Microrobotics

(MEMEE14/ MPMEE06)

UNIT – 1
Introduction to Microsystems
 COURSE CONTENT
UNIT 1
Introduction to Microsystems: MST (Micro System Technology) – Micromachining - Working principles of Microsystems -
Applications of Microsystems.
UNIT 2
Scaling Laws and Materials for MEMS: Introduction - Scaling laws - Scaling effect on physical properties, scaling effects on
Electrical properties, scaling effect on physical forces. Physics of Adhesion - Silicon-compatible material system - Shape memory
alloys - Material properties: Piezoresistivity, Piezoelectricity and Thermoelectricity.
UNIT 3
Microrobotics in Microsystems: Introduction, Task specific definition of micro-robots - Size and Fabrication Technology based
definition of microrobots - Mobility and Functional-based definition of micro-robots - Applications for MEMS based micro-robots.
UNIT 4
Implementation of Microrobots: Arrayed actuator principles for micro-robotic applications – Micro-robotic actuators - Design of
locomotive micro-robot devices based on arrayed actuators. Micro-robotics devices: Micro-grippers and other micro-tools - Micro
conveyors - Walking MEMS Micro-robots – Multi-robot system: Micro-robot powering, Micro-robot communication.
UNIT 5
Micro Fabrication and Micro Assembly: Micro-fabrication principles - Design selection criteria for micromachining - Packaging and
Integration aspects – Micro-assembly platforms and manipulators.
Contents – Unit 1
• MST (Micro System Technology)
• Applications of Microsystems
• Working principles of Microsystems
• Micromachining
MST (Micro System Technology)
• “Microsystems,” literally, are “very
small systems” or “systems made
of very small components”
• MST can be defined as the SHRIMP
functional integration of
mechanical, electronic, optical and
any other functional elements,
using special MST techniques.
• The goal of this technology is to Rolls-Royce's Micro Robots

fabricate intelligent monolithic or

integrated chips which can sense,
Nanobots
plan, make decisions and actuate.
 MST (Micro System Technology)-MEMS
• In Europe, they are called “Microsystems.” In the United States, and increasingly elsewhere,
they are called “Microelectromechanical Systems,” or “MEMS.”
• Micro establishes a dimensional scale, electro suggests either electricity or electronics (or
both), and mechanical suggests moving parts of some kind.
• MEMS involve both electronic and non-electronic elements.
• The most successful MEMS have been those which involve paradigm shifts.
MST (Micro System Technology)-MEMS
MST (Micro System Technology)-DIMENSIONS
They can be of the size of a rice grain, or smaller. For e.g.
• Inertia sensors
• Microcars
MST (Micro System Technology)-DIMENSIONS
Inertia sensors
MST (Micro System Technology)-DIMENSIONS
Microcars

(Courtesy of Denso Research Laboratories, Denso Corporation, Aichi, Japan)

MST (Micro System Technology)-DIMENSIONS
 MST (Micro System Technology)-STRUCTURE
• A complete microsystem should:
 Detect, process & evaluate external signals
 Make decisions
 Should convert the decisions into
corresponding actuator commands.
• The microsystem can then perform task-
conditional manipulations.
• The MST exhibits special feature of micro
components compared with conventional
ones.
•

COMPONENTS
 MST (Micro System Technology)-STRUCTURE

Flexible
Micro
medical
LWIR sensors
Micro
Thermal
Camera
MST (Micro System Technology)-STRUCTURE

