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Power Systems
Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam
Hamdi Abdi
Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo
Nikos Hatziargyriou Editors
Microgrids
Advances in Operation, Control, and
Protection
Power Systems
Electrical power has been the technological foundation of industrial societies
for many years. Although the systems designed to provide and apply electrical
energy have reached a high degree of maturity, unforeseen problems are constantly
encountered, necessitating the design of more efficient and reliable systems based
on novel technologies. The book series Power Systems is aimed at providing
detailed, accurate and sound technical information about these new developments
in electrical power engineering. It includes topics on power generation, storage
and transmission as well as electrical machines. The monographs and advanced
textbooks in this series address researchers, lecturers, industrial engineers and
senior students in electrical engineering.
**Power Systems is indexed in Scopus**
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4622

Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam • Hamdi Abdi
Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo • Nikos Hatziargyriou
Editors
Microgrids
Advances in Operation, Control,
and Protection
Editors
Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam Hamdi Abdi
Department of Energy Technology Electrical Engineering Department
Aalborg University Razi University
Aalborg, Denmark Kermanshah, Iran
Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo Nikos Hatziargyriou

Faculty of Electrical Electrical and Computer Engineering
and Computer Engineering Department
University of Tabriz National Technical University of Athens
Tabriz, Iran Zografou, Attika, Greece
ISSN 1612-1287 ISSN 1860-4676 (electronic)

Power Systems
ISBN 978-3-030-59749-8 ISBN 978-3-030-59750-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59750-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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Preface
Increased penetration of distributed generations (DGs) in the power system has

crucially changed the control and operation relevant concepts. In this way, the
microgrids are being expanded and developed as a fundamental and essential
building block for future smart power systems. The microgrid concept-introduced
by the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS) to
improve the reliability, sustainability, and efficiency of the modern power system-
is an aggregation of DG units, distributed energy storage (DES), sensitive and
nonsensitive loads, and centralized/decentralized control system, operating as a
controllable subsystem which can operate in grid-connected as well as in an islanded
mode. These new systems requested a revisited definition of the most well-known
issues in the power system control aspects. AC, DC, and AC/DC networks, or hybrid
microgrids are the most dominant nature in these new systems. Therefore, key
issues for the operation, control, and protection of these systems include integration
technologies, hierarchical control techniques, and optimization methods that should
be carefully updated, focusing on primary, secondary, and tertiary control layers
in both islanded and grid-connected modes. The importance of revising the relevant
operation studies in the presence of microgrids is very crucial and vital. The impacts
of different uncertainties arising from the increased penetration of renewables
sources, power market pricing policies, electric vehicles, storage system devices,
and demand-side management are the most important features.
This book covers a comprehensive study on the control, operation, and protection
of microgrids with related strategies to analyze and understand the salient features
of modern control and optimization techniques applied to these systems. It also
discusses emerging concepts, key drivers and new players in microgrids, and local
energy markets while addressing various aspects from day-ahead scheduling to real-
time testing of microgrids.
v
vi Preface
This book is divided into three parts, including operation (Chaps. 1–9), control
(Chaps. 10–15), and protection (Chaps. 16–21) of microgrids.
Part I covers the studies related to microgrid operation. The first chapter
provides an overview of the definitions and clustering of microgrids from different
perspectives. Chapter 2 studies the advantages, challenges, objectives, architecture,
control strategies, and operation of networked microgrid and those in clusters. This
chapter also proposes a model for daily energy management and scheduling of
networked microgrids considering different generation resources and loads. Chap-
ter 3 discusses energy management systems (EMSs) for microgrids in normal and
contingency conditions and appropriate objectives are defined for each condition.
This chapter also provides an overview of the different aspects that should be
considered in EMS design and implementation for microgrids like technical and
security issues, economic objectives, power flow management, reconfiguration,
etc. Optimal dispatch and unit commitment in microgrids are studied in Chap. 4,
considering economic and environmental aspects at the same time, which results
in a multi-objective optimization problem. The fuzzy decision-making method is
utilized to find the best compromise operational schedule of energy units. Chapter 5
focuses on energy storage systems in different microgrids, such as land-based
microgrids and mobile microgrids. The application of energy storage for load
leveling and power quality improvement in microgrids are also studied in this
chapter. The authors of Chap. 6 study the formation of local markets in microgrids
and provide an overview of definitions in this area, potential benefits, and objectives.
A summary of key enabler elements for local market implementation is given, and
different trading approaches, as well as, market settlement approaches for local
markets are presented with detailed case examples to help readers with outlining
attributes of different market models. Chapter 7 covers a summary of demand
response (DR) programs applicable to microgrids in different sectors such as
residential and commercial and explores the impact of customers’ participation
level in both price-based and incentive-based DR programs from the economic
point of view. Chapter 8 elaborates on a framework for operation management of
networked microgrids that have different owners. A combination of the alternating
direction method of multipliers and robust optimization methods is introduced and
implemented to solve effectively such a problem at the operating layer. Chapter 9
focuses on recent progress in the application of computational intelligence and
heuristic techniques in microgrids and provides an overview of the application of
evolutionary algorithms to the energy management problem of microgrids.
Part II covers the topics related to the control of microgrids ranging from
conventional droop methods at local levels to wide-area measurement system
(WAMS)-based hierarchical control techniques. Chapter 10 focuses on droop
control concept in microgrids and discusses the application of droop-based control
methods in both AC and DC microgrids, considering different characteristics
and features of inverter-based renewable energy sources, dispersed generation
units, and energy storage systems. Chapter 11 addresses the hierarchical control
structure of microgrids, where the primary, secondary, and tertiary control levels
are discussed in detail. The chapter also gives a focus on distributed control
Preface vii
of both AC and DC microgrids and covers the distributed control techniques

utilized for voltage/frequency control as well as active/reactive power-sharing.
Chapter 12 introduces the control and application of energy storage systems (ESSs)
in microgrid systems. The characteristics of energy storage techniques, power
electronic interfaces, and battery management systems are also discussed. Finally,
a comprehensive review of ESSs in both islanded and grid-connected microgrids
is conducted and future research roadmaps of multifunctional ESSs together with
cyber-security issues of ESSs are outlined. Chapter 13 elaborates on microgrid’s
stability definitions and analysis, followed by examples on voltage and frequency
stability improvement in islanded microgrids. The chapter also introduces a novel
multi-machine structure-based simulation model for the study of the dynamic
behavior of microgrids. Chapter 14 studies the control methods used to compensate
harmonics and voltage unbalance disturbances in microgrids as the main problems
of power quality in the steady state. Finally, Chap. 15 in Part II of the book presents a
WAMS-based hierarchical control for islanded microgrids where a stable operation
is an important concern due to the low-inertial nature of power electronics interfaced
units.
Part III covers recent advances in the protection of microgrids. This part of the
book elaborates on conventional and emerging schemes for fault identification,
protection, and restoration in microgrids, followed by various real-time testing
methods and the categories of simulation suitable for control and protection of
microgrids. In this regard, Chap. 16 is devoted to Fault Ride Through (FRT),
as the ability of distributed energy resources to stay connected during the faulty
conditions, and Fault Current Management (FCM) in microgrids. This chapter also
provides the microgrid FRT in different grid codes and proposes new methods for
FRT control and FCM. The proposed model is validated using real-time simulation
based on hardware in the loop tests. Chapter 17 provides an overview of the
challenges in microgrid protection and employed relays. The application of multi-
agent systems (MAS) to microgrid protection is investigated in this chapter, where
different studies related to relay coordination and islanding detection are carried
out. Chapter 18 provides an overview of requirements for the protection system
from the point of view of differential protection used in different elements of
microgrids and distribution systems such as bus bars, transformers, generators,
and reactors. As a complementary example to this chapter, the second central
moment (SCM) scheme is presented as a fast and low computation method for fault
detection in different zones. Chapter 19 discusses the conventional and adaptive
protection schemes for microgrids during grid-connected and islanded operation
conditions. The chapter also addresses the issues related to protection schemes in
systems with a high number of distributed energy sources, gives an overview of the
existing and new requirements of protection schemes, and analyzes their potentials
in microgrids. Chapter 20 mostly focuses on fault identification and restoration
of microgrids after fault clearance. The challenges related to direction detection,
blinding issues, and possible mal-operations are studied as well in this chapter.
Finally, Chap. 21 studies the real-time testing of microgrids. This chapter explores
the basics and makes a comparison of the various testing methods ranging from
viii Preface
off-line to real-time simulations, rapid controller prototyping, hardware in the loop

(HIL): both the signal level (CHIL) and power level (PHIL), real-time power level
emulation, test-bed platforms, hybrid approaches/combinations of these techniques
and novel solutions such as digital twin, blockchain and internet of things (IoT)
based approaches.
Aalborg, Denmark Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam

Kermanshah, Iran Hamdi Abdi
Tabriz, Iran Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo
Zografou, Attika, Greece Nikos Hatziargyriou
Contents
Part I Operation of Microgrids

