Introduction

At the forefront of the history of personality and individual differences stands Sir

Francis Galton (1869). Galton's pivotal role in the history of personality and individual

differences arises from his deep understanding of Darwin's theory of evolution (1859) by

natural selection. He recognized that Darwin's theory can be distilled into two main concepts:

firstly, that all populations of organisms possess inheritable variations of significance, and

secondly, that the varying effectiveness of these variations in coping with the challenges of

survival and reproduction leads to a selective process (Marsh & Boag, 2013). These

principles laid the foundation for understanding individual differences, which encompass the

unique and relatively stable psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another,

shaping their distinct identities. Key examples of such differences include intelligence,

personality traits, and values (Coulacoglou & Saklofske, 2017).

In accordance with APA, the term personality encompasses the enduring attributes,

characteristics and behaviors that define a person's unique way of adapting to life. These

attributes include essential traits, motives, values, self perception, abilities, and emotional

tendencies. Many theories explain the structure and development of personality, yet they all

agree that personality affects behavior. Psychologists have offered varied definitions of

personality. In line with R.B. Cattell's (1950) perspective, "Personality is that which permits a

prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”. As per Allport (1961), "Personality

is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that

determine his unique adjustment to his environment."

Despite multiple explanations, two primary perspectives prevail. The first emphasizes

enduring differences between individuals, focusing on classifying and explaining stable

psychological traits. The second highlights common human qualities that set them apart from
other species, urging theorists to identify universal patterns and explore factors shaping life

paths (Holzman, 2024).

Theoretical Concepts

Personality theories encompass a diverse range of perspectives. Psychodynamic

theories, based on Freud's concepts, emphasize the tripartite self and the role of early

childhood experiences. Trait theories focus on shared personality traits with variations,

exemplified by Allport's numerous traits, later condensed by Cattell and Eysenck, and

summarized in Fiske's Big Five theory. Biological theories highlight physiological influences

like brain structure. Behavioral theories explore how environmental rewards and punishments

shape personality through conditioning. Humanistic theories underscore self-perception,

basic needs fulfillment, and the pursuit of self-actualization, as highlighted by Carl Rogers.

These theories collectively provide insights into the complex nature of personality

development and expression.

Personality Disorders

Temperament classification dates back to ancient Greece, with Hippocrates proposing

the humoral theory that persisted until the 20th century. Emil Kraepelin later refined this

concept by classifying manic depressive patients into depressive, hypomanic, or irritable

categories. These classifications evolved into the seven personality disturbances recognized in

the DSM1 (1952), which were further expanded in the DSM II (1968) to distinguish

personality disruptions from neuroses. Subsequently, psychiatric conceptualization shifted

towards a categorical model, culminating in the recognition of eleven personality disorders in

the DSM III (1980), which were condensed to ten in the DSM IV (1994). The potential

integration of the dimensional five factor model with psychoanalytic typological models was

considered during the development of the DSM 5 (2013), but ultimately, the classification
remained unchanged. The resulting ten disorders are organized into three clusters (Fariba,

2023).

Meaning and Definition

According to DSM V, a personality disorder refers to a consistent and rigid pattern of

thoughts, emotions, and actions that significantly diverges from cultural norms, persists

across various situations, typically emerges during adolescence or early adulthood, remains

relatively stable over time, and causes distress or functional impairment. Personality disorders

are categorized into three clusters based on similarities in their descriptions. Cluster A

comprises paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders, characterized by

individuals who often exhibit odd or eccentric behaviors. Cluster B consists of antisocial,

borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders, where individuals tend to display

dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors. Cluster C includes avoidant, dependent, and

obsessive compulsive personality disorders, with individuals often demonstrating anxious or

fearful behaviors.

The exact cause of personality disorders remains uncertain, but it is theorized that a

combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors, particularly childhood

trauma, may play significant roles. Even so, personality disorders may manifest during

adolescence or early adulthood, with symptoms varying depending on the particular type of

disorder, children and adolescents cannot be diagnosed with a personality disorder (Carey,

2021).

