EARTH AND SCIENCE

Author

Jennylyn L. Bodota
SUMMARY;
1.1

The study of the solid materials of Earth, as well as geology, geophysics, geochemistry,
oceanography, meteorology, glaciology, and geobiology, is known as earth science. Geologists
study the composition, history, and processes of the Earth to shed light on environmental
dangers, natural resource availability, and environmental dynamics. While oceanography looks
into the physical characteristics, marine life, and interactions with the atmosphere of the Earth,
geophysics and geochemistry research the physical characteristics and processes of the planet.
Whereas glaciology studies the creation of glaciers and their effects on landscapes, meteorology
studies and forecasts weather events. The study of geobiology focuses on the relationships that
exist between living things and their surroundings.

Centuries have passed since the first rocks and fossils were observed, and geology has
developed since then. James Hutton put forth the uniformitarianism theory in the eighteenth
century, arguing that events on Earth happen gradually over time. The development of
stratigraphy and the identification of geological eras occurred in the 19th century. Charles
Darwin benefited from Charles Lyell's work, which advanced the notion of evolution. The
dynamic crust of Earth was explained by plate tectonics, which surfaced in the 20th century.
Geology today combines different fields of study to comprehend the past, present, and future of
Earth.

2.1

Eight planets make up our solar system: Neptune, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and
Uranus. The planets are grouped according to increasing separation from the Sun. These planets can be
further divided into the inner planets, also called the terrestrial (also rocky) planets, which are Mercury,
Venus, Earth, and Mars, and the outer planets, also known as the giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune). Jupiter and Saturn are categorized as gas giants, whereas Uranus and Neptune are
sometimes referred to as the ice giants.

The inner and outer planets are separated by the Asteroid Belt, an area composed of many asteroids
that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids are amorphous bodies that are little larger
than a few hundred kilometers. Although Pluto is now classified as a dwarf planet, it was once believed
to be a planet. Clued to be outside of Neptune's orbit, the Kuyper Belt is home to a number of small
planetary bodies that have been discovered recently. These have been called "dwarf planets."
2.2

The Nebular Hypothesis states that a vast, spinning cloud of gas and dust known as a nebula is where
our solar system formed. About 4.6 billion years ago, a triggering event—possibly a nearby supernova—
caused the nebula to collapse due to its own gravity. The nebula contracted and began to spin faster,
finally becoming a flat rotating disk. Most of the material gathered at the center to become the Sun,
while the remaining gas and dust in the disk aggregated into proto planetary bodies. These proto planets
eventually collided and accreted to become the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets that make up our
solar system. A generally acknowledged theory explaining the birth of our solar system is the Nebular
Hypothesis. "

Formation of the sun

The Sun formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago inside a huge, spinning cloud of gas and dust
known as a nebula through a process known as stellar nucleo synthesis. This nebula's core developed a
proto star as a result of gravitational collapse. The proto star's core temperature and pressure increased
as it absorbed more material, particularly hydrogen, which set off nuclear fusion events. The massive
quantity of energy generated during the fusion of hydrogen and helium ignited the Sun as a steady,
brilliant star. The gravitational attraction of the Sun cleared some of the residual debris in the vicinity and
contributed to the formation of the solar system.

Formation of the planets

About 4.6 billion years ago, a spinning disk of gas and dust encircling the young Sun gave rise to the
planets in our solar system. Smaller particles collided and combined to gradually become the many
planets that we see today.

2.3

About 4.6 billion years ago, as gas and dust gathered in the early solar system, Earth was born. As it
expanded, differentiation was caused by gravitational forces, separating materials based on their
densities. The densest materials sank to the core of the Earth to form the core, mantle, and crust.
Meanwhile, lighter internal gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor were released and
contributed to the early atmosphere. The two primary gases in the atmosphere today are nitrogen and
oxygen, however over time, various activities including volcanic activity changed the composition of the
atmosphere.

2.3.1

Earth’s internal structure

There are various strata that make up the Earth's inner structure. The lowest layer, the solid iron-nickel
core, is surrounded by the semi-fluid outer core. Above the core is the mantle, which is composed of
solid rock and has the potential to flow for long stretches of time. The outermost layer of the Earth is its
thin, solid crust, which is made up of the continents and seas. This layered structure is the result of
ongoing geological processes that have molded the dynamic nature of Earth's interior and the planet's
early diversification.
2.3.1

Earth’s atmosphere

The atmosphere of Earth is the mixture of gases that surrounds it. Life as we know it depends on the
atmosphere, which is mostly composed of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%) with trace
amounts of other gases. It is divided into multiple layers, the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere, each with distinct characteristics. The atmosphere facilitates life on Earth
by regulating temperature, providing oxygen for respiration, and protecting the planet from harmful
solar radiation. Human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels, has changed the composition and
climate of the atmosphere, raising concerns about the effects on the environment globally.

