Smart Pallets: Toward Self-Powered Pallet-level

Environmental Sensors for Food Supply Chains

Ali Saffari Vikram Iyer
saffaria@uw.edu vsiyer@uw.edu
University of Washington University of Washington

Zerina Kapetanovic Vaishnavi Ranganathan

zkapetanovic@microsoft.com vaishnavi.ranganathan@microsoft.com
Microsoft Research Microsoft Research
ABSTRACT
This work highlights the need for a low-cost and low-overhead
solution to monitor pallet-level environment in the food sup-
ply chain to create traceability, accountability and reduce
wastage. We identify post-harvest sensing through the sup-
ply chain as a key need to reduce food waste. Toward this
end, we develop initial prototypes of two different wireless
environmental sensing architectures. The first leverages an
ultra-low power timer with a current consumption of 35 nA to
power gate and periodically wake up the system. The second
mode explores a sparse event driven sensing model leveraging
the threshold detection features of low power sensors to log Figure 1: Food Supply Chain. We aim to monitor environ-
events of interest. We demonstrate a millimeter scale proto- mental data during transportation and storage processes
types that can read and backscatter temperature and humidity to reduce waste.
data with as little as 3.2 µW of power.
Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys ’22),
CCS CONCEPTS November 6–9, 2022, Boston, MA, USA. ACM, New York, NY, USA,
6 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3560905.3568420
• Hardware → Sensor applications and deployments; Wire-
less integrated network sensors; Sensor devices and plat-
forms. 1 INTRODUCTION
As the world population continues to grow estimates show
KEYWORDS that the demand for food is expected to increase by 59-98% by
Smart agriculture, wireless sensors, backscatter, RFID, WISP, 2050 [15]. Global hunger has been on the rise since 2014 [5],
smart pallet, environmental sensors, food supply chain and has been exacerbated in recent years by a set of mutually
compounding disasters including a global pandemic, conflicts,
ACM Reference Format:
Ali Saffari, Vikram Iyer, Zerina Kapetanovic, and Vaishnavi Ran-
and a changing climate. The UN State of Food Security re-
ganathan. 2022. Smart Pallets: Toward Self-Powered Pallet-level port 2021 projects that we are not on track to achieve the
Environmental Sensors for Food Supply Chains. In The 20th ACM global zero hunger goal by 2030 [9]. Climate change, in
particular, is expected to dramatically change global tempera-
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for
tures, rainfall patterns, and other factors affecting our ability
personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not
made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear
to produce food. Meanwhile, the continued destruction of
this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components rainforests and other carbon sinks for use as agricultural land
of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with only accelerates this trend. At the same time, the UN 2019
credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA) report estimates that 40
redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request percent of all food grown today is simply wasted [9]. While
permissions from permissions@acm.org.
SenSys ’22, November 6–9, 2022, Boston, MA, USA
solving this global challenge requires a host of new technolo-
© 2022 Association for Computing Machinery.
gies and policy solutions across production and distribution,
ACM ISBN 978-1-4503-9886-2/22/11. . . $15.00 reducing such food loss presents an important opportunity to
https://doi.org/10.1145/3560905.3568420 sustainably improve increase food production.

