomain, so not a
f '(x) = ____
2√x
surjection.
8. f '(x) = = sec²x > 0 for all x and the domain includes only one period of tan(x), so f(x) is
injective. Range of tan x = ℝ, so a surjection.
3. We must show that f(x) is injective and surjective. So we must show that if f(a, b) = f(c, d),
then a = c and b = d. So a – b = c – d and a + b = c + d, adding the equations gives, 2a = 2c,
so a = c, subtracting the two equations gives b = d, so f(x) is injective.
U +
Solving for x and y gives x = ______V, y = _______
–U +
V;
2 2
if U, V ∈ ℝ, then x, y ∈ ℝ, so f(x) is surjective. So f(x) is bijective.
(
x + y –x + y
, ______
So f(x) has an inverse, f –1(x, y) = _____
2 2 )
17
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
4. We must show that f(x) is injective and surjective. So we must show that if f(a, b) = f(c, d),
then a = c and b = d. So 3a – 2b = 3c – 2d and –a + 2b = –c + 2d. Adding the equations gives
2a = 2c, so a = c; subtracting gives c = d, so f(x) is injective.
U +
Solving for x and y gives x = ______ U +
3V
V, y = _______
2 4
If U, V ∈ ℝ, then x, y ∈ ℝ, so f(x) is surjective.
(
x + y ______
So f(x) is bijective. So f(x) has an inverse, f –1(x, y) = _____
2
x + 3y
)
, .
4
Exercises 4.1
1. a.
i. 2 ∗ 3 = 2 + 3 – 2·3 = –1
ii. –3 ∗ 0 = –3 + 0 – (–3)·0 = –3
iii. 6 • 2= 2 – 6 = –4
b)
2. Let a ∗ b = a²b, a, b ∈ ℤ.
a)
i. 3 ∗ 2 = 9·2 = 18
ii. 2 ∗ 3 = 4·3 = 12
iii. 3 ∗ 3 = 9·3 = 27
iv. 0 ∗ –2 = 0·(–2) = 0
v. 3 ∗ 4 = 9·4 = 36
vi. 2 ∗ 2 = 4·2 = 8
18
Answers
viii. (2 ∗ 3) ∗ 4 = (4·3) ∗ 4 = 12 ∗ 4 = 144·4 = 566.
Exercise 4.2
c. A binary operation since any two positive integers have a gcd. The greatest common divisor
of two positive integers is a positive integer. So the binary operation is closed.
e. A binary operation. As addition, subtraction and multiplication of real numbers are closed,
2a – 3c and 2b + d are real, so (2a – 3c, 2b + d) ∈ 핉2 . So the binary operation is closed.
f. A binary operation since you can form a fraction with a non-zero denominator. Any non-
zero real number divided by another non-zero real number is a non-zero real number. So
the binary operation is closed.
g. A binary operation since you can calculate the result for any two integers a and b. As addition,
subtraction and multiplication of integers is closed, a + b - 2ab ∈ ℤ. So the binary operation
is closed.
h. It is a binary operation since the product is defined for all possible values of a and b. Not
closed since (3+2i)(4+6i) = 12 +18i+8i–12 = 0 which is not a member of the original set.
i. It is a binary operation since the product is defined for all possible values of a and b.
It is closed since (a+bi)(c+di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i and if a and b are not both equal to
zero and c and d are not both equal to zero, then at least one of ac, bd, ad or bc must also
not equal zero.
j. It is a binary operation, but not closed, since 3 divided by 4 is not a positive integer.
k. It is a binary operation and it is closed since the product of any two positive odd integers is
a positive odd integer as well.
l. It is a binary operation. It is not closed since the sum of two odd numbers is even.
Exercise 4.3
19
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
a + e – 2ae = a
e = 2ae
e=0
2. ae = a gives e = a²
e ∗ a = __
ae = a gives e = 1.
a ∗ e = __
7. The universal set is the identity element. A∩U = U∩A = A for every A⊆U and U⊆U so it
is from the set.
