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Chapter 6
ASSESSMENT Cognitive Development in Infancy
GUIDE
Topic Factual Conceptual Applied
QUICK QUIZ 1 Multiple Choice 1-3, 5 8, 10 4, 6-7, 9
LO1: What are the Multiple Choice 1, 3-4, 8, 11-13, 16, 2, 14, 19, 21, 27, 29 5-7, 9-10, 15, 17, 20,
fundamental features of 18, 22-24, 26, 30-31, 25, 28, 32
Piaget’s theory of 33
cognitive development? True/False 86, 90, 94 89, 91 87, 88, 92-93, 95
Short Answer 101 102-104 105
Essay 111-113
LO2: How has Piaget’s Multiple Choice 34
theory been supported True/False 96
and challenged by later
research? Short Answer
Essay 114
LO3: How do infants Multiple Choice 35-36, 38-39 37, 40
process information? True/False 97-98
Short Answer 106
Essay
LO4: What are the Multiple Choice 41-43, 45 46 44
memory capabilities of True/False 99
infants?
Short Answer
Essay
LO5: How is infant Multiple Choice 47-48, 51-52, 55-56, 49-50, 53-54, 57-58
intelligence measured? 59
True/False
Short Answer
Essay 115
LO6: What processes do Multiple Choice 60-66, 68, 70-73, 75, 67, 69, 76, 79 74, 78
children learn to use 77, 80-82
language? True/False 100
Short Answer 107-108 109
Essay 118 116-117
LO7: How do children Multiple Choice 83-85
influence adults’ True/False
language?
Short Answer 110
Essay
138
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Quick Quiz
1. The first stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development begins with reflex action and ends with mental
representations. This first stage is known as the
a. sensorimotor stage. c. concrete operational stage.
b. preoperational stage. d. formal operations stage.
2. According to Piaget’s theory, children’s understanding grows through two main processes: ___________, in
which the child places a new stimulus or experience within the context of the way he or she currently thinks;
and __________, in which the child changes his or her way of thinking to include the new stimulus or
experience.
a. accommodation; assimilation c. assimilation; accommodation
b. adaptation; organization d. organization; adaptation
3. The information-processing approach to cognitive development examines three processes in terms of children’s
ability to process information. Those processes are ___________, ___________, and ___________.
a. decay; interference; amnesia c. sensory; short-term memory; long-term memory
b. semantic; episodic; procedural memory d. encoding; storage; retrieval
4. For Ashley’s second birthday, her family went on a trip to Disney World, but now, just four years later, Ashley
has little or no memory of this family trip. Ashley’s inability to remember this major family excursion is due to
a. memory interference. c. infantile amnesia.
b. retrograde amnesia. d. proactive amnesia.
5. Which of the following measures mental and motor abilities in infants?

a. visual-recognition memory measurement
b. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
c. APGAR
d. Bayley Scales of Infant Development
6. Claude gets his mother’s attention by making a kind of grunting noise and then looks at the ball just out of his
reach. Claude’s attempt to communicate his desire for the ball is an example of
a. semantics. c. language.
b. babbling. d. prelinguistic communication.
7. Alfie calls for the “book” when he wants the menu in the neighborhood diner. Alfie’s use of the word “book” to
include the menu best illustrates which characterization of early speech?
a. holophrases c. overextension
b. telegraphic d. underextension
8. In the nativist approach to language development, theorist Noam Chomsky suggests that an innate mechanism
directs language development. He refers to the neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit understanding
of language as a(n) ___________.
a. language acquisition device c. grammar checker
b. universal grammar d. communication device
9. Martha went from person to person asking if they wanted some birthday cake, but when she asked the youngest
children at the party her voice pitch rose and she spoke with a type of singing quality. Martha was utilizing
__________ with the children present.
a. attention-getting speech c. holographic speech
b. infant-directed speech d. telegraphic speech
139
10. Research on deaf infants reveal which of the following comparisons in language development when compared
with non-deaf infants?
a. Deaf infants appear to not babble, as do non-deaf infants.
b. Mothers of deaf and non-deaf children both employ infant-directed speech.
c. Deaf infants do not seem to overextend when acquiring language.
d. Deaf infants are more likely to demonstrate underextensions when acquiring language.
140
Quick Quiz Answers
1. Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development
Answer: a Page(s): 143-144 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Piaget’s first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which consists of six substages. This stage begins at
birth with reflexive actions and continues through the achievement of mental representations.
2. Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Answer: b Page(s): 143-144 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: In the Piagetian view, children’s understanding grows through assimilation of their experiences into
their current way of thinking, or through accommodation of their current way of thinking to their experiences.
3. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