Micro
Stepping
Piezo
Actuators
MST (Micro System Technology)-STRUCTURE
MST (Micro System Technology)-INTERFACE
• Many of the unsolved MST problems involve the
interfaces.
• The feasibility and marketability of future microsystems
mainly depend on whether practical micro-macro
interfaces can be developed.
• So far, electric interfaces for transmitting information and
energy are the furthest developed.
• Various possibilities are being investigated, such as
optical, thermal and acoustic interfaces.
• Up to date, only substances can be conveyed using
microfluidic methods.
• A/D and D/A converters are often part of an electric
interface.
• Power electronic components are essential for almost any
microsystem, they often lead to thermal or
electromagnetic problems.
MST (Micro System Technology)-TECHNIQUES
MST (Micro System Technology)-TECHNIQUES
Microtechniques
• Layer techniques: Methods for producing layers of different materials on the
surface of a substrate. Depending on the deposition method, the layer thickness
can range from a few hundred µm to a few nm.
• Micromechanics: This technique comprises in general the three-dimensional
structuring of solids, with at least one dimension in the micrometer range.
• Micromechanical materials include single-crystal silicon, polysilicon, metals,
plastics and glass.
• Integrated optics: Definition of the technique for developing and producing
miniaturized, planar optical components, such as modulators, switches, couplers,
etc. Analogous to microelectronics, the aim is to integrate all the named optical
components onto one substrate, such as glass, semiconductor material or lithium
niobate.
• Fiber optics: Used to transmit optical signals in light-conducting media. The
principle applications of fiber optics are first, the communication technology
utilizing an almost noise-free signal transfer and second, the sensor technology
for detecting changes of light to determine various physical, chemical and
biochemical parameters.
• Microoptics: This technique deals with the design and production of miniaturized
optical image processing elements such as mirrors, lenses, filters, etc., which are
needed in hybrid microsystems with optical functions.
• Micromolding: Includes plastic and metal powder molding
• Microfluidics: Technique for developing and producing fluid elements for many
applications. They have high performance, are free of wear and are relatively
robust against pollutants in the flow media .
System Techniques
• System concept: Defines the microsystem architecture and interface concepts for
the different MST techniques.
• Signal and information processing: Describes the receiving and processing of
primary electric sensor signals, the execution of algorithms, the transformation of
output information into control signals. It is also concerned with the management
of data storage and retrieval.
• Design and simulation tools: Defines the tools for computer-based microsystem
analysis, simulation and design.
• Test and diagnosis of microsystems: Methods and tools to test the functionability
of microsystems
• Interconnection technology: Deals with the technological operations needed to
physically integrate components within a small amount of space.
• Casing technique: Design of the casing for a microsystem, which usually is an
essential part of the system and may influence the overall system function and
size
• Standardization: As in many other branches of industry, very important for
developing microsystems. It often can lead to the economical success of a
research result.
Materials and Effects
• Biological materials and effects: Mainly used in biosensors to selectively measure
concentrations of substances in fluids and to determine biological parameters,
such as toxicity and the effect of allergens.
• Chemical materials and effects: Used almost exclusively in chemical sensors.
These sensors can detect a specific component in a foreign substance as well as
its concentration in this substance.
• Piezoelectric effect: The changing of the geometry of a piezocrystal when
applying an electric voltage to it. This effect is used in actuators.
• Electrostatic force: Appears between two parallel metal plates when an electric
voltage is applied between them.
• Electromagnetic field: Generated when current flows through a conductor or coil.
This effect is often used for magnetic actuators.
• Magneto- and electrostrictive effect: Magnetostriction (Electrostriction) is the
deformation of a ferromagnetic (ferroelectric) material under the influence of a
magnetic (electric) field.
• Shape memory effect: Describes the property of a shape memory alloy. When
permanently deformed under a certain temperature it remembers its original
shape and returns to it when heated above this temperature.
• Silicon, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, ceramics, quartz, metals (nickel, gold,
aluminum, copper, etc.), polymers, glasses and other materials are designations
for materials used for MST.
 Comparison of Microelectronics and Microsystems
Microelectronics
Primarily 2-dimensional structures
Stationary structures
Transmit electricity for specific electrical functions
IC die is protected from contacting media
Use single crystal silicon dies, silicon compounds,
ceramics and plastic materials
Fewer components to be assembled
Mature IC design methodologies
Complex patterns with high density of electrical
circuitry over substrates
Large number of electrical feed-through and leads
Industrial standards available
Mass production
Fabrication techniques are proven and well
documented
Manufacturing techniques are proven and well
documented
Packaging technology is relatively well established
Primarily involves electrical and chemical
engineering
Microsystems (silicon based)
Complex 3-dimensional structure
May involve moving components
Perform a great variety of specific biological, chemical,
electromechanical and optical functions
Delicate components are interfaced with working media
Use single crystal silicon dies and few other materials,
e.g. GaAs, quartz, polymers, ceramics and metals
Many more components to be assembled
Lack of engineering design methodology and standards
Simpler patterns over substrates with simpler electrical
circuitry
Fewer electrical feed-through and leads
No industrial standard to follow in design, material
selections, fabrication processes and packaging
Batch production, or on customer-need basis
Many microfabrication techniques are used for
production, but with no standard procedures
Distinct manufacturing techniques
Packaging technology is at the infant stage
Involves all disciplines of science and engineering
 The Multi-disciplinary Nature of Microsystems Engineering
Natural Science:
Physics & Biochemistry

Electrochemical Quantum physics

Material
Processes Solid-state physics
Science
Scaling laws

Mechanical Engineering
• Machine components design
Electrical Engineering • Precision machine design Materials Engineering
• Power supply • Mechanisms & linkages • Materials for substrates
• Electric systems for • Thermomechanicas: & package
electrohydro- (solid & fluid mechanics, heat • Materials for signal
dynamics and transfer, fracture mechanics) mapping and transduction
signal transduction • Intelligent control • Materials for fabrication
• Electric circuit • Micro process equipment processes
design design and manufacturing
•Integration of MEMS • Packaging and assembly design
and CMOS

Chemical Engineering
• Micro fabrication Industrial Engineering
processes • Process design
• Thin film technology • Production control
• Micro assembly
 Commercialization of MEMS and Microsystems

Major commercial success:

Pressure sensors and inertia sensors (accelerometers) with

worldwide market of:

• Airbag inertia sensors at 2 billion units per year.

• Manifold absolute pressure sensors at 40 million units per year.
• Disposable blood pressure sensors at 20 million units per year.