8. The empty set is the identity element A∪∅ = ∅∪A = A for every A⊆U and ∅⊆U so it is
from the set.
Exercise 4.4
a + a–1 – 2aa–1 = 0
a = a–1 (1 –2a) = 0
20
Answers
4. We already know that the identity is 0. If a ∈ ℚ then –a ∈ ℚ and a + (–a) = (–a) + a = 0.
Therefore –a is the inverse of a.
Exercise 4.5
2. a ∗ b is not commutative, because the definition is not symmetric with respect to a and b.
Or one counterexample is 3 ∗ 1 = 3² + 1³ – 3(3 + 1)² = -38 ≠ 1 ∗ 3 = 1² + 3³ – 3(3 + 1)² =
–20.
3. a ∗ b = a + b – 2a – 2b = -a – b; b ∗ a = b + a – 2b – 2a = -a – b for every a, b ∈ ℝ. So a ∗ b
is commutative.
Exercise 4.6
1. It is commutative since a ∗ b = ( 2a )b = 2ab = b ∗ a = (2a)b = 2ab for every a, b ∈ ℝ.
3
It is not associative since (2 ∗ 3) ∗1 = ( 22 ) ∗ 1 = 64 ∗ 1= 2 64
≠
It is associative since
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b + ab) ∗ c = a + b + ab + c + (a + b + ab)c = a + b + ab + c + ac + bc
+ abc
2 ∗ (3 ∗ 1) = 2 ∗ (9 + 2) = 2 ∗ 11 = 6 + 22 = 28.
21
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
6. It is commutative since a ∗ b = a² + b² = b ∗ a = b² + a² for every a, b ∈ ℝ.
5 ∗ (3 ∗ 1) = 5 ∗ |3 – 1| = 5 ∗ 2 = |5 – 2| = 3.
It is associative since the remainder of a sum is equal to the remainder of the sum of the
remainders.
It is associative since the remainder of a sum is equal to the sum of the remainders.
13. i. a. x = q, b. x = p, c. x = s, d. x = r.
ii.a.No solution, b. x = p, c. x = p, q, d. x = q.
b a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a + e – 1 = a; therefore e = 1 ∈ ℤ.
c. a-1 ∗ a-1 = a ∗ a-1 = e = 1 = a + a-1– 1; so a-1 = 2 – a. Since a-1 must belong to ℤ+, a-1 exists
only for a = 1.
e. (a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b – 1) ∗ c = (a + b – 1) + c – 1 = a + b + c – 2
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (b + c – 1) = a + (b + c – 1) – 1 = a + b + c – 2
22
Answers
for every a, b, c ∈ ℤ+. So it is associative.
3. 2 ∉ ℤ+
a. It is not closed. 1 ∗ 2 = __
3
b. ae
_____
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a + e, so ae = a² + ae, which has no solutions for e, so there is no identity.
d, It is commutative.
e. It is associative because
abc
_____ abc
_____ abc
_____
ab
_____
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a
________
∗ c = + b a +
_____________
= b = a + b = __________
__________ abc
a+b ab
_____
+ c ab
_____ + c a
_____+ b ab + ca
__________
+ cb ab + ac + bc
a+b a+b a+b a+b
abc
____ abc
____
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ bc
____ = b
________ + c b + c = __________
_____________
= abc = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.
b + c a + ____ bc a b +
_____ c bc
_____
+ ab + ac + bc
b+c b+c b+c
4. a.
× 1 3 5 7
1 1 3 5 7
3 3 1 7 5
5 5 7 1 3
7 7 5 3 1
so closed.
b. Yes, 1.
23
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
5. a, Closed. b, No. c. None.
b. (a, b) ∗ (e1, e2) = (a, b) = (ae1 – be2, ae2 + be1). So a = ae1 – be2, b = ae2 + be1. Solving
simultaneously gives (e1, e2) = (1, 0).
c. (a, b) ∗ (a-1, b-1) = (e1, e2) = (1, 0) = (a a-1 – b b-1, a b-1 + b a-1).