1130
SenSys ’22, November 6–9, 2022, Boston, MA, USA
Why does so much food get wasted? Growing food such as
produce or grains on a farm is merely the first step in a com-
plex supply and distribution chain that delivers produce from
farms to consumers. This includes steps such as transport,
storage, packaging, and distribution, with each stage handled
by separate supply chain entities that stretch across the globe.
For example, apples are harvested in a particular season in
the US but are often sold throughout the year and shipped
internationally [14]. Domestically grown apples are stored
in controlled atmosphere environments with low temperature
and oxygen to prevent ripening and degradation. Then ship-
ments are periodically sent to a packing facility. The packing
facility then sorts them into boxes and bags for retailers and
holds them in cold storage. The fruit are then shipped to distri-
bution centers and again placed in cold storage before finally
arriving at a grocery store for consumers.
While the exact steps vary for different food crops and
may be even more extensive for those that cross international
borders, this example highlights the complexity of produce
supply chains. Extensive research has shown that maintaining
controlled environments, specific to the produce, in each of
these stages of storage and transport can help preserve the
quality of produce and prevent premature spoilage [10, 13].
With 21% of total food waste arising from spoilage of fresh
fruits, and vegetables, temperature sensitivity is a key factor
in over half of food that goes to waste. The ability to track
the conditions the produce experiences on this journey would
open up numerous opportunities for reducing food loss. For
example, by knowing a particular shipment of fruit had expe-
rienced high temperatures, a retailer could prioritize selling
that shipment of fruit first, incentivize consumers to buy them
quickly, or sell them to processors who could use them for
juice or other products. Moreover, if we could track parame-
ters such as temperature at a more granular level, those same
strategies could be employed for smaller batches of fruit that
may have experienced non-uniform warmer conditions during
harvest, transport or storage.
Achieving traceability, however, requires addressing sev-
eral challenges. As explained above, food travels through
many stages in the supply chain which are often managed by
different entities. Even large retailers that have sophisticated
sensing and data operations for their part of the supply chain
have no insight into the prior steps. To address this need, we
propose a smart pallet platform that can persistently track
the temperature and other environmental conditions experi-
enced by the food post-harvest and through multiple stages in
the supply chain. However, implementing sensors on a pallet
raises other technical challenges. The sensor itself must not
add high cost and maintenance overhead. The sensor must
last through the lifetime of the pallet which can span over
years. It must be generic for use with various types of produce
but at the same time be configurable to enable flexible use
1131
Saffari, et al.
for the various types of produce with different environment
constraints. The latter is essential to enable reuse of these
pallets to reduce cost of ownership of the system. The sen-
sors also require memory to log their conditions and wireless
connectivity to communicate data without need for manual
intervention at scale.
Our key insight is that standalone timing chips available as
discrete solutions or integrated into sensors have significantly
lower currents than many microcontrollers. We explore two
architectures that leverage this observation. The first design
choice uses an ultra-low-power timer to periodically measure
temperature and humidity, transmit the data, and can last 2
years on a 240 mAh coin cell battery. The second design
choice implements a simplified sparse-data algorithm that
leverages the threshold detection capabilities of low-power
temperature sensors to only wake the microcontroller upon
excursions outside of the desired temperature range. The mi-
crocontroller can then log events locally and communicate
them. If the temperature stays within desired levels, the sen-
sor could also be configured to periodically transmit health
packets with sensor data.
This method enables ultra-low power data logging of key
events that could have affected the food. In addition, it reduces
the amount of unnecessary data transmission that inundates
typical IoT systems and simplify network protocols. This
sparse-data algorithm is advantageous especially in case of
slow changing parameters like temperature and humidity that