However, for a diagnosis to be established, the behaviors and emotions must

consistently manifest across various life situations. Additionally, they should result in

considerable distress and impairment in at least two of the following domains (Carey, 2021):

1. Self Perception and interpretation of oneself and others.

 2. Interactions and behaviors when engaging with others.

3. Appropriateness of emotional reactions.

4. Ability to manage impulses effectively.

Prevalence of Personality Disorders

According to DSM V (2013), prevalence estimates for the various clusters indicate

rates of 5.7% for Cluster A disorders, 1.5% for Cluster B disorders, 6.0% for Cluster C

disorders, and an overall prevalence of 9.1% for any personality disorder, indicating common

co occurrence of disorders across different clusters.

As per a global systematic review and metaanalysis regarding the occurrence of

personality disorders in community settings, it was discovered that the overall pooled

prevalence of any personality disorder was 7.8%, with rates higher in high income countries

(9.6%) compared to low and middle income countries (4.3%) (Winsper et al., 2019).

Gupta and Mattoo (2010) revealed that personality disorders were present in 1.07% of

the population surveyed in North India. The prevalent personality disorders were anxious,

avoidant and borderline, with the borderline group notably younger (mean age 24.44 vs.

29.66 years) and comprising a higher percentage of females (60% vs. 27.1%).

Personality Testing

The earliest method of personality assessment, called Phrenology (18th19th century),

involved measuring and examining bumps on the skull to determine an individual’s specific

personality traits. Later, psychologists aimed to define the range of personality traits. Gordon

Allport suggested over 4,000, which Raymond Cattell reduced to 16 using factor analysis,

and Hans Eysenck to three. The Big Five theory now dominates, identifying five broad

dimensions of personality: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and

openness. Personality tests come in two main types: self report inventories and projective
tests. Self Report inventories require test takers to rate how well statements apply to them,

while projective tests prompt interpretations of vague scenes or scenarios (Cherry, 2023).

Mentioned below are the types of assessment techniques used for personality testing.

Objective Techniques

Objective assessment techniques of personality encompass various personality

inventories. A personality inventory is a written questionnaire containing a series of

statements or inquiries related to human behavior. These questions adhere to a standardized

format and necessitate specific responses such as ‘agree’, ‘disagree’, ‘yes’, ‘no’, etc. Due to

the requirement for closed-ended responses, these evaluations tend to be objective in nature

(G Sarason, 2023).

Some common examples of personality inventory are: Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1993), the California Psychological Inventory (Gough,

1995) and the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (Cattell, 1994) are some other

common personality tests, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (1962), Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory (Hathaway & McKinley, 1939), etc.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques involve presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli, such as

shapes or pictures, and soliciting their interpretations. Projective techniques are distinguished

broadly as the following (G Sarason, 2023).

● Associative methods: Subjects respond spontaneously to words, inkblots, or other

prompts with immediate associations, example: rorschach inkblot test.

● Construction methods: Involving tasks like storytelling or self portrait drawing,

example: thematic apperception test.

 ● Completion tasks: Subjects finish a partially provided stimulus, like completing a

sentence, example sentence completion test.

● Expressive techniques: Encourages free expression, example finger painting.

Semi Projective Techniques

While projective tests lack structure, semi-projective tests are partially structured,

often involving tasks such as sentence completion, storytelling, or word association. For

example: sentence completion test, Rosenweig picture frustration, and drawing a person (G

Sarason, 2023).

Available Assessment Tools

There are a wide range of alternative semi projective assessments available. However,

semi projective tests cannot be interpreted in isolation. Semi projective techniques are usually

preceded by an objective test (16PF, MBTI , MMPI etc) and are followed up by Projective

Technique (TAT, Rorschach etc). This protocol has been developed to ensure that the

unconscious can reveal itself to a great extent with limited interference from the defense

mechanisms. The following are two widely used semi projective techniques:

● Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study (PFS): The Rosenzweig Picture Frustration

Study (PFS) was developed by Saul Rosenzweig in 1948 (Rosenzweig, 1948 as cited

in Watson, 1951).The Rosenzweig PFS is available in both child (4-13) and adult

(14-90) versions. Individuals are presented with a series of pictures depicting

ambiguous and potentially frustrating scenarios between two people. Each person has

a dialogue box above them. Participants are then asked to narrate a story or describe

the emotions and reactions of the characters in each picture and write what the likely

conversation would be. This narrative approach allows the clinician to gain insights
 into the individual's coping mechanisms, emotional regulation, and responses to

ambiguous scenarios.