2–b 2 .
= ______
so b –1
a + b
Substituting this into (2) gives 0 = a ______ –b + ba–1
a2 + b 2
2 a 2 .
= ______
so a –1
a + b
And finally ( a–1 ( 2 a 2 , ______
)= ______
, b –1 )
–b
a + b a2 + b 2
d. Yes.
Exercise 5.1
Inverses: If a = 2n, where n∈ℤ, then a – 1 = –2n since 2n – 2n = 0 and –2n is even as well.
So it is a group.
4. 1 ×
Closure: It is not closed: __ __ 1 ∉ A So it is not a group.
1 = __
3 2 6
5. Identity element: e = S since S∩A=A∩S = A for every subset A of S. S ⊆ S.
24
Answers
So it is not a group.
7. a ae
There is no identity element. _____
+ e → ae = a + ae → a = 0 → a = 0 ∉ 핉 .
2 2 +
So it is not a group.
Exercise 5.2
Exercise 5.3
1.
a. For all a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b ∈ S.
d. b ∗ (c ∗ d) = c, but (b ∗ c) ∗ d = a.
2.
c. a . So there is no
There is no identity element, since a ∘ e = a gives 2(a + e) = a, so e = – __
2
identify element. So it is not a group.
d. (a, b) ∗ (e1, e2) = (ae1 – be2, ae1 + be2) = (a, b) ae1 – be2 = a and ae1 + be2 = b gives
(
b + a, ____
(e1, e2) = _____
2a 2b )
b – a .
The identity element must be independent of a and b, so the identity element does not exist.
So (S, *) is not a group.
j. It is closed. The vector product of two vectors is a vector as well. There is no identity element,
so it is not a group.
Exercise 5.4
1. a ∗ x = a ∗ y Given.
2. Step 1:
y∗a=b Given
(y ∗ a)∗ a–1 = b∗ a–1 Since {S, ∗} is a group, a has an inverse a–1. Right multiply by a-1
Step 2:
Let us assume that there are two different values of y, y1 and y2 for which y ∗ a = b with y1 ≠ y2.
Since they both equal b, y1 ∗ a = y2 ∗ a now applying the right cancellation law, y1=y2 which is a
contradiction. So y is unique.
26
Answers
Exercise 5.5
1. 3 ∗ 3 = 9; so we need a = 9;
×10 1 3 7 9
1 1 3 7 9
3 3 9 1 7
7 7 1 9 3
9 9 7 3 1
With a = 9, S is closed.
5) a. Not a group since 1 ∗ 7 = 7 and 3 ∗ 7 = 7, so it does not have the Latin Square Property.
b.
Closure
∗ 2 4 8 10 14 16
2 4 8 16 2 10 14
4 8 16 14 4 2 10
8 16 14 10 8 4 2
10 2 4 8 10 14 16
14 10 2 4 14 16 8
16 14 10 2 16 8 4
It is closed.
27
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
Identity element e = 10
Inverses 2–1 = 14, 14–1 = 2, 4–1 = 16, 16–1 = 4, 8–1 = 8, 10–1 = 10.
Associativity Holds
So it is a group.
c.
Closure
∗ 0 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 0 6 5 4 3
3 3 6 4 2 0 5
4 4 5 2 6 3 0
5 5 4 0 3 6 2
6 6 3 5 0 2 4
It is closed.
So it is a group.
d.
It is closed.
x+y
If 0 ≤ x, y < 1 then _____, < 1 since
1 + xy
Closure x+y 1 + xy – x – y (y – 1)(x – 1)
1 – _____
, = ___________= ___________
> 0,
1 + xy 1 + xy 1 + xy
x+y
and x ∗ y = _____
> 0.
1 + xy
x + e = x = _____
_____ e + x
1 + xe ex + 1
so x + e = x + x2e, so e = x2 e, so e = 0 for every x and 0 is in the
Identity element
given interval.