are vital produce conditions. Moreover, local logging would
enable this data can be read at any step in the supply chain to
make informed decisions about handling the produce more
efficiently.
We summarize the three contributions of this short paper
below:
(1) Highlight the need for post harvest sensing. We dis-
cuss the critical problem of food waste and need for en-
vironmental sensing in the food supply chain. In the post
harvest supply chain, we identify pallet level environmental
sensing as a key enabling technology to reducing wasted
produce.
(2) Continuous monitoring prototype. We develop an ini-
tial prototype and architecture that uses an ultra-low-power
timer to periodically measure temperature and humidity
and transmit the data. We demonstrate this prototype can
last 2 years on a 240 mAh coin cell battery.
(3) Sparse sensing prototype. We develop a prototype of a
millimeter scale event driven tag that could log temperature
and humidity. We demonstrate that even with when taking
measurements and backscattering data every 10 seconds
the system only consumes 3.2 µW of power.
Smart Pallets: Sensing for Food Supply Chains
Figure 2: We propose deploying self-powered environmen-
tal sensors on each food pallet stored at the warehouse or
being transported by the truck to monitor temperature
and humidity throughout the supply chain.
2 RELATED WORK
Recent years have seen significant interest in applying IoT
solutions to agriculture. This includes multiple projects such
[8, 12, 16] that aim to measure or estimate key metrics such as
temperature, soil moisture and other parameters across a farm
to enable optimal crop yields. These works however focus
entirely on the food production, and do not extend beyond the
boundaries of the farm after food is harvested from a field. In
contrast, this work complements these efforts by developing
traceability solutions for the post-harvest supply chain.
Existing methods for measuring environmental conditions
include chemical sensors such as paper based humidity checks
used in electronics shipping shows a color change when a
specific threshold is crossed. Similarly commercial solutions
such as Varcode SmartTags creates a dynamically changing
barcode that provide cumulative temperature-time exposure.
While this method provides the lowest cost for individual tags,
it also has a number of shortcomings. First, the tags data is
read visually requiring a human or automated camera system
to scan and log the specific tag on each pallet. Second, chemi-
cal tags that hold information provide a one time measurement
of whether a single threshold had been exceeded and cannot
be modified after production to meet the temperature specs for
different products. Third, these tags are single use requiring
manual attachment of the correct temperature threshold tag
on each shipment. In contrast, a single programmable digital
sensor could check both high and low temperature thresholds
repeatably as well as provide quantitative data. This could
be especially useful as the optimal action for a pallet that
exceeded the cutoff by 10° may differ from one that exceeded
a threshold by only 1°. A programmable sensor integrated
into the pallet could also be easily reprogrammed to wipe any
data logged on the device and enable seamless reuse of the
same pallets for a variety of different products.
A handful of recent startups have begun developing tech-
nologies in this space such as Zest labs which combine sensors
with additional analytics and quality control to offer an end
to end solution [6]. The specifications of Zest’s solutions are
not publicly available for comparison. Additionally Ryp Labs
1132
SenSys ’22, November 6–9, 2022, Boston, MA, USA
(a) Block diagram (b)
Board
Figure 3: Sensor prototype hardware and block diagram
for the periodic mode.
is developing stickers that seek to chemically slow aging of
produce [2]. Our work seeks to complement these efforts by
focusing specifically on optimizing the power, cost and form
factor of an environmental sensor tag for pallet level tracking.
3 SYSTEM DESIGN AND
IMPLEMENTATION
Our goal is to design self-powered environmental sensors
that can be deployed in food pallets and monitor temperature
and humidity to reduce food waste. To achieve this goal,
our design must be self-powered, in other words, the sensor
should be able to harvest power for its operation and not rely
on a plug connection or have a battery lifetime equivalent
to the pallet (∼2-3 years depending on repairs and use [3]).
Additionally, the sensor needs to transfer data to an access
point via a wireless link. Below we describe two modes of
operation: a periodic mode where the sensor regularly samples
data and transmits it to an access point, and the second is