● Draw A Person (DAP) Test: The Draw A Person (DAP) Test was conceptualized by

Florence Goodenough in 1926, (Goodenough, 1926 as cited in Short et al, 2011) The

Draw A Person Test is adaptable and can be employed across a broad age range, from

around 5 years old. It has become widely used for assessments concerning Intellectual

maturation in children, eliciting personality types and understanding unconscious

material (Goodenough, 1926). Additionally, the DAP Test can be used to assess self

perception, interpersonal dynamics and body image (Handelzalts and Cohen, 2014).

In this test, individuals are asked to draw a person, either themselves or someone else.

Clinicians analyze details such as size, placement, and features in the drawings.

About The Test

Development of the Sacks Sentence Completion Test

The sentence completion test was developed by Joseph M. Sacks and other

psychologists of the New York Veterans Administration Mental Hygiene Service in the

1950s. The Sentence Completion. Sack's team of psychologists and researchers meticulously

crafted a pool of sentence stems that covered a broad spectrum of psychological domains.

These stems were designed to elicit responses that could reveal underlying cognitive

processes, emotional states, and interpersonal dynamics. The iterative development process

involved refining and selecting sentence stems based on pilot testing, expert feedback, and

theoretical considerations.

Test was developed as a variant of the word association method. The complete test

consists of sixty items, of which four represent each of fifteen attitudes. The test was

constructed in the following manner ( Sack et al., 1950):

 Twenty clinical psychologists were asked to submit three sentence completion items,

purporting to elicit significant attitudes in each of these categories. To these were added items

culled from the literature on sentence completions. In this way :Eighty items were obtained.

They ranged in number from fourteen to twenty eight items per category. For example,

nineteen items were listed for attitude toward mother, twenty two items for attitude toward

father, and so on. The twenty psychologists were then requested to select in each category the

four items they considered best suited to elicit significant attitudes in that category. The items

chosen most frequently became the final test items.

Validity became a focal point during the development process. The content validity of

the Sack's Sentence Completion Test was established by ensuring that the sentence stems

adequately represented the intended psychological constructs. Concurrent validity was

addressed through comparisons with existing psychological measures to demonstrate the

test's ability to capture and assess similar constructs (Holaday et al., 1999).

In conclusion, the development of the Sack's Sentence Completion Test was a

comprehensive and systematic process that integrated theoretical frameworks, empirical

research, and ethical considerations. The resulting instrument stands as a testament to the

commitment to creating a reliable, valid, and ethically sound psychodiagnostic tool, providing

clinicians with a valuable means to explore the complexities of the human psyche.

Test Description

The sentence completion test designed to obtain significant clinical material in four

representative areas of adjustment. The four areas covered by that test are family, sex,

interpersonal relationships, and self concept.

It is felt that the items included in these areas present the subject with sufficient

opportunities to express his attitudes so that a clinical psychologist may infer his dominant
personality trends. Such information is useful in screening patients for therapy, and it offers

the therapist significant clues to the content and dynamics of the patient's attitudes and

feelings. The family area includes three sets of attitudes, those toward mother, father, and

family unit.

The sex area includes attitudes toward women and toward heterosexual relationships.

The area of interpersonal relationships includes attitudes toward friends and acquaintances,

colleagues at work or school, superiors at work or school and people supervised. Self-concept

involves fears, guilt feelings, goals, and attitudes toward one's own abilities, past, and future (

Sack et al., 1950).

Administration

The SSCT by (Sack et al., 1950) can be administered individually or to groups, and

requires from twenty to forty minutes. The subject is asked to read the following instructions

and to ask any questions he may have about them.

Instructions:

The following instructions are to be addressed to the participant prior to the study:

"Below are sixty partly completed sentences. Read each one and finish it by writing the first

thing that comes to your mind. Work as quickly as you can. If you cannot complete an item,

circle the number and return to it later."