0 + x = x = _______
Check: x = ______ x + 0
0·x + 1 x·0 + 1
28
Answers
–1
x + x –1 = 0, where 0 ≤ x < 1.
_______
1 + x·x
Inverses
x + x–1
= 0
x –1
= – x, –1< –x ≤ 0, so there is no inverse.
So it is not a group.
e)
It is closed.
Closure
If x and y are non-zero real numbers then their product is non-
zero as well.
So it is a group.
6.
29
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
(a ∗ b) ∗ c) = (ab – a – b + 2)c – ab + a + b – c – 2+ 2
= abc – ac – bc + 2c – ab + a + b – c
Associativity = abc – ac – bc – ab + a + b + c
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a(bc – b – c + 2) – a – bc + b + c – 2 + 2
= (abc – ab – ac + 2a) – a – bc + b + c – 2 + 2
= abc – ab – ac – bc + a + b + c.
Abelian a * b = a×b – a – b + 2 =
b * a= b a – b – a + 2. So it is Abelian.
7.
1 + 2(k + m +2km)
1 + 2m• ______
______ 1 + 2k= ________________
1 + 2n 1 + 2s 1 + 2(n + s +2ns)
If m, n, k, s ∈ ℤ then k + m + 2km, 1 + 2(n + s + 2nl) ∈ ℤ.
Closure
Can n + s + 2ns = –½? No, because if we let n + s + 2ns = –½,
solving for n (or s) gives n(1 + 2s) = –½ – s = –½(1 + 2s) which
gives n = –½. So, it is closed.
So it is a group.
8.
30
Answers
a = ac and b = bc + d
Identity element c = 1, b = b + d
c = 1, d = 0.
So e = (1, 0) ∈ S.
Inverses 1
Hence b× __
a+ y = 0.
x = __
a, b
1 y = – __
a.
(
(a, b)-1 = __
a, )
b
1 , – __ __1
a ∈ S since = a≠ 0.
9. a.
∗ I A B C
I I A B C
A A B C I
B B C I A
C C I A B
b. i. B ∗ (C ∗ A) = B*I = B,
ii. (A ∗ B) ∗ ( B∗ C) = C ∗ A = I.
31
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
b,EITHER
= b−1aa−1b
= b−1eb
= b−1b
= e.
OR
(b−1ab)−1
= (ab)−1(b−1)−1 Using the reversal rule
= b a (b )
−1 −1 −1 −1
Using the reversal rule
= b a b.
−1 −1
= b−1a−1mb
= b−1anb
32
Answers
Associativity: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b −1) ∗ c = a + b − 1 + c – 1 = a + b + c – 2
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (b + c – 1) = a + (b + c – 1) – 1 = a + b + c – 2.
Inverse: a ∗ a−1 = e so
a + a−1 − 1 = 1 so
a² + b² ≠0 and c² + d² ≠0
__ __
( a – b √5 ) _______
a – b√5 = _______ __
1 __ _________
_______ __ = 2 2 a 2 + _______
2 –b 2 √ a ∈핈
5 _______
a + b√5 ( a – b √5 ) a – 5b a – 5b a – 5b a2 – 5b2
2
) ( )
2
–b ∈ 핈 if a, b ∈ 핈. _______
(
2 a 2 + _______
2 –b 2 ≠ 0 since a, b ≠ 0.
2
_______
2 2
a – 5b a – 5b a – 5b
a= √__
Since a and b cannot both be zero a² – 5b² ≠0, unless __ 5 , which is not possible since a,
b
b ∈ ℚ. So the inverse exists.
ab ab = e
ebae = ab
ba = ab.
OR
ab = (ab)–1
ab = ba.
6. Given a × a = a. Since it is a group a–1 must exist. So multiply both sides by a–1 ,
giving a–1 × a × a = a–1 × a so e × a = e so a = e.
7. a * b cannot be a , since that would mean b = e, which is not true. Similarly a * b cannot be
b. So a * b = either e or c.
e = b * a. So b ∗ a = b ∗ a.
