BS Political Science

2nd Semester
Islamic Studies
Muhammad Shoban
Today’s course contents:
Historical Phases
Abbasids Rule
o Who were the Abbasids?
o Who Founded the Abbasids Dynasty?
o Different periods of the Abbasid Caliphate
o Significance of the Abbasids Empire
o Decline and fall of the Abbasids Empire
Ottomans Empire
o Introduction of Ottomans Empire?
o Some Notable Leaders of Ottoman Empire
o Significance of the Ottomans Empire
o The decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire:
Who were the Abbasids?
The Abbasids were a dynasty of caliphs who ruled the Islamic world from 750 to
1258 CE i.e. from 132 AH to 656 AH. They succeeded the Umayyad dynasty and
established their capital in Baghdad, which became a center of learning, culture,
and trade during their rule. The Abbasids claimed descent from Abbas ibn Abd al-
Muttalib, an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH. Their rule marked a golden
age for Islamic civilization, with significant advancements in various fields such as
science, philosophy, literature, and art.
Who Founded the Abbasid Dynasty?
The Abbasid dynasty was founded by Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah, who was the leader
of the Abbasid Revolution against the Umayyad Caliphate. As-Saffah declared
himself the first caliph of the Abbasid dynasty after the decisive Battle of the Zab
in 750 CE, where the Abbasid forces defeated the Umayyad army. This victory
marked the beginning of Abbasid rule and the end of the Umayyad dynasty.
Different periods of the Abbasid Caliphate:
Abbasids caliphate is divided into three main periods:
Early Abbasid era (750–861),
Middle Abbasid era (861–936)
Later Abbasid era (936–1258).
A cadet branch of the dynasty also ruled as ceremonial rulers for the Mamluk
Sultanate as Caliph (1261–1517), until their conquest by the Ottoman Empire
Early Abbasid era (750–861)
The first era of the Abbasid Caliphate, also known as the "Golden Age of
Islam," was marked by significant cultural, scientific, and economic
advancements.
Under the Abbasid rule, Baghdad emerged as a thriving center of learning and
culture. The caliphs, particularly during the reign of Harun al-Rashid and his
successors, were patrons of the arts, sciences, and philosophy. They established
the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), a renowned institution for translating and
preserving ancient texts from Greek, Persian, and other cultures. This translation
movement facilitated the transfer of knowledge from ancient civilizations to the
Islamic world, contributing to advancements in various fields such as medicine,
astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy.
Abu'l-Abbas al-Saffah was the first caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate. Abu Ja'far
Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur, the second Abbasid Caliph. Al-Mahdi third
Abbasid caliph (r. October 775 – 24 July 785) was the most influential Abbasid
Caliph. He also promoted Art and science in the Islamic Caliphate.
Al-Hadi, (r. 785–786) was an Abbasid caliph. He was very open with the people
of his empire and allowed citizens to visit him in the palace at Baghdad to
address him. As such, he was considered an enlightened ruler.
 Harun al-Rashid, fifth Abbasid caliph (r. 786–809) rule is traditionally regarded
to be the height of Islamic Golden Age's power. He established the legendary
library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom") in Baghdad and during his rule
Baghdad began to flourish as a world center of knowledge, culture and trade.
Al-Amin, (r. 809–813) sixth Abbasid caliph, son of Harun al-Rashid
and Zubaidah.
Al-Ma'mun, (r. 813–833) was an Abbasid caliph, he was well educated and
with a considerable interest in scholarship, al-Ma'mun promoted the
Translation Movement, he was also an astronomer.
Al-Mu'tasim, (833–842) was an Abbasid caliph, patron of the art and a
powerful military leader.
Al-Wathiq, (r. 842–847) was an Abbasid caliph, he was well educated and with
a considerable interest in scholarship.
Al-Mutawakkil, (r. 847–861) was the tenth Abbasid caliph, under his reign the
Abbasid Empire reached its territorial height.
Middle Abbasid era (861–936)
The Middle Abbasid era (861–936) was not without challenges. Internal strife,
including conflicts between rival factions and sectarian tensions, often
destabilized the caliphate. Additionally, external threats, such as incursions by
the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Buyids, a Persian dynasty that seized
