CLASSIFICATIONS AND FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF

SOILS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

If an area is studied from soil-engineering point of view, it may contain several soil
deposits of different types that in general exhibit different soil characteristics. Natural soil
deposits are never homogeneous in their nature. A soil is said to be homogeneous, if it has
similar properties at all points in the given mass and it is impossible to find a natural deposit
that has similar properties at all points within the deposit. Within a deposit, the soil varies from
point to point. A deposit may constitute of a mixture of soils of many types and sizes. Soil
properties may vary with the depth of the deposit as well as its extent in the horizontal
direction. Such variations in soil properties in a deposit may be termed as local variations. In
spite of such local variations, the deposit as a whole may have average properties that might
be the same for all portions of the deposit.
Deposits that exhibit, in general, similar average properties can be grouped together, as a
class. Classification of soil is essential because, by classifying a soil, a fairly accurate idea of
its average properties, can be made and an estimation of these average properties just by
classification is helpful in ordinary soil engineering projects. The opinion, however on the
applicability of classification of soils differs among soil-engineers. The difference of opinion
arises mainly due to the fact that many classification systems exist. Some systems take into
consideration only the grain-sizes of the soils, while other take into consideration the plastic
properties, while quite another classification exists, which defines soils in terms of their origin
and general features. So, a soil classified into a group according to one system may fall into
quite another group of another system. Also in the same system there is a possibility that a
soil may form a borderline case, in which case, it could be classified under two groups.

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Classification of a soil is a mere indicator to its general properties and behavior of a soil
cannot be solely predicted from its classification alone. Certain other important tests and
parameters would, of course, be necessary before the conclusions about its behavior as a
construction or foundation material could be deduced. In spite of the inadequacies pointed out
above, it is essential that a soil for an engineering project is classified and then further tests
made to predict its suitability for the project.

3.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOILS

A soil classification system is the arrangement of different soils having similar properties
into groups and sub-groups based on their application. It provides a common language to
express briefly the general characteristics of soils. There are several methods of classifying
soils. The most widely used classification systems by engineers are described hereunder.
3.2.1 Grain Size Classification
It is based on grain size of the soils and is essentially useful for classifying soils in which
single grain properties are of importance. A mechanical analysis is all that is required to
classify a given sample of soil. Three of the grain size classifications that are in common use
are the following.
(a) U.S. Bureau of Public Roads Classification

2 0.25 0.05 0.005

Grain size in mm
(b) M.I.T* Classification
Sand Silt
Gravel Clay
Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine

2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002

Grain size in mm
*Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(c) Textural Classification
This classification is based on a triangular chart shown in Fig. 3.1. A soil with known
percentage of sand, silt and clay sizes is represented by a given point on a triangular chart of
this type.
The use of this triangular chart can best be demonstrated by an example. If the particle-
size distribution of a soil shows 35% sand -, 25% silt-, and 40% clay-size particles, its textural
classification can be determined by proceeding in a manner as shown by the broken lines in

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 Sand
Gravel Coarse Fine Silt Clay
 Soil Mechanics I

Fig. 3.1. This soil falls into the zone of Sandy clay. Note that this chart is based only on the
fraction of soil passing a No. 10 sieve (particles 2 mm). Hence, if the particle-size

distribution of a soil shows a certain percentage of soil particles > 2 mm in diameter, a

correction is necessary. For example, if a soil has particle-size distribution 10% gravel, 20%
sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the corrected textural compositions are:
20 100
Sand-size =  22.22%
100 10

30100
Silt-size =  33.33%
100 10
40 100
Clay-size =  44.44%
100 10

Based on the above-corrected percentages, the textural classification is silty clay.