8. a. x ∗ y = y ∗ x², given
x ∗ y ∗ y = y ∗ x² ∗ y, right multiplying by y
b. x ∗ y = y ∗ x² given
y ∗ x = x² ∗ y. using x³ = e
34
Answers
c. (x∗y)²
= x∗(y∗x)∗y
= x∗( x²∗y)∗y
= e∗e = e.
Exercise 6.1
1. i.
+5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3
ii.
×5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4
2 0 2 4 1 3
3 0 3 1 4 2
4 0 4 3 2 1
b. 4x = 3, x = 2. By trial and error. Note that the cancellation law (multiplying both sides
by the “inverse”) does not always work because {ℤ5, ×5} is not a group.
c. 3x + 4 = 2. Add 4–1= 1, 3x = 3, x = 1.
d. 4x + 3 = 0. Add 3–1 = 2, 4x = 2, x = 3.
35
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
f. 4x = 2x + 1. Add 3x, 2x = 1, x = 3.
{ℤn, +n} forms a group for n ∈ ℕ, n ≥ 2. The cancellation laws hold for all groups.
iii.
a. x + 4 = 3, add 4–1 = 3, x = 6.
b. 2x = 5, multiply by 2–1 = 4, x = 6
+3 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0
2 2 0 1
36
Answers
×10 2 4 6 8
2 4 8 2 6
4 8 6 4 2
6 2 4 6 8
8 6 2 8 4
×12 1 5 7 11
1 1 5 7 11
5 5 1 11 7
7 7 11 1 5
11 11 7 5 1
It is closed, identity element: I = 1, inverses: 1–1 = 1, 5–1 = 5, 7–1 = 7, 11–1 = 11. Associativity:
Yes, it holds. So it is a group.
×15 1 2 4 8
1 1 2 4 8
2 2 4 8 1
4 4 8 1 2
8 8 1 2 4
37
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
h. The Cayley table is:
×15 3 6 9 12
3 9 3 12 6
6 3 6 9 12
9 12 9 6 3
12 6 12 3 9
It is closed. Identity element: I = 6. Inverses: 3–1 = 12, 12–1 = 3, 6–1 = 6, 9–1 = 9. Associativity:
Yes, it holds. So it is a group.
×11 1 3 4 5 9
1 1 3 4 5 9
3 3 9 1 4 5
4 4 1 5 9 3
5 5 4 9 3 1
9 9 5 3 1 4
×14 2 4 6 8 10 12
2 4 8 12 2 6 10
4 8 2 10 4 12 6
6 12 10 8 6 4 2
8 2 4 6 8 10 12
10 6 12 4 10 2 8
12 10 6 2 12 8 4
It is closed. Identity element: I = 8. Inverses: 2–1 = 4, 4–1 = 2, 6–1 = 6, 8–1 = 8, 10–1 = 12,
12–1 = 10. Associativity: Yes, it holds. So it is a group.
38
Answers
k. The Cayley table is:
×14 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
3 3 9 1 7 13 5 11
5 5 1 11 7 3 13 9
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
9 9 13 3 7 11 1 5
11 11 5 13 7 1 9 3
13 13 11 9 7 5 3 1
×14 1 3 5 9 11 13
1 1 3 5 9 11 13
3 3 9 1 13 5 11
5 5 1 11 3 13 9
9 9 13 3 11 1 5
11 11 5 13 1 9 3
13 13 11 9 5 3 1
It is closed. Identity element: I = 1. Inverses: 3–1 = 5, 5–1 = 3, 9–1 = 11, 11–1 = 9, 13–1 =
13. Associativity: Yes, it holds. So it is a group.
39
Mathematics HL Topic 8: Sets, Relations and Groups
o. The Cayley table is:
×9 1 2 4 5 7 8
1 1 2 4 5 7 8
2 2 4 8 1 5 7
4 4 8 7 2 1 5
5 5 1 2 7 8 4
7 7 5 1 8 4 2
8 8 7 5 4 2 1
It is closed. Identity element: I = 1. Inverses: 2–1 = 5, 5–1 = 2, 4–1 = 7, 7–1 = 4, 8 is self inverse.