1 An Introduction to Microgrids, Concepts, Definition,
and Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Maryam Shahbazitabar, Hamdi Abdi, Hossein Nourianfar,
Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam, Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo,
and Nikos Hatziargyriou
2 Operation Management of Microgrid Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Meisam Moradi and Asghar Akbari Foroud
3 Energy Management Systems for Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Seyed Mohsen Hashemi and Vahid Vahidinasab
4 Optimal Dispatch and Unit Commitment in Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Hossein Shayeghi and Masoud Alilou
5 The Role of Energy Storage Systems in Microgrids Operation . . . . . . . 127
Sidun Fang and Yu Wang
6 Microgrids and Local Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Mohsen Khorasany and Reza Razzaghi
7 An Economic Demand Management Strategy for Passive
Consumers Considering Demand-Side Management Schemes
and Microgrid Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Mohammad Esmaeil Honarmand, Vahid Hosseinnezhad,
Barry Hayes, Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo, and Pierluigi Siano
8 Real-Time Perspective in Distributed Robust Operation
of Networked Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Mehdi Jalali, Manijeh Alipour, and Kazem Zare
ix
x Contents
9 Application of Heuristic Techniques and Evolutionary

Algorithms in Microgrids Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Amir Aminzadeh Ghavifekr
Part II Control of Microgrids

10 Conventional Droop Methods for Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Kwang Woo Joung and Jung-Wook Park
11 Distributed Control Approaches for Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Tohid Khalili and Ali Bidram
12 On Control of Energy Storage Systems in Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Yu Wang, Sidun Fang, and Yan Xu
13 Microgrid Stability Definition, Analysis, and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Hossein Shayeghi, Hamzeh Aryanpour, Masoud Alilou,
and Aref Jalili
14 Voltage Unbalance Compensation in AC Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Shahram Karimi, Mehdi Norianfar, and Josep M. Guerrero
15 WAM-Based Hierarchical Control of Islanded AC Microgrids . . . . . . . 375
E. S. N. Raju P and Trapti Jain
Part III Protection of Microgrids

16 Fault Ride Through and Fault Current Management for
Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Wei Kou and Sung-Yeul Park
17 Microgrid Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Arturo Conde Enríquez, Yendry González Cardoso,
and José Treviño Martínez
18 A New Second Central Moment-Based Algorithm for
Differential Protection in Micro-Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Ernesto Vázquez, Héctor Esponda, and Manuel A. Andrade
19 Microgrid Protection with Conventional and Adaptive
Protection Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Aushiq Ali Memon, Hannu Laaksonen, and Kimmo Kauhaniemi
20 Fault Identification, Protection Schemes, and Restoration
Requirements of Microgrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Amin Yazdaninejadi, Amir Hamidi, Sajjad Golshannavaz,
and Daryoush Nazarpour
Contents xi
21 Real-Time Testing of Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

A. S. Vijay and Suryanarayana Doolla
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Part I
Operation of Microgrids
Chapter 1
An Introduction to Microgrids, Concepts,
Definition, and Classifications
Maryam Shahbazitabar, Hamdi Abdi, Hossein Nourianfar,

Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam , Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo,
and Nikos Hatziargyriou
1.1 Introduction
Traditional electric power systems are rapidly transforming by increased renewable

energy sources (RESs) penetration resulting in more efficient and clean energy pro-
duction while requiring advanced control and management functions. Microgrids
(MGs) are significant parts of this transformation at the distribution level.
As a fact, since the year 2004, in which the MG was defined as “a better way to
realize the emerging potential of distributed generation in a systematic approach
which views generation and associated loads as a subsystem” [1], significant
improvements and innovations have been made.
The MG concept was firstly introduced by the USA’s Consortium for Elec-
tric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS) to reduce the cost, and increase
the power quality, effectively all around the world [2]. Among various definitions,
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Microgrid Exchange Group (MEG) has used
the following [3]:
“A microgrid is a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources
within clearly defined electrical boundaries that acts as a single controllable entity
M. Shahbazitabar () · H. Abdi · H. Nourianfar

Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
e-mail: m.sht@razi.ac.ir
A. Anvari-Moghaddam
Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
N. Hatziargyriou
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, National Technical University of Athens
Zografou, Attika, Greece
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3

A. Anvari-Moghaddam et al. (eds.), Microgrids, Power Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59750-4_1
4 M. Shahbazitabar et al.
with respect to the grid. A microgrid can connect and disconnect from the grid to
enable both grid-connected and island-modes of operation.” In a widely accepted
definition “Microgrids are electricity distribution systems containing loads and
distributed energy resources, (such as distributed generators, storage devices, or
controllable loads) that can be operated in a controlled, coordinated way, either
while connected to the main power network and/or while islanded” [4]. The MG
is a flexible and dispatchable system that is capable of operating in both modes
of grid-connected or stand-alone. It can potentially reduce the dependency of its
consumers on traditional generation systems by providing different types of energy,
such as electrical and thermal energy, and provide ancillary services trading activity
between the MG and the main grid. The MG configuration can be AC, DC, or
hybrid.
This chapter, as an introduction to the MG concept, tries to present some practical
and useful information for MG integration. Definitions, classifications, components,
control methods, and protection schemes of MGs are also addressed briefly along
with their merits or demerits.
1.2 Microgrid Components
Global warming and growing energy demand are the most significant drivers
spurring renewable energy sources (RESs) to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions by fossil fuel-based electricity generation. Distributed energy resources
(DERs) such as solar photovoltaic (PV) modules, wind turbines (WTs), combined
heat and power (CHP) units, and controllable loads such as electric vehicles (EVs)
are expected to play a considerable role in future electricity supply because of
their significant benefits such as carbon emissions reduction, energy efficiency
enhancement, power quality and reliability (PQR) improvement, and line losses
reduction and deferral of grid expansion plans [5]. The intermittent nature of
renewable-based DERs is the main challenge for their integration into traditional
power systems.
The presence of MGs helps the increase of DGs penetration, more specifically
at low voltages (LV) distribution networks. DERs integration, along with energy
storage systems (ESSs) and controllable loads near power consumers within MGs,
provides economic and environmental benefits [6]. MGs as parts of the distribution
systems are connected to the upstream network at a single point of common
coupling (PCC) often by power electronic-based switchgear. The operation of MGs
in islanded mode is particularly challenging. In such an operation, the ESSs activity
is particularly essential to improve power quality, stability, and reliability of supply,
at least for critical loads.
The capability of MGs to switch into the islanded mode in case of faults in the
upstream network increases the reliability of customer supply and the resilience of
1 An Introduction to Microgrids, Concepts, Definition, and Classifications 5
Wind turbine Loads

Solar PV
MG
control center
Battery ESS
Micro-Grid
Main Grid
Conventional DG
Controllable Loads
Fig. 1.1 A simple MG structure
the local distribution networks. This is particularly important, in case of natural or

human-made disasters, when MGs can isolate and continue to provide electricity
to critical loads. In fact, resilience is nowadays one of the key drivers for the
development of MGs in developed countries, such as the United States, Japan, etc.
Perhaps, the most common application of MGs is found in rural electrification.
In developing countries, MGs can be used for the electricity supply of remote
communities or to support some facilities, such as healthcare, water use, food
preservation, waste treatment, telecommunication support, etc.
Figure 1.1 shows a simple MG comprising DGs, ESS, and flexible loads
connected via power converters. Extensive research is currently underway in MG
development and demonstration to solve several technical and economic challenges
such as accurate and integrated management of all energy sources, increasing the
penetration of hybrid AC/DC power networks in the various areas of planning,
operation, protection, and control [7].
1.3 Classification
According to Navigant Research, MG can be classified into different groups based

on various aspects [8, 9]:
1.3.1 Type
MGs could be categorized in different types scuh as campus, military, residential,

commercial, and industrial. The campus MG includes onsite generation, while it
is managed by a single owner. Military MGs are used for improved efficiency and
resilience.
1.3.2 Size
MGs can exist in different sizes: small and simple (about hundreds of kW) at low
or medium voltages [4] supplying just a few customers to large and complex ones
(few MWs) [10].
1.3.3 Application
MGs can be used to provide premium power or resilience-oriented services. The

premium power is the power that provides a stable level of voltage noise free to
its end consumers [11]. Also, the resilience-oriented MG is referred to as an MG
with the ability to withstand and recover from “high impact–low-frequency” events
[12]. The accidents, such as deliberate attacks, or naturally occurring incidents, are
considered in this regard, while the negative impacts during both long-term and
short-term horizons should be minimized [13].
1.3.4 Operation Mode
MGs can operate in two modes: grid-connected and islanded. In grid-connected

mode, the MG can exchange power with the upstream grid, depending on the elec-
tricity generated and its load demand [14]. The MG can be disconnected from the
utility grid due to faults or in planned maintenance and operate autonomously [15].
Unlike grid-connected mode, an islanded MG may face challenges in regulating
voltage and frequency or maintain the required quality of the power.
1.3.5 Configuration
The topologies in which components of an MG, namely loads, micro-sources, and

storage devices, are integrated lead to different configurations: AC network MGs,
DC network MGs, and hybrid AC–DC MGs. Emerging DC sources and loads have
given rise to the application of DC–MGs in recent years. Distribution in AC–MG
can be one of the following three types: single phase, three phase with neutral, and
three phase without neutral, while in DC–MG, it can be monopolar, bipolar, and
homopolar [16]. In AC-one, DC-based DERs, ESSs, and loads are connected to
a universal AC bus via DC-to-AC inverters. On the other hand, DC–MGs could
offer various merits compared to AC–MGs: more efficient supply of DC loads, loss
reduction via decreasing the multiple converters used for DC loads, facilitate various
DC-DERs integration such as fuel cells (FC) and photovoltaic systems (PV) to the
Urban Rural Off-grid