Recent Market Dynamics

Old MEMS New MEMS
Pressure sensors BioMEMS
Accelerometers IT MEMS for Telecommunication:
Other MEMS (OptoMEMS and RF MEMS)
 Application of MEMS and Microsystems
in
Automotive Industry

52 million vehicles produced worldwide in 1996

There will be 65 million vehicle produced in 2005

Principal areas of application of MEMS and microsystems:

• Safety
• Engine and power train
• Comfort and convenience
• Vehicle diagnostics and health monitoring
• Telematics, e.g. GPS, etc.
 Principal Sensors
(7)
(4) (6)(1)
(3)

(2)
(10)
(9) (5)
(8)
(1) Manifold or Temperature manifold (6) Gasoline direct injection pressure sensor
absolute pressure sensor
(7) Fuel tank evaporative fuel pressure sensor
(2) Exhaust gas differential (8) Engine oil sensor
pressure sensor
(3) Fuel rail pressure sensor (9) Transmission sensor
(4) Barometric absolute pressure sensor (10) Tire pressure sensor
(5) Combustion sensor
Silicon Capacitive Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor
 Application of MEMS and Microsystems
in
Aerospace Industry

• Cockpit instrumentation. • Sensors and actuators for safety - e.g. seat ejection
• Wind tunnel instrumentation • Sensors for fuel efficiency and safety
• Microsattellites
• Command and control systems with MEMtronics
• Inertial guidance systems with microgyroscopes, accelerometers and fiber optic gyroscope.
• Attitude determination and control systems with micro sun and Earth sensors.
• Power systems with MEMtronic switches for active solar cell array reconfiguration, and
electric generators
• Propulsion systems with micro pressure sensors, chemical sensors for leak detection, arrays
of single-shot thrustors, continuous microthrusters and pulsed microthrousters
• Thermal control systems with micro heat pipes, radiators and thermal switches
• Communications and radar systems with very high bandwidth, low-resistance radio-frequency
switches, micromirrors and optics for laser communications, and micro variable capacitors,
inductors and oscillators.
 Application of MEMS and Microsystems
in
Biomedical Industry
Disposable blood pressure transducers:
Lifetime 24 to 72 hours; annual production 20 million units/year, unit price $10

Catheter tip pressure sensors

Sphygmomanometers

Respirators

Lung capacity meters

Barometric correction instrumentation

Medical process monitoring

Kidney dialysis equipment

Micro bio-analytic systems: bio-chips, capillary electrophoresis, etc.

 Application of MEMS and Microsystems
in
Consumer Products

Scuba diving watches and computers

Bicycle computers

Sensors for fitness gears

Washers with water level controls

Sport shoes with automatic cushioning control

Digital tire pressure gages

Vacuum cleaning with automatic adjustment of brush beaters

Smart toys
 Application of MEMS and Microsystems
in the
Telecommunication Industry

• Optical switching and fiber optic couplings

• RF relays and switches

• Tunable resonators
Microlenses: Microswitches:
Projected Market for OptoMEMS

Unit: $million
Micro Optical Switches

2-Dimensional

3-Dimensional
 Working Principles for Microsensors

Power
Supply

Micro
Input Transduction Output
Sensing
Signal Unit Signal
Element
 Acoustic Wave Sensors

Acoustic wave sensor does not related to the sensing of acoustic waves transmitted in
solids or other media, as the name implies.

Primary application of these sensors is to act like “band filters” in mobile telephones and
base stations.

Other applications include:

• Sensing of torques and tire pressures
• Sensing biological and chemical substances
• Sensing vapors, humidity and temperature
• Monitor fluid flow in microfluidics
•2 sets of “Interdigital Transducers” (IDT)
are created on a piezoelectric layer
attached to a tiny substrate as shown
•Energize by an AC source to the “Input IDT”
will close and open the gaps of the finger
electrodes, and thus surface deformation/
stresses transmitting through the piezo-
electric material
•The surface deformation/stresses will
cause the change of finger electrodes in
the “Output IDT”
•Any change of material properties (chemical
attacks) or geometry due to torques will
alter the I/O between the “Input IDT” and
“Output IDT.”
•The sensing of contact environment or
pressure can thus be accomplished
 BioMEMS

The term “BioMEMS” has been a popular terminology in the MEMS industry in
recent years due to the many break-through in this technology, which many
believe to be a viable lead to mitigate the sky-rocketing costs in healthcare costs
in many industrialized countries.

BioMEMS include the following three major areas:

(1) Biosensors for identification and measurement of biological substances,

(2) Bioinstruments and surgical tools, and

(3) Bioanalytical systems for testing and diagnoses.

Major Technical Issues in BioMEMS Products:

(1) Functionality for the intended biomedical operations.

(2) Adaptive to existing instruments and equipment.

(3) Compatibility with biological systems of the patients.

(4) Controllability, mobility, and easy navigation for operations

such as those required in laparoscope's surgery.

(5) Functions of MEMS structures with high aspect ratio

(defined as the ratio of the dimensions in the depth of the
structure to the dimensions of the surface)

Note: Almost all bioMEMS products are subjected to the approval

for marketing by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration)
of the US government.
 Biomedical Sensors and Biosensors

These sensors are extensively used in medical diagnosis, environmental protection,

drug discovery and delivery, etc.