Scoring

A Rating Scale has been devised for the SSCT (Sack et al., 1950) which brings

together 4 main domains - self-concept, interpersonal relationships, family, and sex, followed

by 15 categories with 3 subdomains under family (attitude towards father, mother, and family

unit, 2 subdomains under sex (attitude towards women and heterosexual relationships), 4

subdomains under interpersonal relationships (attitude towards friends and acquaintances,

friends and acquaintances, people supervised, and colleagues at work or school), and lastly, 6

subdomains under self concept (fears, guilt feelings, attitude toward own abilities, attitude

towards past, attitude toward future, and goals. On the basis of your clinical judgment, taking

into account such factors as inappropriate responses, sys-phoric references, and

manifestations of conflict, rate the SSCT responses of the subject in 15 categories listed

below, according to the following scale:

Table 1

Protocol for Scoring of the responses

Serial Number Response Scoring

1 Severely disturbed 2

2 Mildly disturbed 1

3 No Significant Disturbance 0

noted

4 Insufficient evidence X

This method of rating four responses together differs from the procedures used by

Tendler, Rotter and Willerman and others who have employed the sentence completion

technique. The traditional method has been to rate individual responses and to arrive at a final

rating of adjustment by addition of the individual ratings. The author of the SSCT feels that it

is more desirable simply to point out areas of disturbance and to determine these through a

constellation of responses. The validity of the rating is dependent, of course, upon the clinical

background and acumen of the examiner as well as upon the material produced by the
subject. For those who have little experience with this method, an example of interpretations

and ratings is presented in the following domains.

Interpretation

The four responses are considered together and an Interpretative Summary is made

that crystallizes the clinician's impression of the subject's attitude in this area. In this case the

summary stated: "Extreme hostility and contempt with overt death wishes."

Following the summaries and ratings of the individual attitudes, an outline is

presented for a General Summary of the SSCT findings. This includes the following:

1. A statement of those areas in which the subject shows the most disturbed attitudes.

This may provide significant clues for the therapist.

2. A description of the interrelationships between attitudes with respect to content. This

often illuminates dynamic factors in a case.

For example, subject No. 1 described his mother as "too nervous" and "percy”. He

thinks that most mothers "have too much of a liking for their children and spoil them." He

feels that his family is "all right," but they treat him like a "little ben." He is extremely hostile

to women whom he considers "un-trustworthy and untruthful." He is cautious about marriage

"It's good if everything is worked out beforehand." He considers his father a good man, but

wishes he would stop being so “stubborn”. He is somewhat contemptuous of super superiors.

He does not like people who are petty. His most vivid childhood memory is of “wrongs done

to me." He is afraid of himself, and when the odds are against him, he quits. Yet he believes

he has the ability to "do anything." His attitude toward the future is superficial and somewhat

unrealistically optimistic. Some day he expects "to make a million."

Corroborating Evidence with other Projective Techniques

 The degree of structuring of a projective stimulus field usually affects the significance

of the response in terms of personality description. ion. Thus the Rorschach ink blots may

bring out modes and patterns of reaction which tell us a great deal about the subject's basic

personality structure. TAT pictures may elicit material related to the dynamics of the subject's

problems. The SSCT may reflect conscious, preconscious, or unconscious thinking and

feeling. Consideration of the material obtained from various techniques gives us a more

rounded picture of the personality than we can obtain from any one technique (L Sack et al.,

1950).

Methodology

Tools and Materials

SCT booklet
Pencil
SCT Manual for scoring
Notebook (for Observation Report)

Socio-Demographic Details
Name- AM
Date of Birth- 22 May 2001
Age- 23 years
Sex- Female
Religion: Christian
Education: Pursuing Master’s degree
Occupation: Student
Address- Nirvana Country, Gurgaon
Preliminary Set-Up
The set-up was in a quiet, well-lit room. The participant was made to sit opposite of
the administrator. The questionnaire was kept on hand and a bottle of water was kept on the
table. The room was ensured to be conducive to a smooth administration with minimal
distractions. The participant was briefed about the test. All doubts and questions were
answered. After making sure the participant was clear with the instructions, verbal informed
consent was obtained, after which the administration commenced.