Feeders are placed in a
Feeders are loaded in a rather populated area, the
By definition, an off-grid
congested industrial area distance between the main
microgrid always
with low imbalance body and the laterals is
operates in islanded
degree becouse of short fairly long becouse of
mode, remote area
distance between the main scattered loads; the voltage
assighned with no
body and the laterals. The profile is not flat. DERs
possibility for macrogrid,
voltage and frequency are have effects on voltage
where large-size DER
controled by the fluctuation and must be
integration is occurring
macrogrid so the voltage controlled to facilitate in
faster.
drop is low. the feeder voltage
regulation.
Fig. 1.2 Feeder-based classification
common node with simplified interfaces, and decreasing the need for synchronizing
generators and the buses versus several challenges in control, and operation
[8, 17, 18].
1.3.6 Characteristics/Properties of the Feeder
MGs can be categorized into three groups via feeder properties, as shown in Fig. 1.2.
1.4 Control
Control of MGs is the one significant feature that distinguishes them from simple
distribution lines with DER. This is further discussed in this section.
1.4.1 Hierarchical Control
Hierarchical, multilevel control is adopted for the effective control of MGs,

including the following three levels [19, 20].
1.4.1.1 Primary Control
Its task is the control of voltage, current, and local power. The set points of inverters
in this level are changed based on their droops.
1.4.1.2 Secondary Control
It deals with optimal load sharing, frequency restoration, voltage regulation at pilot
points, etc., and this is the level where the MGCC determines the set points needed
to be followed by local controllers at the primary level. Some important subjects,
such as forecasting functions and economic dispatch, could be also implemented at
this level.
1.4.1.3 Tertiary Control
This level deals with upstream networks, like MG synchronization, and electricity
market trading.
The time scales of MG control functions can be divided into different levels. For
example, primary level control actions such as voltage and current control should be
executed in a couple of seconds to meet the system’s security constraints. Secondary
and tertiary control functions require a couple of minutes, and hours, respectively.
Three-level control functions for the MG are illustrated in Fig. 1.3, with time scaling
definition.
Electricity Market
Trading
Terti ary
MG
Synchronization
Demand
Response
Economic Forecasting
Secondary
Load Sharing Functions
Frequency Economic
Restoration Dispatch
Power quality
Prim ary
Changing the Set -

points of Inverters
Frequency and Voltage

Control
s ms s min h Day
Fig. 1.3 Different control level for the MG

Central Central Central

Controller Controller Controller
Communication Communication
Communication
Device Device
Device
Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm. Comm.
Device Device Device Device Device Device Device Device Device Device Device Device
LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC
DG DG DG DG DG DG DG DG DG DG DG DG
Point of common coupling Point of common coupling Point of common coupling
a) Centralized MG b) Distributed MG c) Hybrid MG
Fig. 1.4 Different types of control coordination structures from the communication perspective
[23]
1.4.2 Control Coordination
Control coordination of MG can be divided into a centralized, distributed, or a

combination of both, named as a hybrid [21]. The type of coordinated control
structure designed for the MG depends on DER ownership, MG size, available
technologies, and communication infrastructures. The following is a classification
of coordinated control, as shown in Fig. 1.4.
1.4.2.1 Centralized Control
Building a central controller that can communicate with all controlled units requires
extensive communication infrastructures and significant computer resources. The
main advantage of the centralized control structure is that it can apply optimal
solutions. When the MG switches from grid-connected to islanded mode, one micro-
source can act as a master controller, providing voltage and frequency reference to
others [21]. It allows simple algorithms to be used in the MG energy management
unit. One of the major drawbacks of centralized control is that it suffers from a
single point of failure. A centralized control structure is typically recommended for
small environments such as educational centers and hospitals.
1.4.2.2 Distributed Control
In distributed control, each local controller operates on its own without instructions
from a central controller. Any appropriate control actions are specified locally based
on local evaluation and the information shared among neighboring local controllers
of the MG through peer-to-peer communication. Since limited information about
the entire MG status is communicated among neighboring nodes, optimal global
performance is not generally achieved in this topology as compared to the central-

ized control scheme. However, a “plug and play” feature is satisfied, meaning that
when a DER is connected or removed from the system, the MG will continuously
operate without reconfiguration. Multi-agent system (MAS) control is an example
of such topology that allows every component to exchange information with its
neighbors as an autonomous entity that can be decided based on its own status with
no external command [22].
1.4.2.3 Hybrid Control
A hybrid control scheme, as the name suggests, is a combination of central

and distributed controllers. Hybrid hierarchical control consists of several central
controllers with a distributed topology that is coordinated. Each central controller
contains several local controllers that can operate independently.
1.5 Stability
RES integration with stochastic, uncontrollable, and intermittent nature is one of

the attractive points of MGs, which in turn necessitates proper mechanisms in the
system to assure reliable operation in transient events such as a sudden drop in
wind speed or a cloud passing over a solar array [24]. DGs may be inverter-based
or directly connected to MGs. Since MGs typically use renewable energy sources,
most DGs are inverter-based. The existence of a variety of DGs can create diverse
features in MG stability problems. Another issue affecting MG stability is its small
inertia. An MG is stable if all the state variables are recovered to steady-state values
after being subjected to a disturbance so that all constraints are satisfied [10].
It should be mentioned that, in MGs which generally are equipped with the
inverter-based DER units, the inertia is zero or very low and the reference signal
is used to set their output frequency, internally [25, 26]. As a matter of fact, the
frequency will not inherently vary as the active power changes [27]. In traditional
power systems, there is the chance to store energy by using the rotating masses
of synchronous generators to deal with load changes. However, in MGs, some
form of energy storage is needed to deal with transients happening during the
islanded operation. As an effective manner, some load shedding strategies and
storage techniques can be applied in MGs [27].
MG stability is divided into grid-connected MG stability issues and islanded MG
stability subjects. DER integration with intermittent nature, which leads to stability
issues in MGs, has been addressed extensively in research works considering both
large and small-signal stabilities. Linear analysis tools such as Nyquist or Routh–
Hurwitz for synchronous generators, inverters, rectifiers, and motors are in common.
On the other hand, large-signal nonlinear stability studies such as the Lyapunov-
based technique are employed for intrinsically nonlinear converters for integrating
Fig. 1.5 Stability definition
RES and energy storage devices. Instability in conventional power systems can be
classified into three general categories [28]: rotor angle stability, voltage stability,
and frequency stability. All these three mentioned categories are highly dependent
on the dynamic behavior of the synchronous generators [29].
1.5.1 Grid-Connected MG Stability
When the MG is connected, its voltage and frequency are maintained by the utility
grid. Therefore, stability studies of DGs with small capacities are not required. Since
the capacity of the MG is much smaller than the utility grid, the disturbances in the
MG will have little effect on the network frequency regulation. Therefore, rotor
angle and frequency stability are not relevant in the grid-connected mode.
1.5.2 Islanded MG Stability
When the MG is disconnected (islanded mode), it must support its voltage and
frequency. In other words, it must preserve the balance between power generation
and load. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the voltage and frequency stability
in an islanded MG. Long transmission lines are one of the main causes of voltage
instability in conventional power systems, which limits the transmission of power
between loads and generation. However, in MGs, the feeders are relatively short,
resulting in relatively small voltage drops. Indeed, in an islanded MG, frequency
stability is more significant than voltage one, due to its small inertia. Figure 1.4
shows the classification of MG stability types. The study of the stability types is
beyond the scope of this chapter. A comprehensive review of MG stability can be
found in [30]. A brief stability definition is clarified in Fig. 1.5.
1.6 Protection
Electronically coupled unit control has significant effects on the MG transient

behavior, particularly subsequent to faults. According to its fault specification, the
fault types can be pole to pole or pole to the ground, bus or feeder. According to
the fault location, the fault would be more severe near the energy sources; so, the
bus fault is crucial in overall the system. Pole-to-pole short circuit may be occurring
inside the capacitors and batteries that generally cannot be quickly diagnosed. In
these cases, using fuses and circuit breakers along with device replacement could be
profitable. Another challenge that has to be gradually overcome is an arc, which is
created by the current interruption and extinguished hardly in a DC system without
the current crossing through zero [17]. Also, low fault currents due to the power
electronics interfaces, and adaptive protection because of the variety of generation
sources, are two main subjects which should be clearly discussed and addressed in
MGs.
We should note that unlike conventional distribution systems in which the power
flow is unidirectional and protection schemes are simple, in the MGs, the power
flow is bidirectional, so their protection schemes are more complex. The main
challenges of protection in DCMGs are related to following issues [31]: lack of
phasor, and frequency data making it difficult to detect and accurate location of
faults; absence of natural zero crossings to extinguish the arc occurring in circuit
breaker opening; rising the fast current imposing strict time limits needed for fault
interruption; protection coordination issues because of intermittent nature of DERs;
and need for suitable protection standards.
1.7 Microgrid’s Advantages and Challenges
In this section, the main advantages, and challenges of MGs are briefly addressed.
1.7.1 Advantages
The main advantages of MGs can be categorized as follows:

• Decreasing CO2 emission and fuel cost by using renewable energy supply instead
of conventional fossil-fueled energy sources.
• Increasing consumer reliability and power system flexibility.
• Increasing the power transmission capacity in DC–MGs.
• Loss reduction with local power delivery.
• Having much smaller financial commitments.
Operation
Components and compability

Technical
MG challenges
Integration of DERs
Regulation
Protection
Economical
marketing
Fig. 1.6 MG challenges
• Requiring fewer technical skills for operation and relying more on a remote
control, and automation.
• Isolating from any grid disturbance or outage.
1.7.2 Challenges
Despite some clear advantages of MG, there are several challenges must be over-
come. The main types of MG challenges are illustrated in Fig. 1.6.and summarized
as follow:
1.7.2.1 Technical
• The electricity generation of some RESs, such as wind and solar, is highly depen-
dent on weather conditions; hence their generation is unpredictable. Because
their capacity is small, they are sensitive to unpredictable changes. This causes
problems with operational capability.
• Due to the smaller number of loads and interrelated changes in available energy
sources, the uncertainty of islanded MGs is much greater than that of the utility
grid. Even though the reliability of MG could be higher than the utility grid.
• One of the challenges of islanded MGs is their low inertia characteristic in
comparison with the bulk power systems due to numerous power electronic-
based units and lack of conventional synchronous generators. This low inertia
in the system can lead to intense frequency deviations.
• One of the major challenges faced by MGs in islanded mode is maintaining the
balance between generation and load continuously. Large disturbances can easily
lead to MG instability.
• In order to ensure the safety and reliability of the system, islanding conditions
must be quickly detected.
1.7.2.2 Regulation
The current regulatory framework was not designed to incorporate DERs or MGs.
Therefore, in some countries, changes have been made to the regulatory framework
to influence the benefits of MGs to the entire community. Some laws about
renewable DGs and energy storage systems have been incorporated into the new
regulatory framework [32]. As an example, some of the common grid services
provided by ESSs are categorized as power quality, transient stability, and regulation
services; spinning reserve, voltage control, arbitrage (energy), load balancing,
congestion relief, firm capacity, and upgrade deferral [33].
1.7.2.3 Economical
Despite advances in technology, the investment cost remains high in MGs. The cost
of energy storage systems, some of DGs such as photovoltaic (PV) and fuel cells,
is still high and not affordable. However, today in most countries, there are various
types of financial support to facilitate conditions for investment in this field. Another
economic challenge of MGs is its efficient energy management.
1.7.2.4 Marketing
MGs, in addition to supplying local loads, can sell their additional generation power
to the utility grid or purchase some power from the utility grid. Thus, MGs can
participate in the market by selling their products and services. MGs also play an
important role in developing free/local energy markets by encouraging energy users
to install DERs, offering new services, and supporting self-consumption [32]. While
regulatory gaps can be primarily followed to the origin of DSO (distribution system
operator) concerns, market gaps lying before the road of commercializing MG are
mainly related to the direct economic interests of end users and DG owners. Based
on these conditions, denial of local energy trading among the DG and demand, and
MG market positioning difficulty can be determined as two major market challenges
in this context [34].
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Chapter 2
Operation Management of Microgrid
Clusters
Meisam Moradi and Asghar Akbari Foroud
2.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the operation management of networked microgrid clusters
(NMCs) or networked microgrids (NMGs). The system that contains a connection
of two or more microgrids with the ability to exchange energy with each other and
with a distribution system (DS) is called NMCs. The NMCs differ from the DS
includes multi-microgrids which exchange energy only with DS. In NMCs, power
flow from one MG to another MG or DS is possible bidirectional and the topology
of the network in the NMCs can change continuously. NMCs in the normal mode
is similar to the DS with several MGs and have the benefits of these networks.
The main difference of this structure is adding the networked mode between MGs.
Designing and operation of a set of multiple MGs with DS as NMCs, will lead to
increasing the resiliency of the network significantly.
Networked mode operation in NMCs reduces system loss. The loss parameter
is defined as the loss of power network persistence and failure to supply demand
after an extreme event. Since the resiliency of the system is inversely related to this
parameter, so, the resiliency of NMG is higher than the resiliency of the distribution
network containing several MGs and traditional networks. Also, the improvement
of resiliency increases system reliability. Studies show that the average system
interruption duration index (SAIDI) and the average system interruption frequency
index (SAIFI) are decreased by adding MGs to the network [1]. As the resiliency
and reliability of NMCs are more than the DS with several MGs, the value of these
mentioned two indices also improves more in the NMCs.
M. Moradi · A. Akbari Foroud ()

Semnan University, Semnan, Iran
e-mail: mrd.meisam@semnan.ac.ir; aakbari@semnan.ac.ir
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 17

A. Anvari-Moghaddam et al. (eds.), Microgrids, Power Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59750-4_2
18 M. Moradi and A. Akbari Foroud
To indicate the difference between NMCs and DS containing several MGs, Fig.
2.1 and Fig. 2.2 are presented. Figure 2.1 demonstrates the DS with NMCs. There
are five MGs with one radial 33-bus IEEE DS. Each MG is capable of handling its
loads. Also, in NMCs, each MG has one or more PCCs which makes the possibility
of exchanging power with other MGs or DS. As can be seen in this figure, MG1 and
MG2 can operate as the grid-connected mode by closing switch SW1 via PCC at
bus 25 and switches SW2 and SW3 via PCCs at bus 33 or 14, respectively. These
two MGs can operate as islanded or grid-connected. In addition to the island and
grid-connected mode, the other three MGs can exchange power with each other in
networked mode. By closing switches SW7, SW8, or both, the networked mode of
MGs operation can be enabled. It is noteworthy that MG3 and MG5 with closing
SW8 and SW7 through PCC at bus 18 and bus 22 can exchange power with MG4,
respectively. Figure 2.2 shows the DS with two MGs. In this structure, the MGs
are connected to the network via PCC on buses 12 and 33. Also, in this network,
MGs are capable of supplying their loads and in order to have higher reliability,
they are connected to the DS. Clearly, the first network is more resilient to severe
contingencies than the second. In sever contingencies it is possible not to provide
critical loads of the entire network or MGs and it is impossible to return to the
initial conditions quickly. So, the resiliency of the system decreases against an
extreme event. As shown in Fig. 2.1, NMCs had a higher level of resiliency due
to its ability to change configuration against extreme events. Due to the flexible
NMCs configuration, any interruption factor outside of the MGs is simply cut off.
In this condition, the NMCs can exchange power through their physical network.
By MGs isolation, the repair process in power distribution systems becomes faster.
After removing the interruption factor, it is possible to start supplying the power
of critical loads from the MGs. Accordingly, system performance can be recovered
much faster with a simultaneous bidirectional supply method. Therefore, it can be
MG1
MG2
29 30 31 32 33 SW2
SW1
25 28
24 27
SW3
23 26
1 2 12 18
Main Grid
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17
19
20 SW5 SW4
21
SW6 SW7 SW8
22
MG5 MG4 MG3
Fig. 2.1 Structure of NMCs

2 Operation Management of Microgrid Clusters 19
15
9 14 16 17
8
2 3 4 5 6 10 12 13
1
7
11
35
18 19
MG1
22 20 21
31
27 32 33 34
23
26 29
24 28 30
25
MG2
Fig. 2.2 Structure of DS with several MGs
concluded that the NMCs have more resiliency and less power return time than
several MGs or traditional DSs.
On the other hand, some researches are being done to develop the NMCs, such
as Bronzeville Community Microgrid (BCM)1 and Illinois Institute of Technology
(IIT)2 [1]. These researches demonstrate that NMCs can reduce contamination sig-
nificantly and improve ancillary services, such as sustainability, security, efficiency,
reliability, and cost reduction of providing customers demand. Also, according to
research done by the Los Alamos National Laboratory, the NMCs can reduce the
operating costs of MGs by at least 10% [1]. This is a significant reduction in
operating costs. Given these cases, further studies are necessary on the NMCs. The
major aspects of NMCs can be divided into four categories including architecture,
control strategy, communication, and operation. In this chapter, in addition to the
advantages and challenges of NMCs, the main objectives, planning, and operation
of NMCs and the motivations that lead to the evolution of this power system, will
be described. Also, the different types of energy management systems (EMS) and
problem-solving methods in the NMCs will be analyzed.
Microgrids can be “networked” in physical layers by distribution systems with
closing or opening one or more keys or controlling layers by independent local
controllers or both of them. It is important to note that the priority of any microgrid
is the balancing of power and economic operation in the management of its internal
1 https://bronzevillecommunityofthefuture.com/
2 http://www.iitmicrogrid.net/microgrid.aspx
resources, and then, if the microgrid is not capable of feeding its loads, it can buy
the amount of its energy deficit from the other microgrids. In emergency conditions,
the microgrid is separated from the upstream network and it uses the output power
within the microgrid or if needed, it uses the output power from the other microgrids.
In such conditions, it is observed that the EMS protects critical loads from being
outage. These structures are highly flexible in critical situations and also resistant to
unnecessary outages. However, distribution systems with multi-microgrids are not
always in networked mode and switch to networked mode according to predefined
conditions and planning. Figure 2.3 shows the operation of physical and control
layers.
It is to mention that the range of opportunities and potential architectures of
NMCs like the individual MGs are very diverse, however, there are very few
examples are deployed in NMCs. Also, there are very few tools to simulate or
analyze the behavior of NMCs. Nevertheless, several national laboratories are devel-
oping design and analysis software tools that partially address some components of
the quantitative evaluation of the economic, reliability, and resilience benefits of
networked microgrids.
Other loads and