Biomedcial Sensors

For the measurements of biological substances in the sample and also for medical
diagnosis purposes.

Input signal: Biological sample (e.g., blood samples or body fluids typically in
minute amount in µL or nL)

Microsensing element: a chemical that reacts with the sample.

Transduction unit: the product of whatever the chemical reactions between the
sample and the chemical in the sensing element will convert
itself into electrical signal (e.g. in milli volts, mV).

Output signal: The converted electrical signal usually in mV.

Example of a biomedical sensor:

A sensor for measuring the glucose concentration of a patient.

Pt electrode
Blood sample
Polyvinyl alcohol solution
V H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
i
Ag/AgCl Reference electrode

Working principle:

● The glucose in patient’s blood sample reacts with the O2 in the polyvinyl
alcohol solution and produces H2O2.

●The H2 in H2O2 migrates toward Pt film in a electrolysis process, and builds up

layers at that electrode.

●The difference of potential between the two electrodes due to the build-up of
H2 in the Pt electrode relates to the amount of glucose in the blood sample.
 Biosensors

These sensors work on the principle of interactions between the

biomolecules in the sample and the analyte (usually in solution)
in the sensor.

Signal transduction is carried out by the sensing element as shown

below:
ANALYTE

Biomolecule B
B Supply
Biomolecule Layer B B
Chemical
B B B B Optical
Output Thermal
Sensor
Signals Resonant
Electrochemical
ISFET (Ion Sensitive
Field Effect Transducer)
 Chemical Sensors

Work on simple principles of chemical reactions between the sample, e.g. ,O2
and the sensing materials, e.g., a metal.

Signal transduction is the changing of the physical properties of the sensing

materials after specific type of chemical reactions.

There are four (4) common types of chemical sensors:

(1) Chemiresistor sensors.

(2) Chemicapacitor sensors.
Chemically
Sensitive
Polyimide
Input current Output:
or voltage Metal Insert
Change of Resistance
Input Voltage Metal Electrodes Output:
Capacitance Change

Measurand Gas
 Chemical Sensors-Cont’d

(3) Chemimechanical sensors:

Work on certain materials (e.g. polymers) that change shapes when they
are exposed to chemicals. Measuring the change of the shape of the
sensing materials determines the presence of the chemical.

(4) Metal oxide gas sensors:

Sensing materials: certain semiconducting materials, e.g., SnO2 change
their electrical resistance when exposed to certain chemicals.

Measurand Gas

Electric Contact SnO2

SiO2
Silicon Substrate
 Chemical Sensors-Cont’d

Available metal oxide gas sensors:

Semiconducting Metals Catalyst Additives Gas to be Detected

BaTiO3/CuO La2O3, CaCO3 CO2

SnO2 Pt + Sb CO

SnO2 Pt Alcohols

SnO2 Sb2O3 H2, O2, H2S

SnO2 CuO H2S

ZnO V, Mo Halogenated hydrocarbons

WO3 Pt NH3

Fe2O3 Ti-doped + Au CO

Ga2O3 Au CO

MoO3 None NO2, CO

In2O3 None O3
 Optical Sensors
● These sensors are used to detect the intensity of lights.

● It works on the principle of energy conversion between the photons in

the incident light beams and the electrons in the sensing materials.

● The following four (4) types of optical sensors are available:

Photon Energy
Photon Energy
Semiconductor A
is more transparent R Semiconductor A

to photon energy in Junction

incident light
⇒ Semiconductor B ∆R

(a) Photovoltaic junction (b) Photoconductive device

Bias
Voltage Photon Energy
Photon Energy
Reverse _ R
Bias + p-Material
Voltage p n
Vout
n-Material Leads

(c) Photodiodes
 Optical Sensors-Cont’d

Photon Energy

Photon Energy
Collector p n p Emitter Collector p n p Emitter

Base Base

(d) Phototransistors

Silicon (Si) and Gallium arsenide (GaAs) are common sensing materials.
GaAs has higher electron mobility than Si- thus higher quantum efficiency.

Other materials, e.g. Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K) and
Rubidium (Rb) are used for this purpose.
 Pressure Sensors

● Micro pressure sensors are used to monitor and measure minute gas
pressure in environments or engineering systems, e.g. automobile intake
pressure to the engine.

● They are among the first MEMS devices ever developed and produced for
“real world” applications.

● Micro pressure sensors work on the principle of mechanical bending of

thin silicon diaphragm by the contact air or gas pressure.
Measurand
Fluid Inlet

Silicon Die
with
Diaphragm
Cavity Cavity
Constraint
Base

Measurand
Fluid Inlet

(a) Back side pressurized (b) Front side pressurized

 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d
● The strains associated with the deformation of the diaphragm are
measured by tiny “piezoresistors” placed in “strategic locations” on
the diaphragm.
R , R , R , R = Piezoresistors
1 2 3 4
● These tiny piezoresistors are made
from doped silicon. They work on
the similar principle as “foil strain
gages” with much smaller sizes (in
Metal Pad R 4 Metal Pad
R 3
R
µm), but have much higher
1
R 2

sensitivities and resolutions.