Associativity: Yes, it holds. So it is a group.
Exercise 6.2
1.
∘ e f g h
e e f g h
f f e h g
g g h e f
h h g f e
It is closed.
The Cayley table is symmetric about the main diagonal, so it is an Abelian group.
2.
∘ e f g h
e e f g h
f f e h g
g g h f e
h h g e f
40
Answers
It is closed.
The Cayley table is symmetric about the main diagonal, so it is an Abelian group.
∘ f g h
f f g h
g g h f
h h f g
It is closed.
So it is an Abelian group.
5.
∘ a b c d
a b a d c
b a b c d
c d c b a
d c d a b
It is closed.
∘ e n g k m h
e e n g k m h
n n e k g h m
g g m e h n k
k k h n m e g
m m g h e k n
h h k m n g e
It is closed.
So it is a group.
Exercise 6.3
1.
( )
a. 1 2 3 4
3 4 1 2
( )
b. 1 2 3 4
2 1 4 3
( )
c. 1 2 3 4
2 4 1 3
( )
d. 1 2 3 4
4 1 2 3
2.
( )
a. 1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
( )
b. 1 2 3 4
4 3 2 1
( )
c. 1 2 3 4 ,
1 2 3 4
42
Answers
(
d. 1 2 3 4
1 3 2 4 )
3. a. i.
(
p–1 = 1 2 3 4
1 3 2 4 )
–1
(
q = 2 3 4
1
4 2 1 3 )
(
q p = 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
4 1 2 3 )
1
(
pq = 3 4
2
2 3 4 1 )
(
(pq) = 1 2 3 4
–1
4 1 2 3 )
(
Indeed, both equal: 1 2 3 4
4 1 2 3 )
1
( 2 3 4
4 1 2 3 2 3 4 1 )(1 2 3
) (
1 2 3 4 )
ii. 4 = 1 2 3 4
1
( 2 3 4
)(1
2 3 4 1 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
) ( )
= 2 3 4
(
Indeed, both equal: 1 2 3 4
4 1 2 3 )
b.
i. (
3 2 4 1 3 2 4 1 )( ) (
3 4 2 1 )
x = qp–1 = 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 = 1 2 3 4
ii. –1 2
(
1 3 2 4 4 2 1 3
4 1 2
)( 4
) (
x = pq = = 1 2 3 4
1 3 3
4 3 1 2 )
iii. –1 2
( 4
1 3 2 4 3 2 4 1
1 2
)( 4
) (
x = p q = = 1 2 3 4
1 3 3
2 3 4 1 )
iv. –1 2
(
4 2 1 3 1 3 2 4
4 1 2
)( 4
) (
x = q p = = 1 2 3 4
1 3 3
4 1 2 3 )
W X Y Z
W W X Y Z
X X W Z Y
Y Y Z W X
Z Z Y X W
Closure: Yes.
Identity: W.
W X Y Z
W W X Y Z
X X Y Z W
Y Y Z W X
Z Z W X Y
Closure: Yes.
Identity: W.
Exercise 6.4
1. a. (1 5) (2 3) b. (1 2 3 4 5) c. (1 5) (2 3 4)
2. ( )
a. 1 2 3
2 3 1 ( )
b. 1 2 3
2 3 1 ( )
c. 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 3 1 6 5 4 ( )
d) 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 3 4 6 5 1
(
1 2 3 4 5 6
e.
2 1 4 6 5 3 )
3. p = (476) (235). For p² each number is moved by two positions in the cycle for p, so
p² = (467) (253). For p–1 each cycle in p must be reversed, so p–1 = (467) (253).
4. p² = (1 3 2), p³ = (1) (2) (3) = Id, pk = (1) (2) (3) ... (k) = Id
5. ( ) ( )
pq = 1 2 3 4 5 , qp = 1 2 3 4 5 . Yes.