2.4

The moon

The Moon is the only naturally occurring satellite of Earth, measuring about one-sixth of the planet's
size. An asteroid the size of Mars hit with the early Earth approximately 4.5 billion years ago, causing
debris to eventually gather together to form the Moon. The lunar landscape is characterized by craters,
plains, and mountains. It has extreme temperature fluctuations and no discernible atmosphere. The
gravitational pull of the Moon and Earth causes tides. Humans touched down on the Moon during the
Apollo missions, providing crucial scientific information about the Moon's history and geology.

3.1

The Earth system is made up of the following interconnected sections of our planet: the atmosphere,
hydrosphere (water in all forms), lithosphere (solid Earth), biosphere (living creatures), and occasionally
the cryosphere (frozen components). Together, these components interact and influence one another to
form a complex, dynamic system. The water cycle, weathering, and plate tectonics are some of the
processes that shape the Earth system. The way humans interact with the environment and create
impediments has a significant impact on this system. Understanding the Earth system is necessary to
maintain life on the planet and solve environmental issues.

3.1.1

The interactions between various Earthly components that affect the planet's long-term weather
patterns and conditions are referred to as the climate system. The following are the main elements of
the climate system:

Atmosphere: the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth and includes nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and other gases. This layer is essential for controlling weather patterns and temperature.

Hydrosphere: every body of water on Earth, including groundwater, rivers, lakes, glaciers, and seas.
Climate patterns are influenced by the distribution and flow of water.

Cryosphere: This encompasses the icy elements of Earth, like glaciers, ice caps, and permafrost. The
regional climate and sea level are affected by cryosphere changes.
 The ocean bottom and the continents make up the lithosphere, or solid outer layer of the Earth. The
climate is influenced by long-term geological processes such as plate tectonics.
All life on Earth, including bacteria, plants, and animals, is comprised of the biosphere. In addition to
interacting with other elements, the biosphere helps regulate the composition of the atmosphere and
the cycling of carbon.
Changes in one can affect the others due to their interconnectedness, which can lead to variations in
climate patterns over a variety of timescales. Understanding the interactions that take place within the
climate system is essential to anticipating and adapting to climate change.

4.

Mineral’s rock’s elementary building block

The fundamental components of rocks are minerals, which naturally occur in the Earth's crust. Every
mineral has a unique crystalline structure and chemical makeup. There are three primary categories for
rocks, which are collections of minerals: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Earth's varied
landscapes and geological formations are a result of the variety of minerals and their combinations in
rocks. In order to comprehend the Earth's history, processes, and the environmental factors that shaped
its surface over time, geologists study minerals and rocks.

5.

Introduction to rocks

A mineral is a naturally occurring crystalline solid with a particular chemical makeup and unique
crystal structure. Roughly 150 common and 20 extremely frequent varieties of minerals have been
identified out of a little over 4000 unique types. The classification approach presented in Table 1 has
been used to categorize and relate the many thousands of known species of minerals to one another.
Mineralogists have identified nine different types of minerals, and each has a unique ionic structure. One
type of mineral makes up some mineral classes; oxides, for example, are made up of oxygen and one or
more metals.
In order to understand more about Earth's past, we analyze rocks. The genesis and development of
the terrestrial biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere over the previous 4.6 billion years
are all explained by the information found in rocks. The study of rocks is not just restricted to Earth. We
can discover more about the origins of the solar system by examining meteorites, which are rocks that
fall from the sky.

5.1

Three groups of rocks can be distinguished: (1) Igneous rocks are formed when cooling magma (molten
rock) solidifies. The rate of cooling affects the size of the mineral grains. Fine-grained igneous rocks are
extrusive igneous rocks that originate close to the Earth's crust's surface, where magma cools more
quickly. Where lava (more or less forcefully) reaches the surface is where volcanoes form. Volcanic glass
is created when the cooling pace is so high, such as when magma comes into contact with water or air,
that crystals may not even have time to form. Igneous rocks with coarse grains are called intrusive
igneous rocks because they originate inside the Earth's crust. They are the outcome of magma in the
crust slowly cooling. Magnesium bodies found in the crust are referred to as magmatic intrusions.

6.

Igneous rock

Together with sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, igneous rocks are one of the three main types of
rocks that make up the Earth's geology. Molten lava or magma that originates from the Earth's interior
solidifies and cools to form these rocks. In order to emphasize the fiery origin of these rocks, the name
"igneous" is derived from the Latin word "ignis," which means fire. The melting of pre-existing rocks in
the Earth's crust or mantle initiates the process of igneous rock creation. This molten substance can be
produced by a number of geological processes, including subduction, mantle upwelling, and the partial
melting of preexisting rocks. It is referred to as lava when it is on the surface and magma when it is
below the Earth's surface. The process of crystallization occurs when lava or magma cools and solidifies,
producing the mineral crystals that define igneous rocks.

Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks, one of the three primary types of rocks, comprise a fundamental class of
geological formations together with igneous and metamorphic rocks. One characteristic that sets
sedimentary rocks apart is their unique origin. They are created by the gradual deposition, compaction,
weathering, erosion, transportation, and cementation of organic and mineral particles originating from
previously formed rocks.