Top view of silicon die

R3 (+ve) R1(+ve)
Wire bond Piezoresistors
+
Metal film Vin a Vo
b
Dielectric layer
-
R2(-ve) R4(-ve)
Silicone gel

Silicon Metal
Diaphragm Die Casing
Attach
Pyrex Glass Wheatstone bridge for signal transduction
Constraining
Base or Metal ⎛ R1 R3 ⎞
Header
Vo = Vin ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
Passage for ⎝ 1
R + R 4 R 2 + R3 ⎠
Interconnect
Pressurized
Medium R1,R3 = resistance induced by longitudinal and transverse stresses
R2,R4 = reference resistors
 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d

● Other ways of transducing the deformation of the diaphragm to electronic

output signals are available, e.g.,

Metallic
Silicon Cover
Signal output: capacitance changes
Electrode
(for higher temperature applications)
A
C = εr εo
Metallic
Electrode
V
d
Silicon Die
εr = Relative permittivity = 1.0 with air
Cavity
Constraint εo = Permittivity in vacuum = 8.85 pF/m
Base A = Overlap area
D = Gap between plate electrodes
Measurand
Fluid Inlet
Diffused p-type Vibrating beam:
electrode (n-type Si wafer,40 µm wide
Silicon diaphragm x 600 µm long x 6 µm thick)
By resonant vibration 1200 µm sq.x 100 µm thick

(for higher resolutions) Silicon die

Signal output: Shift of (400 µm thick)
resonance frequencies by
change of stresses in lower
plate electrode by applied
pressure loading
Pressurized medium Constraint base
 Two Common Types of Micro Pressure Sensors
Sensors using piezoresistors:
• Small in size • Linear I/O relation • Temperature sensitive

Sensors using capacitances:

• Tends to be bulky • Suited for elevated temperature application
• Nolinear I/O relations • Lower cost

Nonlinear I/O with plate pressure sensors using electrodes

Electric circuit bridge for converting capacitance changes to voltage output:
∆C
Vo = Vin
2(2C + ∆C )
Variable
C capacitor 14
Change of Capacitance, pF

12
Vo Vin 10
8
C 6
C
4
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Gap, micrometer
 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d

● Major problems in pressure sensors are in the

system packaging and protection of the
diaphragm from the contacting pressurized
media, which are often corrosive, erosive,
and at high temperatures.
 Thermal Sensors

● Thermal sensors are used to monitor, or measure temperature in an

environment or of an engineering systems.

● Common thermal sensors involve thermocouples and thermopiles.

● Thermal sensors work on the principle of the electromotive forces (emf)

generated by heating the junction made by dissimilar materials (beads):
Metal Wire A
Heat
Heat Metal Wire A Cold
Junction i
i V Voltage Output
Hot
i i
Junction

Bead V
Metal Wire B Metal Wire B
Voltage Output

(a) A thermocouple (b) A dual junction thermocouple

The generated voltage (V) by a temperature rise at the bead (∆T) is:
V = β ∆T
where β = Seebeck coefficient
 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d

The Seebeck coefficients for various thermocouples are:

Type Wire Materials Seebeck Coefficient Range (oC) Range (mV)

(µV/oC)

E Chromel/Constantan 58.70 at 0oC -270 to 1000 -9.84 to 76.36

J Iron/Constantan 50.37 at 0oC -210 to 1200 -8.10 to 69.54

K Chromel/Alumel 39.48 at 0oC -270 to 1372 -6.55 to 54.87

R Platinum (10%)-Rh/Pt 10.19 at 600oC -50 to 1768 -0.24 to 18.70

T Copper/Constantan 38.74 at 0oC -270 to 400 -6.26 to 20.87

S Pt (13%)-Rh/Pt 11.35 at 600oC -50 to 1768 -0.23 to 21.11

Common thermocouples are of K and T types

 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d

Thermopiles are made of connecting a series of thermocouples in parallel:

Thermocouples

Hot Junction
Region, Th

Cold Junction
Region, Tc
∆V

The induced voltage (∆V) by the temperature change at the hot junction (∆T) is:

∆V = N β ∆T
with N = number of thermocouple pairs in the thermopile.
 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d
A micro thermal sensor:
3.6 mm

32 Thermocouples
● 32 polysilicon-gold thermocouples
16 µm wide

Cold Junction ● dimension of thermopile is:

Region 3.6 mm x 3.6 mm x 20 µm thick
3.6 mm

Hot
Junction
Region
● Typical output is 100 mV
Diaphragm: 1.6 mm dia
x 1.3 µm thick ● Response time is 50 ms

Top view

Hot Junction
Region
Thermocouples
20 µm

Silicon Rim
Diaphragm Support

Elevation
Working Principles for Microactuators
Power
Supply

Micro
Output Transduction
Actuating
Action Unit
Element

Power supply: Electrical current or voltage

Transduction unit: To covert the appropriate form of power supply

into the desired form of actions of the actuating
element

Actuating element: A material or component that moves with power

supply

Output action: Usually in a prescribed motion

 Actuation Using Thermal Forces

● Solids deform when they are subjected to a temperature change (∆T)

● A solid rod with a length L will extend its length by ∆L = α∆T, in which
α = coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) – a material property.