Answer: d Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Information-processing approaches to the study of cognitive development seek to learn how
individual receive, organize, store, and retrieve information. These are accomplished through encoding, storage,
and retrieval processes.

Answer: c Page(s): 152 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Infantile amnesia refers to the lack of memory for experiences occurring prior to 3 years of age.

Answer: b Page(s): 154 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The developmental quotient, Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and the visual-recognition
memory measurement are all traditional measures used for infant intelligence. The MMPI is not used with
infants.
6. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language

Answer: d Page(s): 157-158 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: This is an example of prelinguistic communication, communication through sounds, facial
expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.

Answer: c Page(s): 160-161 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: All of these answers represent characterizations of early speech; however, the example best
illustrates the use of overextension, or the broad application or overgeneralization of a word. Alfie applies the
word “book” broadly to include the diner’s menu.

Answer: a Page(s): 162 Type: Conceptual Diff: Easy
Rationale: The nativist approach to language development is a theory that a genetically determined, innate
mechanism directs language development. Linguist Noam Chomsky hypothesized that a language acquisition
device or a neural system that permits the understanding of language provides a child with the strategies and
techniques for learning the language to which the child is exposed.

Answer: b Page(s): 162-163 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Martha was using infant-directed speech. Infant-directed speech is a shift in your language to a style
of speech that characterizes much of the verbal communication directed toward infants. The term infant-
directed speech is a gender-free term used in place of the former motherese.
141
Answer: c Page(s): 164 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The process of language acquisition for deaf children through signing has some striking similarities
with the process of language acquisition for non-deaf children. Consider the fact that deaf children babble, using
signs much as non-deaf children babble. In addition, mothers of deaf children also employ the use of infant-
directed speech, in this case using a slower tempo for signing and often repeating signs.
142
Chapter 6
Cognitive Development in Infancy
Multiple Choice Questions
6.1 Piaget’s stage theory is composed of a series of four universal stages that occur in a fixed order from birth
through adolescence and are, in chronological order,
a. formal operational; concrete operational; preoperational; and sensorimotor.
b. sensorimotor; preoperational; concrete operational; and formal operational.
c. sensorimotor; formal operational; preoperational; and concrete operational.
d. sensorimotor; formal operational; concrete operational; and preoperational.
Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Rationale: Piaget’s theory is a stage-based theory that occurs in a fixed order from birth through adolescence. The
four universal stages are, in order, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.
6.2 Piaget’s views of the ways infants learn could be summed up in which of the following equations?
a. action = knowledge c. perception = knowledge
b. facts = knowledge d. experience = perception

Answer: a Page(s): 142 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Piaget’s theory argues against knowledge from facts communicated by others, as well as through
sensation or perception. Instead, Piaget espoused that action equals knowledge.
6.3 Piaget believed that the basic building blocks of the way we understand the world are mental structures called
___________, organized patterns of functioning that adapt and change with mental development.
a. schemes c. accommodation
b. assimilation d. concepts

Answer: a Page(s): 143 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Schemes are mental structures that are organized patterns of functioning; they adapt and change with
mental development.
6.4 According to Piaget, ___________ is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their
current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking.
a. scheme c. accommodation
b. assimilation d. concept