control of Baghdad in 945 CE, further weakened Abbasid authority.
Overall, the Middle Abbasid era was a period of dynamic change and cultural
achievement, marked by both political fragmentation and intellectual
flourishing. While the Abbasid Caliphate faced challenges to its authority, it
continued to serve as a center of learning and cultural exchange, leaving a
lasting legacy that influenced the course of world history.
Middle Abbasid era starts with the era of Al-Mu'tamid Abbasid caliph from 871
to 892. Talha al-Muwaffaq was the Abbasid military leader and father of
caliph al-Mu'tadid.
Al-Muqtadir, the eighteenth Abbasid caliph, who ruled from 908 to 932.
 Al-Radi, the Abbasid caliph from 936 to 940.
Later Abbasid era (936–1258)
The Later Abbasid era, spanning from 936 to 1258 CE, was a period of
significant transition and decline for the Abbasid Caliphate. This era witnessed
the gradual weakening of Abbasid authority, marked by internal strife, external
invasions, and the rise of regional powers.
Al-Qadir was influential caliph of later Abbasid era.Muhammad ibn al-Qa'im,
11th-century Abbasid prince, son of al-Qa'im and father of Al-Muqtadi. Al-
Muqtafi, ruled from 1136 to 1160.
Al-Nasir continued the efforts of his grandfather al-Muqtafi in restoring the
caliphate to its ancient dominant role and achieved a surprising amount of
success as his army even conquered parts of Iran. According to the historian,
Angelika Hartmann, al-Nasir was the last effective Abbasid caliph.
Al-Musta'sim last Abbasid caliph of Baghdad.
Significance of the Abbasid Empire
The Abbasid Caliphate holds significant historical and cultural importance for
several reasons:
1. Golden Age of Islam: The Abbasid Caliphate is often referred to as the
"Golden Age of Islam" due to its remarkable achievements in various fields
such as science, philosophy, literature, art, and architecture. During this
period, scholars from diverse backgrounds contributed to significant
advancements in knowledge and culture, preserving and building upon the
intellectual heritage of ancient civilizations.
2. Cultural Exchange and Translation Movement: The Abbasid Caliphate
facilitated a vibrant cultural exchange between different regions and
civilizations. The translation movement, centered in cities like Baghdad,
played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting knowledge from Greek,
Persian, Indian, and other traditions into Arabic, contributing to the
enrichment of Islamic civilization.
 3. Centers of Learning: Cities like Baghdad, Samarra, and Cordoba became
renowned centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and
intellectuals from across the Islamic world and beyond. Institutions such as
the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah) in Baghdad played a pivotal role in
advancing scholarship and disseminating knowledge.
4. Development of Islamic Law and Jurisprudence: The Abbasid era saw
significant developments in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and legal theory
(usul al-fiqh), as scholars worked to interpret and apply Islamic principles to
a wide range of social, political, and ethical issues. This period laid the
foundations for the diverse schools of Islamic thought that continue to
influence Muslim societies today.
5. Political and Administrative Innovations: The Abbasid Caliphate introduced
administrative reforms and centralized governance structures that
influenced subsequent Islamic empires and states. The caliphs established a
system of viziers, governors, and tax collectors to administer their vast
territories, contributing to the stability and organization of the empire.
6. Spread of Islam: The Abbasid Caliphate played a crucial role in the spread
of Islam through conquest, trade, and missionary activities. As the political
and cultural center of the Islamic world, the caliphate helped disseminate
Islamic values, beliefs, and practices across vast regions of Asia, Africa, and
Europe.
7. Legacy of Art and Architecture: The Abbasid period witnessed the
construction of magnificent architectural marvels, including mosques,
palaces, and libraries, which reflected the caliphate's cultural and artistic
achievements. Examples include the Great Mosque of Samarra and the
Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, which continue to inspire awe and
admiration today.
Overall, the Abbasid Caliphate's legacy encompasses its contributions to
intellectual, cultural, and scientific progress, its role in shaping Islamic civilization,
and its enduring impact on the development of world history.