● When two materials with distinct CTE bond together and is subjected to a
temperature change, the compound material will change its geometry
as illustrated below with a compound beam:
Heat
α1 > α2
α1

α2

● These compound beams are commonly used as microswitches and relays

in MEMS products.
 Actuation Using Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

● SMA are the materials that have a “memory” of their original geometry (shape)
at a typically elevated temperature of production.

● These alloys are deformed into different geometry at typically room temperature.

● The deformed SMA structures will return to their original shapes when they are
heated to the elevated temperature at their productions.

● Ti-Ni is a common SMA.

● A microswitch actuated with SMA:

Shape Memory Alloy Strip
e.g. TiNi or Nitinolor
Resistance Heating Strip

Silicon Cantilever Beam

Constraint Base
 Actuation Using Piezoelectric Crystals

● A certain crystals, e.g., quartz exhibit an interesting behavior when subjected

to a mechanical deformation or an electric voltage.

● This behavior may be illustrated as follows:

Induced Mechanical
Mechanical Deformation
Forces

Applied Voltage, V
V

Mechanical force induced Electric voltage induced

electric voltage mechanical deformation

● This peculiar behavior makes piezoelectric crystals an ideal candidate for

microactuation as illustrated in the following case:
 Actuation Using Piezoelectric Crystals-Cont’d

A micro relay or microelectrical switch

Electrodes

V
Piezoelectric

Silicon Cantilever Beam

Constraint Base
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces

● Electrostatic Force between Two Particles – The Coulomb’s Law:

ce,
r A
n (with charge q)
i s ta on F
D c ti
a
At
tr
ionF
puls
Re
B
(with charge q’)

1 qq '
The attraction or repulsive force: F =
4πε r 2
where ε = permittivity of the medium between the two particles
= 8.85 x 10-12 C2/N-m2 or 8.85 pF/m in vacuum (= εo)
r = Distance between the particles (m)
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces-Cont’d

● Electrostatic Force Normal to Two Electrically Charged Plates:

Length, L

V
Gap, d
dt h, W
Wi

A WL
● The induced capacitance, C is: C = εr εo = εr εo
d d
● The induced normal force, Fd is:

1 ε r ε o WL 2
Fd = − 2
V
2 d
in which εr = relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the two plates
(see Table 2.2 for values of εr for common dielectric materials).
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces-Cont’d

● Electrostatic Force Parallel to Two Misaligned Electrically Charged Plates:

Fd
Fw

L FL
V d W

● Force in the “Width” direction:

1 εr εo L 2
Fw = − V
2 d
● Force in the “Length” direction:
1 εr εo W 2
FL = − V
2 d
 Applications of Microactuations

Microgrippers An essential component in microrobots in assembly microassemblies

and surgery

Two gripping methods:

Gripping Arms
Closing
The normal plate electrodes
V Electrodes the gap,d V - Not practical b/c requiring
more space.

The sliding plate electrodes

V V - Popular method. Can have
many sets to make “Comb drive”
actuators
Aligning the
electrodes,∆L
A Typical Microgripper with “Comb drive” Actuators:
400 µm

100 µm
Drive Arm

Arrangement of electrodes:
10 µm
V
rm
n sion A
E xte
Closure Arm

160
Drastic reduction in required
140
actuation voltage with increase
Required Voltage, v
120
of number of pairs of electrodes: 100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of Electrode Pairs
 Applications of Microactuations

A niche market in mobile telecommunications and

Miniature Microphones
intelligent hearing aides

Acoustic Wave Input dB = unit of noise level:

(air pressure wave)
dB→ MPa
⎛P⎞
Electrical signal output: dB = 20 log10 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Diaphragm:
≈ 1µm thick Backplate (≈2 µm)
⎝ Po ⎠
Air gap (≈2 µm)
∆C
where P = Air pressure (Pa)
Acoustic holes Po = Reference air pressure
at threshold sound level
Pressure equalization hole

Most microphones are designed for 20-80 dB in the frequency range of 150-1000 Hz

A major challenge in MEMS microphone design and manufacture is the packaging

and integration of MEMS and CMOS integrated circuits for signal conditioning
and processing
 Applications of Microactuations

Micromotors

Unlike traditional motors, the driving forces for micro motors is primarily the parallel
electrostatic forces between pairs of misaligned electrically charged plates
(electrodes), as will be demonstrated in the following two cases:

Linear stepping motors:

● Two sets of electrodes in the form of plates separated by dielectric material

(e.g. quartz film).
● One electrode set is fixed and the other may slide over with little friction.
● The two sets have slightly different pitch between electrodes
Pitch:
W w+w/3 Step Movements
W/3
Moving set A’ B’ C’ D’
electrodes:
Dielectric material
Fixed set
electrodes: A B C D
W W
 Applications of Micro Actuations-Cont’d
Pitch:
W w+w/3 Step Movements
W/3
Moving set A’ B’ C’ D’
electrodes:
Dielectric material
Fixed set
electrodes: A B C D
W W

● Energize the set A-A’ will generate a force pulling A’ over A due to initial misalignment.