Answer: b Page(s): 143 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of
cognitive development and way of thinking.
143
6.5 The first time Aiesha saw a flying squirrel, she called it a bird. Aiesha is ___________ the squirrel to her
existing scheme of bird.
a. accommodating c. comparing
b. assimilating d. categorizing

Answer: b Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
cognitive development and way of thinking. In this example, Aiesha is relating the flying squirrel to her current
scheme that a flying animal is a bird.
6.6 Twelve-month-old Mitchell loves to play with his kickball. One day his father came home with a new ball for
him to enjoy. Mitchell jumped up and down and shouted gleefully, “Kickball!” His father said, “No, Mitchell,
this is a soccer ball.” Mitchell is ___________ the soccer ball to his existing scheme of kickball.
a. accommodating c. comparing
b. assimilating d. categorizing

Answer: b Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
cognitive development and way of thinking. In this example, Mitchell is relating the soccer ball to his current
scheme of a ball of a certain size as a kickball.
6.7 The first time Charlie saw a full moon he called it a ball. Charlie is most likely ___________ the full moon
into his ball scheme.
a. organizing c. accommodating
b. assimilating d. transferring

cognitive development and way of thinking. In this example, Charlie is relating the moon to his current scheme of a
round object as a ball.
6.8 According to Piaget, ___________ is the result of making changes in our existing ways of thinking, and it
occurs in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.
a. scheme c. accommodation
b. assimilation d. concept

Answer: c Page(s): 143 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Accommodation is changes in ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli
or events.
144
6.9 The first time 10-month-old Daniel tried to use a cup and a straw, he tipped the whole cup up like a bottle and
got very wet. His mother quickly intervened and put the cup in an upright position. Soon, Daniel learned that
you may tip up your bottle, but cups and straws must remain in an upright position. Daniel’s modification to
his drinking scheme is the result of a(n)
a. scheme. c. accommodation.
b. assimilation. d. concept.

Answer: c Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Accommodation is changes in ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli
or events. In this example, the new encounter is a cup and straw, as opposed to the familiar bottle. At first, Daniel
treats the cup like a bottle, but he changes his way of thinking and therefore uses the cup and straw differently than
the bottle.
6.10 During a visit to the dentist, 2-year-old Arya saw a mural with a mermaid in it. Arya said, “Hey, Mom, why is
that fish woman swimming in the water?” Arya is most likely beginning the process of
a. schemation. c. accommodation.
b. assimilation. d. concept.

Rationale: Accommodation is changes in ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or
events. In this example, Arya is beginning to question the current way of her thinking and is beginning the process
of changing her thinking to fit this new information.
6.11 The first substage of the sensorimotor period is ___________, which encompasses the first month of life.
a. primary circular reactions c. secondary circular reactions
b. simple reflexes d. the sleep-wake cycle

Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes and these simple reflexes also represent the first substage of the
sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.
6.12 In Piaget’s theory, the ___________ stage is the initial major stage of cognitive development, which can be
broken down into six substages.
a. preoperational c. formal operational
b. concrete operational d. sensorimotor

Answer: d Page(s): 143 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: The sensorimotor stage is the initial stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
6.13 According to Piaget, the earliest schemes are primarily limited to the ___________ with which we are all
born, such as sucking and rooting.
a. reflexes c. ideas
b. concepts d. notions

Rationale: Schemes are, at first, related to sensorimotor activity, and the earliest schemes are primarily limited to
reflexes.
145
6.14 Three-week-old Alex will suck on anything that touches his lips whether it was his hand, his father’s back, a
cloth diaper, or a toy. This indiscriminate sucking is an example of a
a. simple reflex. c. primary circular reaction.
b. circular reaction. d. secondary circular reaction.