Decline and fall:

 The decline and fall of the Abbasid dynasty, once a pinnacle of Islamic
civilization and learning, unfolded over centuries of internal strife, external
invasions, and economic decline. Beginning in the 9th century, internal
conflicts, including struggles for succession and the rise of regional governors,
weakened central authority and led to the fragmentation of the empire.
Concurrently, external pressures from Turkic invasions, such as those by the
Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and the Mongol conquests in the 13th
century, further destabilized Abbasid rule. The sacking of Baghdad by the
Mongols in 1258 dealt a fatal blow to the Abbasid Caliphate, marking the end
of their political power, although symbolic remnants of their authority
persisted for several more centuries.

Introduction of Ottomans Empire:

The Ottoman Empire was one the most successful empires and one of the most
powerful civilizations of the modern period, it had many sultans that conquered
many lands throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. The empire built was the most
influential and the largest of the many Muslim empires. Their military and culture
expanded over and into most of Europe. The Ottoman Empire spanned three
continents and six centuries.
Osman I, also known as Osman Bey or Osman Gazi was the founder of this
empire. Osman was a Turkish tribal leader who lived in the late 13th and early
14th centuries in northwest Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).
Osman's leadership and military conquests laid the foundations for what would
later become the Ottoman Empire. The early Ottoman state expanded under his
rule, and his successors continued to expand their territory, eventually
establishing one of the most powerful and enduring empires in history. Osman's
descendants, known as the Ottoman Sultans, ruled over vast territories in
Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa for over six centuries, until the
empire's dissolution in the early 20th century.
Some Notable Leaders of Ottoman Empire:
The Ottoman Empire was ruled by a succession of sultans throughout its
existence. Some of the most notable sultans include:
1. Osman I (reigned c. 1299–1326) - Founder of the Ottoman dynasty and the
namesake of the empire.
2. Mehmed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror (reigned 1444–1446,
1451–1481) - Conqueror of Constantinople in 1453, which marked the end
of the Byzantine Empire.
3. Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 1520–1566) - Oversaw the height of
Ottoman power, expanding the empire into Europe and presiding over a
flourishing of culture and the arts.
4. Selim I (reigned 1512–1520) - Known for expanding Ottoman territory into
the Middle East and North Africa, including the conquest of Egypt and the
Holy Cities of Islam.
5. Murad I (reigned 1362–1389) - Notable for expanding Ottoman territory
into the Balkans and establishing a firm foundation for the empire.
6. Abdul Hamid II (reigned 1876–1909) - The last absolute monarch of the
Ottoman Empire, faced with the challenges of modernization and
increasing European influence.
These are just a few examples, as the Ottoman Empire spanned several centuries
and saw many rulers, each contributing to its history and legacy
Significance of the Ottoman Empire:
The Ottoman Empire held immense significance both historically and culturally:
1. Geopolitical Influence: At its height, the Ottoman Empire controlled vast
territories spanning three continents - Europe, Asia, and Africa. It served as
a crucial bridge between the East and the West, connecting the
 Mediterranean world with the Islamic heartlands of the Middle East and
North Africa.
2. Cultural Exchange: The Ottoman Empire was a melting pot of diverse
cultures, religions, and ethnicities. It fostered a rich cultural exchange
between different peoples, leading to the synthesis of artistic, architectural,
and culinary traditions from various regions.
3. Economic Power: The Ottomans controlled key trade routes between
Europe and Asia, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and
technologies. Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) served as a major
economic hub, attracting merchants from around the world.
4. Islamic Caliphate: The Ottoman sultans also held the prestigious title of
Caliph, making them the spiritual leaders of the Sunni Muslim world. This
gave the empire considerable influence within the Islamic community and
allowed it to shape religious and political developments in the Muslim
world.
5. Legacy of Law and Administration: The Ottoman Empire developed a
sophisticated system of governance, with a centralized bureaucracy and
legal framework. Many aspects of Ottoman administration, such as the use
of viziers and provincial governors, influenced subsequent empires and
states.
6. Military Innovations: The Ottomans were renowned for their formidable
military prowess, employing innovative tactics and technologies. Their use
of gunpowder weaponry, such as cannons and muskets, revolutionized
warfare in the region and beyond.
7. Enduring Impact: Although the empire officially ended in the early 20th
century, its legacy continues to shape the modern Middle East and Balkans.
The borders established by the Ottomans still influence geopolitics in the
region, and their cultural heritage remains an integral part of the identity of
many countries that were once part of the empire.

The decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire:

The decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire was precipitated by a combination of
internal weaknesses and external pressures. Military defeats against European
powers, economic stagnation, and internal dissent fueled by nationalist
movements eroded the empire's strength. Attempts at reform to modernize the
state proved insufficient, and the empire's vast size made governance increasingly
challenging. European imperialism and the rise of nationalist sentiments among
various ethnic and religious groups further undermined Ottoman authority. World
War I exacerbated these issues, leading to the empire's partition by Allied powers
and the establishment of modern nation-states in its former territories. The
abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1922 marked the end of over six centuries
of Ottoman rule.