2 3 1 5 4 2 3 1 5 4
44
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"Minun täytyi hänet ottaa silloin kun lähdin Budan pashan luo
neuvottelemaan. Sillä minä olen sinusta tehnyt ylituomarin, ettäs sen
nyt tiedät. (Vanhuksen silmiin tuli vihertävä hohde.) Vanha Lestyak
on mies kerrassaan, eikö?… Kisälli, sanon, haki työtä, vaikka
huomaankin, ettei hän rahtuakaan saa valmista. Minulla ei ole ollut
tilaisuutta tutkia, mihin hän pystyy. Tähän asti olen hosunut
politiikassa. Älä naura, nuori mies, taikka minä närkästyn. Nyt saat
sinä hoitaa politiikan. Suurta rotua, Lestyakien suku. Mutta kas, nyt
olemme kotona."
Vanhus huoahti:
"Minkävuoksi?"
"Sen mustalaisletukan vuoksi, jos häntä vielä muistat. Eikö keitto
olekaan hyväksi suolattu? Tuopas suolasalkkari tänne, Laczi."
"Hän väitti, että tyttö oli livistänyt teidän kanssanne, ja kunnes hän
oli palannut tai ilmoitti missä hän oli, pidättäisi hän minut vankina.
Sanoin, etten ollut sen koommin nähnyt hänen varjoaankaan."
"Syönhän jo; mutta isä, ette ole vielä kertonut loppuun Budan
seikkailua."
"Hän on hätäillyt."
"Kuka? Minäkö?"
"Et sinä, vaan pasha."
Räätäli kiljahti:
"On kyllä joku, joka kuiskaa hänelle totuuden. Mutta puhukaa toki
jotakin, herrat, neuvokaa häntä, älkää toki seiskö siinä kuin puutukit."
8.
Eikä sitäkään ollut enää tarvis kauaa odottaa. Lestyak ukko oli jo
aikoja sitten leppynyt, tuo pikku olento osasi häntä kaikessa
miellyttää, ja kun tyttö kutkutteli häntä poskesta, luuli hän tulleensa
taivaaseen. Czinnasta hersyikin päivä päivältä yhä kauniimpi,
muodot pyöristyivät ja kasvot olivat kuin kirsikka, jonka verenväri
hennon ihon aitakin hohti. Ei kukaan koko Kumaniassa vetänyt
hänelle vertoja. Hänestä tuli vanhuksen lemmikki, uskottu, hän kutsui
tätä "tyttärekseen", "miniäkseen", ja hoputti poikaansa kiirehtimään
häitä, koska hän muuten, jumala auttakoon, naisi tytön itse.
Maks oli haalinut kokoon hieman rahoja, mutta juuri siihen aikaan
saapui aateliskirja. Tuo onnenpoika alkoi nyt elää suurellisesti;
ympäristön aateliset pyrkivät hänen tovereikseen, he tulivat häntä
tervehtimään, ja hän vastasi vieraskäynteihin. Czinnan hän jätti
yksikseen. Aatelismieshän ei voi aina kuherrella, sehän olisi
naurettavaa. Tuo kurja pergamenttipaperi oli muuttanut hänet
kokonaan toiseksi, hänen verensä oli kuin käynyt sinisemmäksi, ja
hänestä tuli nyt kaiken lisäksi oikullinen.
Oli kuin veitsi olisi työnnetty Czinnan sydämeen. Hän alkoi epäillä,
että Maks pelkäsi häntä, mutta ei rakastanut; hän kahlehtii hänet
kihlasormuksin vain sentähden, että saisi olla varma hänen
vaitiolostaan. Päivä päivältä hän kävi surullisemmaksi, punaiset
ruusut kuihtuivat hänen kasvoiltaan, silmissä ei ollut enää entistä
tenhoavaa kiiltoa, lempeä alakuloisuus oli nyt hänen
ominaisuuksiaan.