Generations
Controller N
Controller 1
Controller 2
Gen 2
Gen 1
Loads
Gen 2
Gen 1
Loads
Gen 2
Gen 1
Loads
Network
Controller
Fig. 2.3 Performance of physical and control layers in NMCs

2.2 Benefits of NMCs
Considering NMCs advantages, the number of MGs will increase and NMCs in the
DS will be created. In developed countries, NMCS was considered as the transition
state of smart grids [2].
2.2.1 Best Utilization of DERs
In general, using DERs locally is more accessible in the microgrids network. These
resources can be connected to the nearest distribution network in larger networks. In
fact, the EMS in NMCs can network multiple microgrids and distributed generation
resources can also feed the intended consumer in this condition. Therefore, EMS
can reduce the total cost of the operating system in NMCs by integrating local
DERs. In other words, in distribution systems with microgrids, if the use of DERs is
done with a proper control or coordinator system, the uncertainty of wind and solar
renewable energy sources in different microgrids can also be reduced by information
aggregation and correlation.
Besides, microgrids that have energy storage systems can play an important role
in smoothing the power generation of DGs. For example, a storage system of one
MG can be entered at peak load times of other MGs and reduce the startup cost
and total operating cost of the system by preventing the installation of thermal
units. This work reduces the peak load and facilitates demand response. Also, at
the transmission level, the integration of DERs using the microgrids network can
increase the efficiency of the transmission system and postpone the investment of
transmission substruction and new substations.
2.2.2 Reduction of Overall Cost
The integration of DERs using the microgrids network can decrease the total cost
of the required generation power. For example, a study done by the Los Alamos
National Laboratory shows that operation in NMG mode reduces at least 10% of
costs compared to normal distribution network mode. This amount of reduction in
operating costs is significant. Also, it has been shown in [3] that the interaction
between interconnected and independent microgrids in the form of NMCs, with
planning strategy and energy trading development, can reduce the total operating
cost by 13.2% and reduce the cost by 29.4% for one MG.
2.2.3 Ancillary Services Improvement
Optimal use of DERs can improve ancillary services in NMCs. In fact, ancillary
services keep flowing and direction of power by maintaining a balance between
supply and demand and it can help the system returning to normal mode when faults
occur. Also, since EVs and ESSs have been used in NMCs and EVs are capable of
transferring stored power, proper planning of this equipment can further enhance the
ancillary services market. Therefore, at the planning stage of NMCs, the addition of
power storage equipment can add benefits to the ancillary market. Studies show that
using NMCs improves 10% of service costs and the ancillary services market [3].
2.2.4 Resiliency Improvement
Improving system resilience is one of the most important goals of power systems.
The use of NMCs allows the generation resources to be distributed between
microgrids and loads near to DSs, which can lead to additional resiliency and lower
investment costs. On the other hand, networked mode operation in NMCs reduces
system loss. The loss parameter is defined as the loss of power network persistence
and failure to supply demand after an extreme event. Since the resiliency of the
system is inversely related to this parameter, so, the resiliency of NMG is higher than
that of the distribution network containing several MGs and traditional networks.
2.2.5 Reliability Improvement
One of the benefits of NMCs is the increment of system reliability. This advantage
can be achieved by reducing the amount of load which is not provided or reducing
the utility outages. This reduction of blackouts in NMCs may increase costs
by balancing between generation and consumption, but there must be a balance
between the costs of removing remaining blackouts against the entire cost of the
network. This means that removing the load may be more economical for the
network. However, networking the MGs and sharing their resources reduce the total
investment costs of reservation generation and increment of reliability. It is usually
suggested that critical peak load be considered to account for approximately 80% of
the backup generation capacity [3].
In a simple example, suppose if two MGs have a peak load-to-average load ratio
of 1 MW to 0.5 MW and the critical peak load time of them are not the same, instead
of buying two generators with a nominal capacity (1 MW/0.80 = 1.25 MW), in
NMG mode, the total required capacity of 1.5 MW/0.80 = 1.88 MW can be used.
This capacity reduction will reduce the cost of $186,000 by considering the cost of
0.30 $/W for a diesel generator. However, if the capacity of the bought generators
is not reduced, a higher capacity of the generators can increase the reliability of
the system. Also, the improvement of resiliency increases system reliability. Studies
show that the average of system interruption duration index (SAIDI) and the average
of system interruption frequency index (SAIFI) are decreased by adding MGs to the
network. As the resiliency and reliability of NMCs are more than the DS with several
MGs, the value of these mentioned two indices also improves more in the NMCs.
2.2.6 Bilateral and out of Market Transactions
Since in NMCs, power exchanging between MGs exists, there is also the possibility
of power exchanging outside the wholesale market without controlling. Suppose
in the series structure of NMCs, upper MGs buy the required energy from the
distribution network with wholesale price. Since the only way to meet the shortage
of power required by the second MG is to purchase it from the first MG distribution
feeder. Therefore, the second MG has to buy a lack of power at the retail price
from the first MG, this bilateral transaction is not acceptable in NMCs. In other
words, if the pure measured energy from the upstream system is purchased with
wholesale rate while being sold with retail rate to the other consumers or MGs,
bilateral transaction rules in NMCs are allowed to prevent exporting energy. Because
in the retail transaction, it is possible to increase the price anomalistic price. In many
areas, this price increment can reach 50$/MWh. For example, if multiple microgrids
on a 1 MW grid can prevent 1 MW from exporting over 4 hours per day, the total
profit would be 73,000$/year [4].
2.3 Challenges of NMCs
2.3.1 Stability of the System
Disconnecting from the upstream network and switching to the network mode
can cause system stability problems. By isolating MG, the penetration level of
resources and uncertainties of them are increased compared to the previous one
and can cause challenges in the stability of the system. In Ref [5], the stability
problems associated with NMCs have been discussed exactly. By increasing the
penetration level of resources with uncertainty, there is the possibility of transition
from stability margin. Therefore, for any change in the structure of NMCs, stability
limits must be examined. As the topology of NMCs is changing constantly, stability
assessment is essential for this structure. Therefore, due to widespread and rapid
changes in NMCs, control systems should be able to analyze network stability with
high speed. In other words, any change in NMCs, especially when operating in the
island state, should be done to ensure sufficient stability margins of them. Once
the margin of proper stability is assured, economic dispatch can be done, and only
when networked MGs have sufficient stability margins, they can serve as resiliency
sources to actively and coordinately provide ancillary services that stabilize, restore,
or black start the main grid.
2.3.2 Protection Coordination
Proper protection coordination is one of the most essential requirements for using
high-reliability NMCs. As mentioned in the previous section, to achieve the best
performance, the network structure in NMCs has been modified frequently and this
can cause a challenge in coordinating protection equipment. It should be noted that
by changing the network topology, the amplitude and direction of fault currents are
constantly changing and can be quite different from the previous one in each case.
Also, the coordination of protective equipment in the grid-connected mode, isolate
mode, and networked mode is different from each other. Therefore, a large number
of possible topologies of NMCs changes must be preplanned. On the other hand, the
equipment fault current rate of each MG is usually considered above the nominal
limit, but it is not valid for upstream equipment. The expansion of grid-connected
MGs increases the level of system fault current and increases the nominal value of
equipment such as transformers, breakers, and protection equipment in the upstream
network (DS). Replacing equipment with higher fault current endurance is not an
economical solution. One of the proper methods is to use an adaptive protection
scheme, but it will increase the complexity of the protection system.
2.3.3 Privacy of MGs
In terms of ownership, MG is divided into three categories, utility MG, community

MG, and private MG. Privacy is a social concern and since all MG owners may not
want to share all the information except the details of power exchange, this can be
a challenge for NMCs. It should be noted that excess or deficit of power in NMCs
is usually compensated within the internal network of MGs and this will reduce the
privacy challenge partly.
2.3.4 Threat of Cyberattack
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is one of the main elements of