● Once A and A’ are aligned, the pair B and B’ become misaligned.

● Energize the misaligned B-B’ will generate electrostatic force pulling B’ over B.

● It is now with C’ and C being misaligned.

● Energize C’ and C will produce another step movement of the moving set over the
stationary set.

● Repeat the same procedure will cause continuous movements of the moving sets

● The step size of the motion = w/3, or the size of preset mismatch of the pitch
between the two electrode sets.
 Applications of Micro Actuations-Cont’d
Rotary stepping motors:

● Involve two sets of electrodes- one set for the rotor and the other for the stator.
● Dielectric material between rotor and stator is air.
● There is preset mismatch of pitches of the electrodes in the two sets.
 Applications of Microactuations-Cont’d

● Working principle of this rotary motor is similar to that in linear motors.

A micro motor produced by Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center, Germany:

Rotor
Gear for
Stator transmitting
torque
Microvalves

● A special microvalve designed by Jerman in 1990.

● Circular in geometry, with diaphragm of 2.5 mm in diameter x 10 µm thick.
● The valve is actuated by thermal force generated by heating rings.
● Heating ring is made of aluminum films 5 µm thick.
● The valve has a capacity of 300 cm3/min at a fluid pressure of 100 psig.
● Power consumption is 1.5 W.

Electric Resistance
Heating Rings
Flexible Silicon Diaphragm INLET FLOW

Silicon
Base

Constraint Base

FLOW OUTLET
Centerline
Micropumps
Electrostatically actuated micropump:

● An electrostatic actuated pump in 1992.

● The pump is of square geometry with 4 mm x 4mm x 25 µm thick.
● The gap between the diaphragm and the electrode is 4 µm.
● Pumping rate is 70 µL/min at 25 Hz.
Deformable
Silicon
Diaphragm

Electrode V

Pumping Chamber
Inlet
Check
Valve

Outlet
Check
Valve Constraint
Base

Low Pressure High Pressure

Fluid Inlet Fluid Outlet
Piezoelectrically actuated pump:

● An effective way to pump fluid through capillary tubes.

● Tube wall is flexible.
● Outside tube wall is coated with piezoelectric crystal film, e.g. ZnO
with aluminum interdigital transducers (IDTs).
● Radio-frequency voltage is applied to the IDTs, resulting in mechanical
squeezing in section of the tube (similar to the squeezing of toothpaste)
● Smooth flow with “uniform” velocity profile across the tube cross section.
Piezoelectric coating
with transducer

Flow F V

Flexible Tube
Wall
 Micro Heat Pipes

Heat pipes = Closed systems that transport heat from heat source @ higher temperature to
heat sink @ lower temperature. They are often referred to as “Heat pumps.”
Micro heat pipes provide promising solution to effective heat dissipation in micro and molecular
electronics circuits as will be presented in Chapter 12.
● A pipe with triangular or trapezoidal
x-section (dp ≈ 100 µm) is in contacts with
heat source, e.g., IC and a heat sink, e.g.,
r c e i nk
Heat Sou Heat S ambient cool air with cooling air by a fan.
nser ● The pipe contains liquid, e.g., Ethanol
ec t ion Conde
Adiaba
tic S ● Liquid vaporizes near the heat source
● The vapor flows towards heat sink due to
ra to r
Evapo temperature difference
● The vapor condenses in the motion due to
drop in temperature
Cross-Sections
● Vapor turns into liquid near the heat sink
Heat ● The condensed liquid moves in the sharp
LIQUID Sink
corners towards the heat sink due to the
Heat capillary effect
VAPOR
Source ● The liquid vaporizes upon arriving at the
heat sink
Elevation ● The heat transport cycle repeats itself
as long as temperature differences
between the heat source and sink maintain.
 Microaccelerometers

● Accelerometers are used to measure dynamic forces associated

with moving objects.
● These forces are related to the velocity and acceleration of the moving
objects.
● Traditionally an accelerometer is used to measure such forces.
● A typical accelerometer consists of a “proof mass” supported by a spring and
a “dashpot” for damping of the vibrating proof mass:
The accelerometer is
attached to the vibrating
solid body

Spring
k

Mass
M Dashpot
with
damping
C
Vibrating
Solid Body
 Microaccelerometers-Cont’d
The accelerometer is
attached to the vibrating
solid body

● The instantaneous displacement of the mass

y(t) induced by the attached moving solid Spring
k

body is measured and recorded with respect Mass

to time, t. M Dashpot
with
damping
C
Vibrating
Solid Body
● The associated velocity, V(t) and the acceleration
α(t) may be obtained by the following derivatives:

dy (t ) dy (t ) d 2 y (t )
V (t ) = and α (t ) = =
dt dt dt 2
● The associated dynamic force of induced by the moving solid is thus obtained
by using the Newton’s law, i.e. F(t) = M α(t), in which M = the mass of the
moving solid.