Procedure
The assessment began with a brief introduction to the purpose of Sack’s Sentence
Completion Test (SCT). The participant was provided with information about the nature of
the assessment, and verbal consent was obtained before proceeding. The participant was
ensured a comfortable and quiet environment to minimise distractions during the assessment.
Any questions or concerns raised by the participant were addressed at this stage. A brief
overview of the participant's demographics, medical history, and relevant background
information was collected to contextualise the semi-projective assessment, post which the test
commenced. Clear and concise instructions were provided and the participant was briefed
about the importance of their answers’ promptness. The client was encouraged to ask
questions and seek clarification as needed before initiating each task. A stopwatch was used
to keep track of time.

Instructions
After the rapport was established, the participant was handed the form, and was given
the following instructions, “You will see a list of sixty partly completed sentences. Read each
one and finish it by writing the first thing that comes to mind. Work as quickly as you can. If
you cannot answer an item, circle the number and return it later. There are no write or wrong
answers so please respond with whatever is the first answer that comes to you.”

Precautions

1. The participant should be comfortable.

 2. Before beginning the test, the participant should be properly briefed about the test.
3. It should be made sure that the room is well-illuminated, quiet, and has proper
ventilation.
4. The participant must be briefed about answering as promptly as possible in order to
avoid social desirability in answers.

Result Table

Domain Sub Domain Score Interpretation

Family Mother 0 No conflict

Father 1 Mild conflict

Family 1 Mild conflict

Sex Women 1 Mild conflict

Heterosexual Relationships 0 No conflict

Interpersonal Colleagues at Work 0 No conflict

Relationships
People Supervised 0 No conflict

Superiors at Work 1 Mild conflict

Self-Concept Fear 2 Severe conflict

Guilt 2 Severe conflict

Ability 0 No conflict

Past 0 No conflict

Future 0 No conflict

Goals 0 No conflict

Interpretation

Attitude towards Mother: 0

Interpretation
AM’s responses in the items from this unit demonstrated no significant disturbance.
Her responses regarding her mother reflected a warm and loving attitude which did not seem
atypical or deviant in any manner.

Attitude towards Father: 1

Interpretation
AM’s score for this domain was 1, which indicates mild disturbance that was noted
regarding her attitude towards father. Some of her responses which were flagged as
representative of mild conflict were item numbers 17 and 32 which were “If my father would
only be there”, and “I wish my father was there with me”. The brief history that was elicited
had revealed that AM had lost her father when she was in school. AM naturally still misses
her father even though it has been a long time since the incident. However, the grief didn’t
seem to be at a severely dysfunctional level. Upon further probing, AM revealed that even
though she misses her father a lot, and some days are much harder, over the years she has
been able to accept it. However, her expressions and tone revealed that there might still be
some conflicts that would probably be needed to be addressed in bereavement oriented
therapy.

Attitude towards Family: 1

Interpretation
With a score of 1 in the general Family subdomain, AM seems to experience mild
conflict within the broader family context. For item 12 AM responds with , “Compared with
most families, mine may be more tumultuous”. This statement implies that AM perceives a
higher level of turmoil or conflict within their family compared to what they believe is typical
for most families. The use of the term "tumultuous" suggests a potential sense of chaos,
disagreement, or emotional intensity within the family unit. Further exploration is needed to
identify the specific sources of this perceived tumult and its impact on AM's well-being.
Additionally, in item 27 AM’s answer reads, “My family treats me like I am the elder one”.
This statement by itself may not indicate much disturbance but taken in conjunction with the
preceding statement, it might be indicative of some form of atypical family dynamics that
impacts AM’s overall well-being. This dynamic could influence AM's self-perception and
interpersonal relationships within the family context. Understanding the reasons behind this
perception and its implications for AM's identity and family interactions is crucial.
Attitude towards Women: 1
Interpretation
AM's score of 1 in the Women subdomain suggests a mild conflict in their perception
of the opposite gender. This may be indicative of interpersonal challenges or unresolved
issues related to women in AM's life. Some of her responses indicative of disturbance
requiring possible intervention included statements such as, “I believe most women gossip
(item 40)”, and, “What I like the least about women is when they gossip frequently.(item 55)”.
While these statements are not that indicative of conflict, AM recently went through an
incident that has made her wary of female friendships and their judgment. Even though her
other statement show warm and supportive thoughts about women such as “I think most
women are beautiful (item 25)”, there might be certain conceptions that have been formed
recently that may need to be worked upon.