an event driven mode which logs data until the sensor is
queried. Fig. 2 shows four pallets equipped with wireless
sensors to measure and report data to a control center. We
can break down our system into three major subsections: 1)
a periodic mode sensor that measures data continuously, 2)
a control center for aggregating data, and 3) a miniaturized,
asynchronous, event driven sensor.
3.1 Periodic Mode Sensor
In highly perishable fruits such as berries, there is a strong
need for periodically checking the sensor data in order to pri-
oritize or divert a shipment in real time. To enable ultra-low
power operation, we observe that the RTC timing circuits on
many microcontrollers consume significantly higher power
than their shutdown modes. For example, the TI CC1312 con-
sumes 0.85 µA to periodically wake itself up off its internal
RTC while only requiring 150 nA in its deepest sleep mode.
SenSys ’22, November 6–9, 2022, Boston, MA, USA
Sleep Mode
Measure Temp.
humidity
Measure
Are we sending Battery Voltage
Yes
health packet? Add it to data
packet
No
Send data and
wait for Ack.
from control
center
No
Did we
receive an
Ack.?
Figure 4: Flowchart for the sensor’s operation in periodic
mode. 𝑇 is the timer period. Between five wake-ups we
transmit a health to the control center to make sure our
sensors are operative.
The trade-off howerver is that the latter requires an external
timing or wakeup signal. We generate this by instead using
the dedicated ultra-low power TPL5111 Timer which only
requires 35 nA to run bringing the total sleep current to 185
nA.
We leverage the timer for granular duty cycling and turn
off every components on the board except for the the power
harvester and TI TPL5111 timer [4]. The timer period is set
to five minutes by selecting a 43 kohms resistor. The total
current consumed by the timer is 35 nA which is supplied
by a 240 mAh coin rechargeable battery. Our self-powered
sensor node is in deep sleep mode and harvests energy from
ambient light until the timer activates the node to measure
environmental data, transfer them to the control center and
wait to receive an ACK before returning to sleep mode. Fig. 3
shows the block diagram and our sensor prototype.
Health/Data Packet. As mentioned, every five wake-ups
our sensor sends a health packet to the control center to notify
the center the sensor’s battery is charged. The packet has
battery voltage information in addition to temperature and
humidity values.
Active Mode. The timer’s output signal enables the voltage
regulator that powers the sensor after every wake up event.
Our TI CC1312 radio turns on and increments a counter value
stored in the non-volatile memory unit after each wake-up.
Saffari, et al.
Yes
Figure 5: Our MATLAB application to display and pro-
cess data.
Since we do not lose the counter information between the
wake-ups we can use the counter value to find out if the sensor
should a data packet or a health packet. Next, the MCU reads
TI HDC3020 sensor’s data through a I2C connection and uses
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) protocol to wirelessly send the
results to the control center. Finally, after the transmission,
the sensor switches to receiving mode and waits to receive an
acknowledgement signal from the center. If the transmission
fails or no Ack. is received, the sensor returns to transmit
mode and re-sends the data up to two more times. If all three
attempts fail we turn off the sensor completely and wait for
the next wake-up event. Fig. 4 shows the flowchart of the
sensor’s operation. Each sensor node, equipped with an ultra-
low power timer is in deep-sleep mode until the timer activates
the node to measure the data. In this flowchart, 𝑇 is the wake-
up period.
Ambient Light Energy Harvesting. We use TI BQ25570
harvester IC to collect energy from ambient light using a small
solar panel to enable self-powered sensing. Our harvester uses
a rechargeable 240 mAh battery as the storage element.
3.2 Control Center
Our control center receives data from registered sensors in
the network and shows the results in an application developed
in MATLAB. The control center has a Texas Instruments
CC1312 [1] radio to receive data packets from the nodes, and
transmit acknowledgment packets to them. To display and
process the data, we implement a UART connection between
the TI radio and a laptop. This connection enables us to trans-
fer data from the radio memory to the application designed in
MATLAB.
MATLAB Application. Fig. 5 shows a screenshot from
the application. The user is required to enter the number of
the sensors in the node and start the process. As the data
1133
Smart Pallets: Sensing for Food Supply Chains SenSys ’22, November 6–9, 2022, Boston, MA, USA