♦ In miniaturizing the accelerometers to the micro-scale, there is no room for the

coil spring and the dashpot for damping on the vibrating mass.

♦ Alternative substitutes for the coil spring, dashpot, and even the proof mass
need to be found.
Microaccelerometers-Cont’d

● There are two types micro accelerometers available.

(1) The cantilever beam accelerometer:

Silicon Cantilever
Beam Piezoresistor

Casing Mass, M

Constraint Base
Constraint Base

Vibrating Base

In this design: Cantilever beam = coil spring;

Surrounding viscous fluid = dashpot for damping of the proof mass

The movement of the proof mass is carried out by the attached piezoresistor.
 Microaccelerometers-Cont’d

(2) Balanced force micro accelerometer:

● This is the concept used in the “air-bag” deployment sensor in automobiles

● In this design: Plate beam = proof mass;

Two end tethers = springs
Surrounding air = dashpot

Be
am
Mo
ve
me
Stationary nt
electrodes Ac
ce
Moving electrode ler
ati
o n

● The movement of the proof mass is carried out by measuring the change of
capacitances between the pairs of electrodes.
 Microgyroscopes

Gyroscope is a form of accelerometer that measures angular rotation rates.

The change of the rotational speed (Ω) of a solid can induce Coriolis force (Fc).
For a moving solid with a linear velocity v, any rotation at the rate Ω can be
related to the induced Coriolis force Fc by the following expression:
r r r Ω z z
Fc = 2mv x Ω x
y x V
Ω
Fc
y
where m = the mass of the y V
Fc y
moving solid x
x
z
z
The sense and direction of the (a) (b)
vectorial quantities in the above
expression are illustrated to the z Ω z
Ω
right x Fc x V
y y
● Gyroscopes can thus be used
y V y Fc
as compass in self-correction
x x
navigation systems for ships
z z
and aircraft, space crafts, and (d)
(c)
Segway human transport.
 Microgyroscope Structure

Microgyroscopes are attached to the moving solid structure.

Like microaccelerometers, microgyroscopes use comb-drive actuators and

beam or tether springs to actuate the motion of the proof mass, as well as
to sense and measure the rate of rotation of the gyroscope.
y
Gyro Frame x-Position
y-Spring for
Force
Measurements
Resonator
for Linear Motion
Generation
Proof x-Spring
x x
Mass

y-Position

The induced Colioris forces are used to self-regulate the navigation of the moving
structures.
MICROMACHINING
 Lithographic Process
• It is a traditional technique of
micromachining on silicon based on
lithographic approach, by etching and
deposing process used in microelectronics.
• Silicon wafers are machined with chemical or
physical etch and parts are realized layer by
layer from silicon wafer.
• This noncontact method is based on masking
and light exposure
Laser Micromachining

• Laser uses light radiation with high energy

as a machine tool.
• High precision can be achieved and material
removal is obtained by ablation.
• Ceramics and metal layers can be machined
with higher laser densities.
• Focused beam could allow real 3D shaping
by correct motion control
Micro Electronic Discharge (EDM)
Machining
• The erosive action of an electric discharge
between conductive tool and work piece is
used to remove material.
• Electro-thermal erosion creates small craters
in the piece during machining process.
• The tool shape is copied in the work piece
with a no contact system.
• EDM machining process is able to machine
both hard materials like steels and carbides
and semi conductors and conductive
ceramics
 Micro Ultrasonic Machining
• Micro ultrasonic machining is a process that
uses micro tool ultrasonic vibration to
create accurate holes in brittle materials
like silicon, glass and ceramics.
• Abrasive slurry is interposed between tool
and work piece and the tool is used as a
micro-mill to obtain drills or pattern on the
work piece surface.
• The vibrating tool impacts abrasive grains
into the work piece producing a mechanical
removal of the material
Mechanical Micromachining Technology
• Achieved by optimization of cutting process for micro-milling, turning and
grinding process for a wide range of materials
• Unwanted part of the work piece is removed by mechanical force through brittle
breakage. A high stress that causes breakage of material is applied to a very small
area or volume of the work piece. Extremely precise cutting machines with high
level of positioning accuracy are designed to perform milling, turning and
grinding in micro scale.
• Tool dimensions and cutting edge sharpness represents challenges in developing
this technology in micrometer scale
 cont..
• Mechanical machining because of removing the material by contact and chip
generation is linked with heat generation. The cutting fluid is used to prevent the
heat and keep the cutter sharp.
• The CAD/CAM process and 3D modeling can be used to create G-code program
for a mechanical micro machine using Computer Numerical Control (CNC) system.
An effective CNC support is required to machine curvilinear features and
sculptured 3D surfaces.
• Micro cutting processes are not just a miniaturization of the conventional cutting
technology, and requires an adjustment of the entire machining set-up and
process to implement this technology.