NMCs. Therefore, there is always the possibility of a cyberattack that can prevent
the proper entire function of the system. Therefore, cybersecurity systems must be
strong enough to prevent any probable cyberattacks. Any disturbance of the process-
ing of information or sending it to unidirectional or bidirectional communication
protocols can endanger the entire security of the system. Both in the centralized
and distributed control scheme of NMCs, there is the possibility of cyberattacks
and serious damage to the system. Of course, centralized control systems are more
resistant to cyberattacks [6]. The vulnerability is relatively higher in the distributed
control scheme, because of requiring partial data of local controllers. For example,
a destructive factor can attack to one node or linkage between nodes and exchange
inaccurate data to local or central controllers and causes instability of the entire
system. So, NMCs that require extensive communications for optimal control are
very susceptible to future cyberattack.
2.3.5 Disallowed Transactions
As mentioned in Sect. 2.6, in systems with NMCs, it is possible to exchange power

out of the framework. This will significantly increase the price of energy for the
consumer. Therefore, the exchange of power between MGs in the grid mode and
disconnected from the main grid requires an appropriate regulatory framework to
minimize illegal transactions or nodal prices increment.
2.4 Main Objectives and Constraints of NMCs
The main objectives of NMCs are divided into two levels of the distribution network
and the MG level. The objective at the distribution network level is to achieve
economic dispatch and maintain power quality throughout the studied system. To
achieve this objective, using distributed generation resources should be optimized
and the EMS should be implemented effectively in both the distribution system
and all MGs. The main operation of EMS in distribution systems includes optimal
economic performance and energy quality throughout the system.
The main objective at the level of MGs is to control voltage frequency, power
supply, and generation balance, and to manage energy storage and reservation at
each MG. In NMCs, EMS for each MG supplies the power of each MG. The
extra power generation of MG is stored in the storage system or delivered directly
to the DS or adjacent MG through EMS coordination at the distribution level.
Similarly, the lack of power of MG is supplied either through the distribution
network or through a grid connection between the MGs, directly from the MGs
of itself. Therefore, with EMS, the power supply throughout the system continues
uninterrupted and economically. This economic dispatch program in NMCs is done
by EMS at predetermined time intervals.
It should be noted that the studied system can be grid-connected, disconnected
from the grid, and a combination of both of them (Only NMCs should be
disconnected from the grid). NMCs are capable of sharing power between different
MGs of one network or between MG and DS. In an emergency condition and
isolation state from the distribution network, all MGs or some of them with more
significant loads operate as a grid by EMS. In this condition, only critical loads are
initially provided in MG. Extra power can be sent to the main grid after providing
significant loads in the DS depending on the communication between the DSO
and the transmission system operator. However, if power generation is insufficient
to supply all the loads on the DS, only significant system loads can be supplied
by activating energy storage equipment in each MG. Therefore, NMCs can feed
critical loads for longer periods by DERs and ESSs in critical conditions. In Table
2.1, general considerations, the main purposes, and constraints used in NMCs are
discussed.
2.5 Typical Architecture of NMCs
In general, the connection of MGs to each other or connection of them to a

distribution network is different. Different connections can have advantages and
disadvantages for NMCs. Since the structure of NMCs has many variations for
optimal control, it is necessary to know the types of NMCs architecture. In different
architectures, the role of each MG can vary depending on the laws of interaction
between them. There are generally two methods of interaction. For example, in one
structure, one MG may be considered as a generating and controlling member but
in another structure, it can be a controllable member [1, 3, 31, and].
In general, the architecture of NMCs can be divided into three overall categories:
serial MGs on a single feeder, parallel MGs on a single feeder, and interconnected
MGs with multiple feeders. Depending on the architecture considered for NMCs,
a set of unique communication, control, protection, and economic requirements are
considered. Figure 2.4 shows the different types of architectures used for NMCs.
2.5.1 Serial MGs on a Single Distribution Feeder
If there is no external grid, the interconnected system must be able to control the
voltage and frequency. To achieve this goal, coordination between MGs is essential
to balance power. Unlike parallel architecture, in the event of an occurrence or
disconnection, the system can be divided into subclusters with similar architecture.
According to this topology, MGs within the subcluster do not lose completely
external support. So, this topology performs better than the off-grid operation.
The serial architecture needs further evaluation and study due to its potential
performance and benefits.
According to Fig. 2.4a, if two or more MGs connect together by a single
interconnection and install on one feeder, they will form the structure of the
serial MGs on a single feeder. In this configuration, there is only one way of
communication through MG A to MG B. As MGs are interconnected and have
Table 2.1 General considerations and the main objective in NMCs

General considerations Main objective Methodology Highlights Ref
Internal communications of Develop Software PSCAD Offline study [19]
MGs hierarchical
Minimize load shading control
Stability issues and high Stability analysis FARs and Gersgorin Offline studies [5]
penetration of DERs theorem without ESS
with LP
MG syncs issues and pay Pay attention to Observer based Limited to [6]
attention to cyberattack cyberattack inverter-based
MGs
Incentive-based model with Ancillary Convex programming The role of the [7]
the presence of PV, WTs, service analysis with ADMM network operator
and ESSs has been ignored
Priority indexing of sources Economic OBS and ODD Uncertainty not [8]
and loads scheduling seen
Optimum energy scheduling
Coordinated energy Energy Stochastic ESS has not been [9]
management management programming seen.
In the presence of KKT and big-M
uncertainty and scenario method
reduction methods
Two-layered stochastic Minimize Stochastic Only active [10]
energy modeling with loads operating costs optimization power flow
and DG uncertainties
Distributed energy Energy Robust optimization High-volume [11]
management management ADMM computing
Uncertainty in DERs and
loads
Energy management Energy ADMM online High-volume [12]
Online monitoring management computing
Controller for a wide range Develop Software simulation PV and wind [13]
of functions and hierarchical uncertainties are
communication failure is control not seen.
modeled.
Resiliency improvement NMCs planning Robust optimization ESS has not been [14]
N–k contingency modeling CPLEX seen.
Self-healing and Energy Consensus algorithm Dynamic [16]
autonomous operation management stability is not
Energy storage and MTs guaranteed.
Dynamic electricity pricing Economic Fuzzy adaptive Uncertainty not [17]
based on incentive model, scheduling MOPSO seen
PV, WTs, MTs, FCs, and
ESSs
Service and maintenance Planning service MILP stochastic High- [18]
With DG and ESSs and maintenance performance PC
is needed.
Voltage control and power Voltage stability Simulink modeling Delay in [20]
management communication
causes instability.
(continuted)
Table 2.1 (continued)

General considerations Main objective Methodology Highlights Ref
Outage detection Economic MIQP An advanced [21]
Reconfiguration and load scheduling metering
curtailment infrastructure
system is
required.
V/F stability Develop Software PSCAD The study is [22]
hierarchical offline and
control requires large
ESS.
P/F/V control Economic MILP It has an [23]
With linear approximation scheduling uncertain
solution.
Combined AC/DC MGs Develop Simulink Privacy issues are [24]
with various DGs hierarchical not considered
control
Economic dispatch problem Economic MOIA Suitable only for [25]
Non-dispatchable DG and scheduling MGs with
ESS nondispatchable
DGs.
Hybrid energy management Energy CPLEX It is a day-ahead [26]
MGs privacy management scheduling
Auction-based production Automatic OPC toolbox in Reliable [27]
control short-term energy generation MATLAB communication
management control is required.
Energy modeling with MPC Energy MILP Uncertainty is [28]
framework management not considered.
Different types of DGs and
ESSs
Minimize operating costs NMCs planning ICA ESS not seen. [29]
Uncertainties in DERs and
loads
Maximize the profits of Demand PSO It is a day-ahead [30]
customers and energy response and scheduling
producers energy
Reduce production management
costs/pollution/uncertainty programs
and maximize load supply
Minimize the operating Energy Self-healing control Load and [15]
costs of each MG and management generation
automatic power supply in Exchange of uncertainties are
NMCs and charge control of active and not considered.
energy storage before and reactive power
after fault
NMCs resiliency NMCs planning Robust optimization High-volume [15]
DC/AC MGs and consensus algorithm computing
uncertainties
1 2 3
Main Grid
SW1
Communication line SW2

Power line
MG A MG B
DMS
(a) Serial MGs on a single feeder of DS
1 2 3
Main Grid
SW1 SW3
Communication line SW2

Power line
MG A MG B
DMS
(b) Parallel MGs on a single feeder of DS
1 2
SW1
MG A
Main Grid SW2

DMS
MG B
SW3
3 4
(c) Interconnected MGs on multiple feeders of DS
Fig. 2.4 Types of architectures used in NMCs
only one way of communication, a communication protocol with a master-slave

architecture or hierarchical communication system can be used to control this
structure. In this structure, the distribution management system (DMS) provides
the communication requirements for the main controller of MG A, and the MG
A controller (MCA) also provides the communication requirements for the MCB
similarly. Since there is only one connector between the equipment, each DMS
needs to exchange information with the MCB.
The following situations may occur for this architecture:

If both SW1 and SW2 switches are closed. The MGs are connected to the
distribution feeder. In this case, each MG controller is optimized and controlled
according to its information and orders and the other MGs. In other words, for
optimization of the MGA, lack or extra of MGB power should also be considered.
If both SW1 and SW2 switches are opened. MGs are isolated from the distri-
bution feeder and operates as an island mode. In this case, each MG controller is
optimized and controlled according to its information and orders.
If the SW1 switch is closed and SW2 is opened, MG A is connected to the grid
and MG B operates as an island mode. MCA controls MG A based on information
obtained from DMS, while MCB controls only MG B through the information of
internal resources.
If the SW2 switch is closed and SW1 is opened, MG A is disconnected from
the grid and MG B is connected to MG A through internal communication. In the
hierarchical control architecture, MG A can consider MG B as part of its system
and optimize it individually or optimize MG B with terms of total cost objective
function and voltage and power limit of point common coupling (PCC). For these
conditions, MCA should have plug-and-play capability. But, if a distributed control
system is used, MCA and MCB will interact to reach an agreement about the voltage
and power limitation of the AB at the PCC.
2.5.2 Parallel MGs on a Single Distribution Feeder
According to Fig. 2.4b, if two or more MGs are installed individually like tie
interconnection on one feeder and connected together, they will form a parallel MG
structure on a single feeder. In this structure, all microgrids are connected to the
same external network and each MG needs a PCC for connecting to the network.
Therefore, any electrical path between MGs is performed through an external grid.
Regarding architecture and the grid-connected mode, the MGs can provide ancillary
services to the external grid. Also, the operator of an external grid can send orders
to the MG with the DMS controller. When one MG operates in island mode, it must
be self-sufficient because it has no other external electrical connection to support it.
In this structure, the master-slave or hierarchical control architecture can also
be used and different modes of this connection to the distribution system can be
considered:
If SW1 and SW3 are closed and SW2 is opened, both MGs A and B are connected
separately to the distribution network. In this case, the controller of each MG is
optimized and controlled by DMS based on their information or orders.
If all three switches are opened, both MGs A and B are disconnected from the grid
and each MG is controlled and optimized based on its information and internal
resources.
If SW1 is closed and SW2 and SW3 are opened, MG A is connected to the grid,
but MG B is island mode. In this case, the controller of MG A is optimized and
controlled based on the information or order obtained from the DMS, while MG
B is controlled based on its information and internal resources.
If SW1or SW3 is opened and SW2 is closed, MG A or MG B is connected to the
grid and the second MG is connected to the other MG by internal connection
and they form an internal grid. In this case, the grid structure becomes a serial
architecture connected to the single feeder.
2.5.3 Interconnected MGs on Multiple Distribution Feeders
Interconnected MGs in multi-feeders’ structure, that two or more MGs are con-
nected separately to different feeders, are interconnected MGs on multiple distribu-
tion feeders. In this architecture, MGs can be connected directly to the external grid
or can form clusters of series interconnected MGs. Each of these clusters has, at
least, one interconnection with the external grid. It allows MGs to get support from
other grids when they are disconnected or when the external network is overloaded.
Besides, in grid-connected mode, they can provide the ancillary services required
by the main grid operator. Assuming a master-slave architecture for this structure,
the following modes associated with the distribution network may be formed:
1. Both MGs A and B are connected separately to the grid with different feeders.
Each MG controller is optimized and controlled by the DMS based on its
information and orders.
2. Both MGs A and B are disconnected from the grid and are optimized and
controlled based on their information and internal resources.
3. If MG A is connected to the grid but MG B is island mode or vice versa. In this
case, control and optimization are similar to the previous sections.
4. If MG A or MG B are connected to the grid, the other is connected via PCC
AB and communication switch. By coordinating the separator switches in the
feeders, different paths can be provided to transfer power between the feeders or
other MGs. This is a unique feature.
A comparison between different architectures of NMCs is not easy as two
compared systems must be similar in terms of amount and rating. For this purpose,
a comparison is made between two parallel and serial structures in Ref [31]. To
compare both architectures, similar features must be considered. So, according to
Fig. 2.5, both examples contain 4 MGs in the form of a ring.
To reduce this effect, the size of the transmission cables should be large enough.
However, in both plans, cable size increment should be considered. But, in serial
structure, interface cables size between MGs should be increased. It can be noted
that power can flow both through the cables and the interface device. But in the
parallel structure, the interface elements are designed solely on their input and
output power and they have fewer elements than the series structure.
PCC 1 PCC 2
Link 1-2
MG1 MG2 MG1 MG2
Link 1-3 Link 2-4
MG3 Link 3-4 MG4 MG3 MG4
PCC 3 PCC 4
Fig. 2.5 Series architectures (left) and parallel (right) with 4 MGs
For example, in Fig. 2.5, the serial structure requires eight interface devices,
but the parallel structure requires four interface devices. Therefore, according to
the required higher rating equipment and the cost of interface devices, the serial
structure has higher costs than the parallel structure. The cost of the hybrid structure
is also expected to be between parallel and serial structures.
2.6 Control Strategy of NMCs
Coordinated control strategies for MGs are divided into four general categories:
(a) peer-to-peer control strategy; (b) master-slave control strategy; (c) hierarchical
control strategy; and (d) distributed control strategy.
2.6.1 Peer-to-Peer Control Strategy in NMCs
Peer-to-peer control systems are recommended for the plugging and playing of the
MG controller. The peer-to-peer control strategy in NMCs has been developed to
remove the problem of centralized control. This method avoids the increment of
communication links and it can develop well and decrease the cost. This type of
control strategy has not a central controller and it is inspired by P2P computer
networking. As shown in Fig. 2.6, all agents or local DERs can communicate with
other agents and have the same importance.
In peer-to-peer, MGs are autonomous due to the absence of a central controller,
and its communication is used for dissemination of the grid states to all required
agents in the MG. The grid-supporting agents can then act according to the received
information and in cooperation with each other. In this way, they should be able to
reach an optimal operation of the considered microgrid. When a single agent fails,
the others can still stably manage the grid. Also, when a single communication
Fig. 2.6 P2P control strategy
channel fails, the required information can still reach all necessary participants,
through other agents. Because of these properties, this strategy is a robust way to
control an MG. Also, the elimination of possible privacy concerns is reached due to
keeping all information locally. So, all agents need a considerable amount of local
intelligence, as they need to be able to execute the necessary optimizations.
2.6.2 Master-Slave Control Strategy in NMCs
In master-slaves strategy, one section is known as Master and the other is known as
Slave. The information is transmitted between the master controller and the slave
controllers. The technical difficulties and risks of this control system are low for
NMCs, but if they fail, the main controller of the MGCs and the entire control
system of the NMCs will not be able to perform well. Therefore, if the system
relies too much on the main controller, MGC reliability will get into trouble. It is
noteworthy that the master-slave control is mostly used in the island mode of NMCs
and the peer-to-peer control is mostly used in grid-connected mode.
2.6.3 Hierarchical Control Strategy in NMCs
A hierarchical control strategy (HCS) is used to solve the stability problem when
changing the control mode. Hierarchical control is the most common method in
MGs and MGCs and is also suitable for more complex systems including NMCs.
A multilayer HCS is commonly used to control NMCs. Figure 2.7 represents the
Primary Control Secondary Control Tertiary Control
(Distributed) (Quasi-Centralized) (Centralized)
Optimized Energy Management Regular Error Correction Fast Load Sharing

• Economic dispatch • Real-time load management • Droop control
• Unit commitment • Load-frequency control • Local protection
• Optimal power flow • Voltage control
• Reactive power control • Synchronization (MG level only)
(Distributed/networked level) • Automatic generation control
(Networked/ MG level)
Measurement Signal
Control Signal
Milliseconds Minutes
Fig. 2.7 Hierarchical control strategy for networked MGs
HCS for controlling the performance of NMCs. This control structure has primary,
secondary, and tertiary layers.
The main objectives for each control layer are shown in Fig. 2.7. The main
objective function of the primary (first) control layer is the exclusive and local
control of the performance of each MG equipment such as V/f, P/Q, and P/V.
Power quality, power flow, and frequency synchronization control are performed
in the second layer. Optimal energy management such as economic load dispatch,
load forecasting, and resource optimization at the distribution network level is
performed in the third layer of the hierarchical control structure. Also, DMS or
EMS, in general, has direct control over all separator switches and controls the PCC
through MG controllers. It is noteworthy that a reliable communication channel is
an important section of this type of control strategy [32].
In the grid-connected mode of NMCs, DSO communicates with all grid MGs to
control and optimize the economic dispatch and internal resources. In fact, in this
control system, DSO monitors the power flow of all PCCs in the grid. This moni-
toring is done based on price signals/incentives and general objectives/optimization
requirements and is based on solving the economic dispatch problem. Also, when
island mode occurs, DSO sends an islanding mode signal to MG or the MG may
also send the DSO disconnection signal after the disturbance occurs.
In such cases, the DSO may also request from neighboring MGs to switch the
island mode. The synchronization of MGs to the distribution network or switching to
the networked mode is performed by the DSO and the request of the incoming MG
controller. However, the reconnection of the two islanded MGs is done only when
the agreement is reached between the two MGs. First, the V/f control responsibility
is assigned to one MG and the PCC connection point voltage is kept constant, then
the PCC is closed and the networking signal is sent to the two MG sources. HCS
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Title: Survey of London, Volume 05 (of 14), the parish of St.