a) b)
100
Microcontroller
Outdoor
Power (μW)

Power
75 I2C MEMORY PKT GEN TX/RX
Indoor Harvesting
Switch
50 INTERRUPT
Back-
scatter
25 Switch
HDC2010 Z1 Z2
0 MEMORY Timer Envelope Detector
0 20 40 60 80 THRESH

Illuminance (klx) % +
- INT

c) HDC2010 d)
ATtiny20
MCU
e) Sensor Type Memory (B)
Sampling On time Peak Off time Off current Avg Current Avg Power
RF rate (Hz) (ms) current (ms) (uA) (uA) (uW)
Switch 2 mm Temp 674 0.1 3.137 2.29 9.9969 0.295 1.01 2.84
Temp + RH 734 0.1 3.627 2.29 9.9964 0.295 1.13 3.15

Figure 6: a) Comparison of solar power indoor and outdoor for a high efficiency 37.5 mm2 cell. b) Schematic for event
driven sensor. c) Millimeter scale event sensor prototype using an ATtiny20 microcontroller connected to the HDC2010
temperature sensor and backscatter switch. d) Backscatter packet format. e)Event driven prototype power data.

is received through the UART connection from the radio,
we update the GUI. We display temperature, humidity, alert
(whether data is outside the normal range), last update (last
packet is received from each sensor), RSSI ( received signal
strength), and battery voltage.
ACK Process. As mentioned in this section, we need to
develop an acknowledgement process, wherein the control
center notifies the sensor that the data is received by the access
point without any errors. To enable this, we switch control
center radio’s mode to transmit mode as soon as a packet
is received. Also, the sensor node switches to receive mode
once it sends a packet. In this mode, the control center sends
the packet back to the sensor to let it know that the data is
received. If the acknowledgement signal is not received by
the sensor within the specified period, the sensor re-transmits
the packets up to two more times.
3.3 Event Driven Mode Sensor
In addition to continuous monitoring provided by the active
mode above, we explore an even lower power event driven
mode. The ideal conditions for a given fruit or vegetable
are known and would ideally be maintained throughout the
supply chain through cold storage, etc. The ability to detect if
a pallet had experienced conditions outside this range would
enable actors throughout the supply chain to optimize for
minimal waste. For example, if a pallet of fruit exceeded
a temperature boundary, a distributor could prioritize it for
shipping. Alternatively if this were an indication it would
not meet the quality standards for a grocery store, it could
instead be sold to a processing plant to make juice or other
food products. At the end of the supply chain, a grocery store
could also use this information to prioritize which boxes to
put on display or whether to discount the fruit to accelerate
sales.
Implementing this system requires three primary compo-
nents: a sensor to detect the data, a microcontroller with
nonvolatile memory to store the data, and a method of read-
ing it wirelessly. To implement this with minimum size and
power, we leverage the interrupt capability built into certain
temperature sensors. Specifically, we observe that the TI HDC
temperature sensor series (HDC2010 and HDC3020) have
the ability to generate interrupts on programmable alert con-
ditions when the temperature or humidity exceeds a value.
Additionally the HDC3020 has the ability to store the mini-
mum and maximum temperature measured by the chip which
allows this data to persist throughout the supply chain.
This enables ultra-low power operation by leveraging the
sleep mode of the temperature sensor which is only 55 nA.
For a microcontroller such as the ATtiny20, keeping it in a
low power mode with its RTC running to periodically wake
up and read sensor data takes 15-20 uW. In comparison, this
chip consumes less than 500 nA in its lowest power shutdown
mode. This ultra-low power is important for robust operation
on harvested solar power. Fig. 6a shows measurements of
solar power from a high efficiency 37.5 mm2 solar cell. While
it gives large amounts of power outdoors, indoors in ware-
houses and packing plants where light levels are typically
200-500 lux the power is dramatically lower [7]. Prior work
indicates that indoor power availability in these conditions is