Textural classification is more suitable for describing coarse-grained soils rather than clay
soils, whose properties are less dependent on particle size distribution.
3.2.2 Soil Classification Based on both Grain-size and Atterberg limits.
Though textural classification of soil is relatively simple, it is based entirely on particle-size
distribution. The physical properties of fine-grained soils are dictated to a great extent by the
amounts and types of clay minerals present in them. Hence, for proper interpretation of soil
characteristics, the plasticity that is the result of the presence of clay minerals needs to be
considered. Since textural classification systems do not take plasticity into account and are
based on particle-size distribution alone, they are not totally indicative of many important soil
properties and hence are inadequate for most engineering purposes. Presently, two more
elaborate classification systems that take into consideration both particle-size distribution and
Atterberg limits are commonly used. They are (1) The AASHTO (American Association of
State Highway and Transport Official) classification system and (2) The unified soil
classification system
3.2.2.1 AASHTO Classification System
The AASHTO classification system, also called Public Roads Administration (PRA)
classification, is based on the following three soil properties:
Grain-size distribution.
Liquid limit
Plasticity index
This system is generally used by highway engineers, for classification of subgrade soils for
the highway pavements. This classification has undergone various modifications, and the
latest version one is based on the proposals of the Highway Research Board (1945).
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The AASHTO classification in present use is given in Table 3.1. According to this system,
soil is classified into seven major groups, A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1,
A-2, and A-3 are granular materials with 35% or less passing through a No. 200 sieve. Soils
with more than 35% passing a No. 200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and

A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials. To classify a soil using Table 3.1, one
must proceed from left to right with required test data available. By the process of elimination,
the first group from the left into which the test data will fit gives the correct classification.
Under this classification system, a characteristic called group index (G.I) is used to
describe the performance of a soil when used as a highway subgrade material. Group index
is not used to place the soil in a particular group, but is actually a means of rating the value of
a soil as a subgrade material, within its own group. The group index of a soil may range from
0 to 20 and is expressed as a whole number. The approximate subgrade performance quality
of a give soil is inversely proportional to its group index, and it can be expressed by the
following empirical relation,
GI = 0.2a+ 0.005ac + 0.01bd …………………….. (3.1)

where a = that portion of percentage of particles passing No.200

sieve greater than 35% and not exceeding 75%,

expressed as positive whole number (0 to 40).

b = that portion of percentage of particles passing No.200 sieve

greater than 15% and not exceeding 55 %, expressed as

positive whole number (0 to 40).

c = that portion of the liquid limit greater than 40 and not

exceeding 60 , expressed as positive whole number

(0 to 20).
d = that portion of the plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding
30, expressed as positive whole number (0 to 20).

3.2.2.2 Unified Soil Classification System

The unified system of soil classification was originally proposed by A. Casagrande in 1942
and was then revised in 1952 by the Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.
The system has also been adopted by American Society of Testing Material (ASTM). The
system is most popular for use in all types of engineering problems involving soils.
The unified classification system is based on recognition of the type and predominance of
the constituents considering grain size, gradation and plasticity. It divides soil into three

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major divisions; coarse-grained soils, fine-grained soils, and highly organic (peat) soils. In the
field, identification is accomplished by visual examination for the coarse grains and a few
simple hand tests for the fine-grained soils. In the laboratory, the grain-size curve and the
Atterberg limits can be used. The peat soils are readily identified by color, odor, spongy feel
and fibrous texture. The name and symbols used to distinguish between the typical and
boundary soil groups are as follows:
a) Coarse-grained soils
G = Gravel
S = Sand
The gravel and sand are further divided into subgroups as;
W = Well graded
P = Poorly graded
b) Fine-grained soils
M = Inorganic silt
C = Inorganic clay
O = Organic silts and clays
Pt = Peat
The above groups of fine-grained soils (excluding peat) are further subdivided according
to their liquid limits into
L = Low plasticity (ℓ < 50%)

H = High plasticity (ℓ > 50%)

The symbols indicated above are combined to form the group symbol. Table 3.2 gives
the groupings of soils for coarse and fine-grained soils. The classification of fine-grained soils
is easier to understand on plasticity chart, which is described hereunder.
Plasticity Chart: - The plasticity chart (shown in bottom right-hand portion of Table 3.2) is
a plot of plasticity index versus liquid limit. Fine-grained soils are subdivided into soils of low,
medium and high plasticity following the criteria cut-lined below
Low plasticity

Medium plasticity

High plasticity
(ℓ < 30%)
(ℓ between