Attitude towards Heterosexual Relationships: 0

Interpretation
AM reports no conflict in this subdomain, indicating a relatively smooth experience in
heterosexual relationships.

Attitude towards Colleagues at Work: 0

Interpretation
AM reports no conflict with colleagues at work, suggesting a positive and
collaborative professional environment.

Attitude towards People Supervised at Work: 0

Interpretation
Similar to the colleagues, AM perceives no conflict with those who are under her
work, indicating a positive relationship with her juniors.

Attitude towards Superiors at Work: 1

Interpretation
AM's score of 1 in this subdomain hints at mild conflict in their interactions with
individuals she works under. Although, only two items under this section indicated some
form of disturbance, both were rated 2 due to the intensity of her eotioal experience. AM
answers item numbers 6 and 36 with statements, “The men over me are arrogant” and
“When I see my boss coming I get anxious” respectively. AM also reported feeling extremely
anxious upon probing, and therefore a score of 2 was given since for matters pertaining to
anxiety, proper intervention may be required. However, overall score for this domain was 1
since many of the other items seemed to have been answered with generic and typical
answers. Therefore, further exploration is also needed to understand the proper nature and
source of this conflict and its implications for AM's professional life.

Attitude towards Fear: 2

Interpretation
In item 37, AM responds, “I wish I could lose the fear of getting too attached to
people”. For item 52, she responds, “My fears sometimes force me to get anxious”. The
former statement indicates a significant history of feeling as if she had made a mistake y
getting too attached. Her statements regarding her female friendships also indicates some
bitter past experiences that have impaired her interpersonal relationships recently and have
made her wary. Furthermore, as can be seen in tem 52, anxiety is featured again. In a
previous statement pertaining to her supervisor, she reported getting anxious and she also
verbally mentioned that she sometimes gets extremely anxious. This indicates a need to
understand and address her anxiety within a therapeutic environment. In another statement
(item 7), AM says, “I know it is silly but I am afraid of rats”. While this is a seemingly
normal statement, it was still flagged with a score of 1 as the intensity of thi fear is not known
and the possibility of this being a phobia requiring intervention also exists.

Attitude towards Guilt: 2

Interpretation
AM reports a score of 2 in the Guilt subdomain, suggesting a more severe conflict
associated with feelings of guilt. The item responses from this area reveal feelings of guilt
arising from a variety of areas. As can be understood from item 15 “I would do anything to
forget the time I got bullied”, AM's expression of a strong desire to forget a past experience
of being bullied suggests a deep emotional impact. The associated guilt might stem from
feelings of vulnerability or a perception that they should have handled the situation
differently. Her other statements also reflect related statements where she expresses feeling
guilty about trusting others. She also stated in item 45 that, “When I was younger, I feel
guilty about the relationships I was in”. These statements as well the statements for other
domains suggest a tumultuous past with interpersonal relationship that seem to have affected
AM greatly. Exploring the details of bullying incident and the lingering guilt can provide
insights into AM's emotional resilience and coping mechanisms. Furthermore, in one
statement she also suggests not having treated others right where she says “The worst thing I
ever did was that I took advantage of them for my personal gain”, It is crucial to probe for the
underlying reasons for this guilt and its impact on AM's mental and emotional state.

Attitude towards Ability: 0

Interpretation
AM reports no conflict related to her abilities, indicating a positive self-perception
regarding her skills and capabilities. Her emotional responses seem to be well controlled
under stress.

Attitude towards Past Future and Goals: 0 respectively

Interpretation
AM’s from these three subdomains reflect no significant disturbance in these areas,
suggesting a generally positive outlook and lack of internal conflict regarding their past
experiences, future aspirations, and personal goals.
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‌Appendix