1134
SenSys ’22, November 6–9, 2022, Boston, MA, USA
typically 0.7 µW/cm2 . In order to achieve a robust implemen-
tation, we target a design that can run on <5 µW which can
be powered by a reasonably sized solar cell or on harvested
RF power with the appropriate infrastructure.
To leverage this low power external interrupt strategy, we
can configure an HDC2010 sensor to measure temperature
at its lowest rate, every 2 min. We can then program the
TH_ENABLE, Threshold HIGH, and Threshold LOW regis-
ters on the chip to generate an interrupt when the high or low
thresholds are exceeded. Crossing these thresholds generates
an interrupt that wakes the main processor which reads the
data into the nonvolatile memory of a microcontroller. Fig. 6b
shows the schematic for this implementation.
To read out the data, we implement a similar strategy. To
detect that a user would like to read data, we use an envelope
detector to trigger an interrupt and wake the main processor.
Fig 6b shows how the microcontroller can be used to transmit
data using bacskscatter. This strategy can be also used in
conjunction with the CC1312, or other chips with built-in
radios to actively transmit the data. Upon waking up, the
sensor node backscatters data that a reader (CC1312 or SDR)
can decode.
We develop a millimeter scale prototype of the tempera-
ture sensor, microcontroller, and backscatter switch as shown
in Fig 6c. This demonstrates that the sensor can be mass
produced in a sticker form factor similar to an RFID tag to
easily attach to pallets. We implement an amplitude modu-
lated backscatter protocol at 1.5 and 4.3 kbps according to
the packet structure shown in Fig 6d that can be received on
an SX1276 radio as described in [11]. While the sensor could
be programmed to wake up off of changes in temperature,
we instead program it to sample measurements at a regular
rate of 0.1 Hz to perform a systematic power characterization.
Fig 6e shows the results of this implementation including
the memory required on the ATtiny20 as well as the average
power while running.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This exploratory work seeks to highlight the need for envi-
ronmental sensing in food supply chains and propose feasible
architectures and solutions for achieving this. The techniques
and architectures described above can be used to form the
basis of a full environmental sensing solution. Future work
can expand on this in multiple directions. The first is to in-
tegrate these proof-of-concept components into an end to
end battery-free sensing system and perform more extensive
experiments in a real world deployment to determine their
efficacy and utility. This includes not only a reader infras-
tructure, but also global low-latency cloud connectivity to
make real time shipping decisions. Looking beyond temper-
ature and and humidity, these connectivity solutions could
1135
Saffari, et al.
be integrated with novel sensing solutions to measure quan-
tities of interest for food ripening. These include a number
of gas concentrations such as oxygen ethylene in addition
to temperature. Additionally this work could be expanded to
different foods. Post-harvest supply chain sensing still has
numerous unsolved sensing and networking challenges and
we encourage the community to further explore this domain.
REFERENCES
[1] Cc1312 datasheet. https://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/cc1312.pdf.
[2] Ryp labs. https://www.ryplabs.com/.
[3] The life cycle of an average wooden pallet. https://associated-pallets.
co.uk/blog/life-cycle-average-wooden-pallet/.
[4] Tpl5111 nano-power system timer for power gating. https://www.ti.
com/lit/ds/symlink/tpl5111.pdf.
[5] World food programme strategic plan 2022-2025.
[6] Zest fresh for growers, suppliers and shippers. https://www.zestlabs.
com/zest-fresh-for-growers-and-suppliers/.
[7] Nivedita Arora, Ali Mirzazadeh, Injoo Moon, Charles Ramey, Yuhui
Zhao, Daniela C Rodriguez, Gregory D Abowd, and Thad Starner.
Mars: Nano-power battery-free wireless interfaces for touch, swipe and
speech input. In The 34th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface
Software and Technology, pages 1305–1325, 2021.
[8] Zhaoxin Chang, Fusang Zhang, Jie Xiong, Junqi Ma, Beihong Jin,
and Daqing Zhang. Sensor-free soil moisture sensing using lora sig-
nals. Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and
Ubiquitous Technologies, 6(2):1–27, 2022.
[9] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. “The State
of Food and Agriculture 2019”. btxdoc.pdf, 2019.
[10] Sean T. Hammond, James H. Brown, Joseph R. Burger, Tatiana P. Flana-
gan, Trevor S. Fristoe, Norman Mercado-Silva, Jeffrey C. Nekola, and
Jordan G. Okie. Food Spoilage, Storage, and Transport: Implications
for a Sustainable Future. BioScience, 65(8):758–768, 06 2015.
[11] Vikram Iyer, Hans Gaensbauer, Thomas L Daniel, and Shyamnath
Gollakota. Wind dispersal of battery-free wireless devices. Nature,
603(7901):427–433, 2022.
[12] Aditya Jain, Zerina Kapetanovic, Akshit Kumar, Vasuki Narasimha
Swamy, Rohit Patil, Deepak Vasisht, Rahul Sharma, Manohar Swami-
nathan, Ranveer Chandra, Anirudh Badam, et al. Low-cost aerial
imaging for small holder farmers. In Proceedings of the 2nd ACM
SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies, pages
41–51, 2019.
[13] AMIHUD KRAMER. Effect of storage on nutritive value of food 1.
Journal of food quality, 1(1):23–55, 1977.
[14] Washington State University. “WSU Tree Fruit”.
[15] Hugo Valin, Ronald D Sands, Dominique Van der Mensbrugghe, Ger-
ald C Nelson, Helal Ahammad, Elodie Blanc, Benjamin Bodirsky,
Shinichiro Fujimori, Tomoko Hasegawa, Petr Havlik, et al. The future
of food demand: understanding differences in global economic models.
Agricultural Economics, 45(1):51–67, 2014.
[16] Deepak Vasisht, Zerina Kapetanovic, Jongho Won, Xinxin Jin, Ranveer
Chandra, Sudipta Sinha, Ashish Kapoor, Madhusudhan Sudarshan, and
Sean Stratman. {FarmBeats}: An {IoT} platform for {Data-Driven}
agriculture. In 14th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design
and Implementation (NSDI 17), pages 515–529, 2017.