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William Edward Riley
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LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL
SURVEY OF LONDON
ISSUED BY THE JOINT PUBLISHING
COMMITTEE REPRESENTING THE LONDON
COUNTY COUNCIL AND THE COMMITTEE
FOR THE SURVEY OF THE MEMORIALS OF
GREATER LONDON
UNDER THE GENERAL EDITORSHIP OF
SIR LAURENCE GOMME (for the Council)
PHILIP NORMAN (for the Survey
Committee)
VOLUME V.
THE PARISH OF ST. GILES-IN-THE-FIELDS
(Part II.)
PUBLISHED BY THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL, SPRING

GARDENS, LONDON
1914
THE PARISH OF ST. GILES-IN-THE-FIELDS (PART II.), BEING
THE FIFTH VOLUME OF THE SURVEY OF LONDON, WITH
DRAWINGS, ILLUSTRATIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL
DESCRIPTIONS, BY W. EDWARD RILEY, ARCHITECT TO THE
COUNCIL. EDITED, WITH HISTORICAL NOTES, BY SIR
LAURENCE GOMME, CLERK OF THE COUNCIL.
JOINT PUBLISHING COMMITTEE
REPRESENTING THE LONDON COUNTY
COUNCIL AND THE COMMITTEE FOR THE
SURVEY OF THE MEMORIALS OF GREATER
LONDON.
Chairman.
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The Manchester Central Library.
C. O. Masters.
Miss B. A. Meinertzhagen.
The Metropolitan Public Gardens Association.
G. Vaughan Morgan.
John Murray, F.R.I.B.A.
The New York Public Library.
Allan Nickinson.
F. H. Norman.
R. C. Norman.
Mrs. Robert Norman.
The Rev. J. P. Noyes.
Vere L. Oliver.
The Oxford and Cambridge Club.
F. W. Peters.
Mrs. W. Wilton Phipps.
F. W. Platt.
D’Arcy Power, F.R.C.S.
Sir E. J. Poynter, P.R.A., F.S.A.
F. W. Procter.
The Public Record Office.
Mrs. F. L. W. Richardson.
Colin E. Reader.
The Reform Club.
Sir Joseph Savory.
Sion College.
Mrs. Vernon Smith.
A. G. Snelgrove.
W. J. Songhurst.
H. C. Sotheran.
Walter L. Spiers.
F. B. Spooner.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Alexander Thynne.
A. G. Warren.
The Library of Congress, Washington.
Mrs. Westlake.
Mrs. Wharrie.
J. Barrington White.
Miss M. J. Wilde.
Dr. George C. Williamson.
Walter Withall.
John E. Yerbury.
Keith D. Young, F.R.I.B.A.
Active Members.
C. R. Ashbee.
Oswald Barron, F.S.A.
A. H. Blake.
W. W. Braines.
A. E. Bullock, A.R.I.B.A.
G. H. Chettle.
A. W. Clapham, F.S.A.
George Clinch, F.G.S., F.S.A., Scot.
A. O. Collard, F.R.I.B.A.
F. T. Dear.
William Doddington.
H. W. Fincham.
Matt. Garbutt.
Walter H. Godfrey.
Mrs. Ernest Godman.
T. Frank Green, A.R.I.B.A.
Edwin Gunn, A.R.I.B.A.
Osborn C. Hills, F.R.I.B.A.
E. W. Hudson.
T. Gordon Jackson, Licentiate R.I.B.A.
Max Judge.
P. K. Kipps, A.R.I.B.A.
Gilbert H. Lovegrove.
Ernest A. Mann, Licentiate R.I.B.A.
E. T. Marriott, M.A.
Cecil G. McDowell.
W. Monk, R.E.
Sydney Newcombe.
E. C. Nisbet.
Robert Pearsall.
A. Wyatt Papworth, A.R.I.B.A.
Francis W. Reader.
Ernest Railton.
John Ravenshaw.
Francis R. Taylor, Licentiate R.I.B.A.
George Trotman.
Miss E. M. B. Warren.
W. A. Webb, A.R.I.B.A.
A. P. Wire.
W. Wonnacott, A.R.I.B.A.
E. L. Wratten, A.R.I.B.A.
Edward Yates.
W. P. Young.
Philip Norman, F.S.A., LL.D., Editor of the Committee.
E. L. Meinertzhagen, J.P., Treasurer of the Committee.
Percy Lovell, B.A., A.R.I.B.A.,
Secretary of the Committee, 27, Abingdon Street, Westminster,
S.W.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
GENERAL TITLE PAGE i
SPECIAL TITLE PAGE iii
MEMBERS OF THE JOINT PUBLISHING COMMITTEE iv
MEMBERS OF THE SURVEY COMMITTEE v
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES ix
PREFACE xv
THE SURVEY OF ST. GILES-IN-THE-FIELDS:—
Boundary of the Parish of St. Giles-in-the-Fields 1
High Holborn, from the Parish Boundary to Little
Turnstile 3
Nos. 3 and 4, Gate Street 10
High Holborn, between Little Turnstile and Kingsway 13
No. 211, High Holborn 16
Smart’s Buildings and Goldsmith Street 18
Nos. 181 and 172, High Holborn 23
Site of Rose Field (Macklin Street, Shelton Street,
Newton Street (part) and Parker Street (part)) 27
No. 18, Parker Street 33
Great Queen Street (general) 34
No. 2, Great Queen Street 38
Nos. 26 to 28, Great Queen Street 40
Nos. 55 and 56, Great Queen Street 42
Freemasons’ Hall 59
Markmasons’ Hall 84
Great Queen Street Chapel 86
Site of Weld House 93
Nos. 6 and 7, Wild Court 98
No. 16, Little Wild Street 99
No. 1, Sardinia Street 100
Site of Lennox House 101
Nos. 24 and 32, Betterton Street 104
No. 25, Endell Street 105
North of Short’s Gardens 106
Site of Marshland (Seven Dials) 112
The Church of All Saints, West Street 115
Site of the Hospital of St. Giles 117
Church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields 127
Nos. 14 to 16, Compton Street 141
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11, Denmark Street 142
North of Denmark Place 144
Site of The Rookery 145
Nos. 100, 101 and 102, Great Russell Street 147
Bedford Square (General) 150
No. 1, Bedford Square 152
Nos. 6 and 6A, Bedford Square 154
Nos. 68 and 84, Gower Street 185
North and South Crescents and Alfred Place 186
House in rear of No. 196, Tottenham Court Road 188
INDEX
PLATES Nos. 1 to 107
MAP OF THE PARISH

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Microgrids: Advances in Operation,

Control, and Protection (Power

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

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**Power Systems is indexed in Scopus**

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4622

Behnam Mohammadi-Ivatloo Nikos Hatziargyriou

ISSN 1612-1287 ISSN 1860-4676 (electronic)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Increased penetration of distributed generations (DGs) in the power system has

of both AC and DC microgrids and covers the distributed control techniques

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Aalborg, Denmark Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam

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1.2 Microgrid Components

Wind turbine Loads

Fig. 1.1 A simple MG structure

the local distribution networks. This is particularly important, in case of natural or

According to Navigant Research, MG can be classified into different groups based

MGs could be categorized in different types scuh as campus, military, residential,

MGs can be used to provide premium power or resilience-oriented services. The

1.3.4 Operation Mode

MGs can operate in two modes: grid-connected and islanded. In grid-connected

The topologies in which components of an MG, namely loads, micro-sources, and

Urban Rural Off-grid

Fig. 1.2 Feeder-based classification

1.3.6 Characteristics/Properties of the Feeder

1.4.1 Hierarchical Control

Hierarchical, multilevel control is adopted for the effective control of MGs,

1.4.1.1 Primary Control

1.4.1.2 Secondary Control

1.4.1.3 Tertiary Control

Load Sharing Functions

Changing the Set -

Frequency and Voltage

Fig. 1.3 Different control level for the MG

Central Central Central

Point of common coupling Point of common coupling Point of common coupling

a) Centralized MG b) Distributed MG c) Hybrid MG

1.4.2 Control Coordination

Control coordination of MG can be divided into a centralized, distributed, or a

1.4.2.1 Centralized Control

1.4.2.2 Distributed Control

performance is not generally achieved in this topology as compared to the central-

1.4.2.3 Hybrid Control

A hybrid control scheme, as the name suggests, is a combination of central

RES integration with stochastic, uncontrollable, and intermittent nature is one of

Fig. 1.5 Stability definition

1.5.1 Grid-Connected MG Stability

Power Systems is indexed in Scopus