The physical and chemical weathering of parent rocks, which fragments the mineral components into
varying sizes, is the first step in the production of sedimentary rocks. These sediments, which vary from
clay and silt to sand, gravel, and larger particles, are moved by forces such as wind, water, ice, or gravity.
Deposition occurs in a range of sedimentary environments where sediments accumulate over time,
including riverbeds, lake bottoms, ocean floors, and other basins.

8.

Metamorphic rocks

Pre-existing rocks that experience changes in their mineral makeup and texture as a result of heat,
pressure, and chemically reactive fluids under the Earth's surface give rise to metamorphic rocks. An
essential part of the lithosphere, metamorphic rocks bear witness to the deep changes that take place
underneath the surface of the planet. In contrast to igneous rocks, which are formed from molten
magma, and sedimentary rocks, which change via the accumulation of sediments, metamorphic rocks go
through a process called metamorphism that is fueled by heat, pressure, and chemically reactive fluids
and results in changes in the mineral composition, texture, and structure. This paper explores the
complex mechanisms that lead to the creation of metamorphic rocks, the different categories they fall
under, and how important they are to understanding the planet's geological history.
9.

Age of rock

By measuring the decay of isotopes in minerals, a process known as radiometric dating, rocks can
reveal information about their age. Scientists can determine the age of rocks and hence contribute to the
understanding of Earth's geological past by examining the ratio between parent and daughter isotopes.

10.

Continents: structure and history

Continents are essential parts of Earth's lithosphere and have unique structures that have been
sculpted over millions of years by intricate geological processes. Mountain range development, plate
tectonics, and continental drift are just a few of the many events that have shaped the structure and
history of continents.

 Continental structure

Crustal Composition: The thick continental crust that covers most continents is less dense and more
granitic than the oceanic crust. There are many different types of rocks in this continental crust, such as
metamorphic, sedimentary, and granite rocks. Continental lithosphere is thicker than oceanic
lithosphere, which helps to explain why continents are topographically higher than sea level.

 Continental story

According to Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, continents formerly belonged to a

supercontinent known as Pangaea and then drifted to their present locations.

Plate Tectonics: A major geological activity that is essential to continental dynamics is the movement of
tectonic plates. Mountain ranges are created when continental crust collides and is raised as a result of
convergent plate boundaries. New crust is formed as a result of divergent plate borders, which are
frequently accompanied by rift valleys.

Mountain Building: Throughout the history of the continents, important mountain-building incidents
have occurred. For example, the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates led to the elevation of the
Tibetan Plateau and the formation of the Himalayas.

 Ecological evolution

Erosion and Sedimentation: Weathering and the movement of sediments sculpt the terrain as a
result of constant erosion processes that occur across continents. Basins receive the transfer of
sediments, which helps sedimentary rocks form.
Ice Ages: Glacial epochs, like the Pleistocene Ice Age, have carved out valleys and left behind signs of
glacial activity that have significantly altered continental landscapes.
Biological Evolution: The development of life is entwined with the history of continents. Continental
configurations and changes impact the distribution of species, the evolution of ecosystems, and the
creation of fossil records.

11

Simple organic compounds were the basis of life on Earth billions of years ago. Through processes
like the formation of cells, the growth of multicellular organisms, and the evolution of complex life
forms, life on Earth gradually evolved into diverse forms that eventually gave rise to the diversity of
species that we see today.

12

Origin and evolution of life (part 2)

Prokaryotes are most likely the earliest known form of life. Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound
organelle (an organelle is a specialized subunit of a cell) and have a more basic structure than eukaryotic
cells. Anaerobic prokaryotes, like this early prokaryote, must have been able to exist in the absence of
oxygen. Certain kinds of bacteria and archaea still perform anaerobic metabolism today.
I go over some of the key phases of life's history as well as the evidence from the geological record in the
text that follows.

12.1

The modern atmosphere's free oxygen (O2) was most likely first created by photosynthetic
prokaryotes resembling current cyanobacteria (the same microorganisms responsible for the production
of stromatolites, see chapter 7). The first clear-cut evidence of cyanobacteria in the geological record
may be found in Canadian rocks that date back 2.15 Ga. An earlier beginning is suggested by fossilized
stromatolites and microfossils dating to 3.5 Ga, although this is debatable (Fig. 1B). According to
geological and molecular evidence, anoxygenic photoautotrophs—organisms that perform
photosynthesis but do not create oxygen—and other forms of bacteria preceded the evolution of
cyanobacteria.

12.2

The eukaryotic cell: Predation is a novel means of obtaining carbon through direct feeding on living
matter, and it represents a significant evolutionary stride in the history of life. For this invention to work,
the cell's membrane must be flexible rather than rigid in order to swallow its prey. It's possible that giant
anaerobic bacteria consumed little aerobic bacteria, which eventually developed into a structural
component of larger cells, giving rise to the eukaryotic cell. It's possible that the smaller, aerobic bacteria
used the organic compounds made by their host to thrive inside the bigger cells.