Answer: a Page(s): 144 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes, and these simple reflexes also represent the first substage of the
sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. In this example, Alex is displaying the sucking reflex.
6.15 Nicholas was a breastfed baby. However, when he was 3 weeks old, his mother introduced him to a bottle.
Nicholas quickly learned to modify his ___________ scheme to the different sucking patterns required by the
bottle.
a. circular reaction c. secondary circular reaction
b. primary circular reaction d. reflex

Answer: d Page(s): 144 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes, and these simple reflexes also represent the first substage of the
sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. In this example, Nicholas is modifying his sucking reflex.
6.16 According to Piaget, ___________ is an activity that permits the constructions of cognitive schemes through
the repetition of a changed motor event.
a. circular reaction c. secondary reaction
b. primary reaction d. tertiary reaction

Answer: a Page(s): 144-145 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events that help the baby start building cognitive
schemes.
6.17 Three-month-old Lionel loved to suck on his fingers. He was quite fond of putting his fingers into his mouth
and then pulling them out only to look them over for a minute or two before putting them back into his
mouth. He repeated this behavior over and over. Lionel’s behavior with his fingers illustrates a
a. simple reflex. c. secondary circular reaction.
b. primary circular reaction. d. tertiary circular reaction.

Answer: b Page(s): 144-145 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events that help the baby start building cognitive
schemes. In this example, Lionel is repeating the event of putting his fingers into his mouth and pulling them
out again.
6.18 ___________ reactions are schemes regarding repeated actions that bring about a desirable consequence.
a. Primary circular c. Tertiary circular
b. Secondary circular d. Fourth circular

Answer: b Page(s): 144-145 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Secondary circular reactions are repeated actions that bring about a desirable consequence.
146
6.19 Primary circular reactions are activities that focus on ___________ while secondary circular reactions
involve actions relating to ____________.
a. the infant’s own body; the world outside
b. any infant; the environment
c. the self; nature
d. the concrete; abstract thought

Answer: a Page(s): 144-145 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Primary circular reactions focus on the infant’s own body, while the secondary circular reactions relate
to the world outside.
6.20 Five-month-old Stewart enjoyed repeatedly shaking his rattle in new and innovative ways in order to hear the
different sounds each new movement made. According to Piaget, Stewart is demonstrating a
a. simple reflex. c. secondary circular reaction.
b. primary circular reaction. d. tertiary circular reaction.

Rationale: Secondary circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events in the outside world that help the baby
start building cognitive schemes. In this example, it is the initial chance motor event of shaking the rattle that is
repeated in new and innovative ways.
6.21 When 10-month-old Mary Kate was placed on the floor with a pile of toys, she would actively push toys out
of her way in an effort to reach her partially covered favorite toy telephone. According to Piaget, Mary Kate
is demonstrating
a. target-directed behavior. c. center-directed behavior.
b. goal-directed behavior. d. focused behavior.

Answer: b Page(s): 145 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Goal-directed behavior is behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a
single act to solve a problem. Mary Kate’s pushing of toys to reach a favorite toy is an example of goal-directed
behavior.
6.22 Behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem
is called

single act to solve a problem.
6.23 According to Piaget, ___________ is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot
be seen.
a. object stability c. object permanence
b. object mobility d. object constancy

Answer: c Page(s): 145-146 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen.
147
6.24 Before an infant has understood the idea of __________, he will not search for an object that has been hidden
right before his eyes.

Answer: c Page(s): 145-146 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen. The
absence of object permanence means that the infant is not aware that the hidden object still exists.
6.25 James accidentally got his hands on a knife. When James’s mother took the knife and put it where he could
no long reach or see it, James howled and kept trying to reach for the knife that had disappeared. According
to Piaget, James’s behavior is an example of
a. object stability. c. object permanence.
b. object mobility. d. object constancy.

Answer: c Page(s): 145-146 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen. In
this example, James demonstrates object permanence by continuing to cry and reach for the knife even though it is
hidden.
is called

single act to solve a problem.
6.27 Tertiary circular reactions differ from secondary circular reactions by the fact that they
a. focus on the infant’s own body awareness.
b. only deal with the infant’s immediate environment.
c. lead only to chance results.
d. focus on experimentation.

Answer: d Page(s): 146 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Tertiary circular reactions are the deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences. As
opposed to just repeating activities, in tertiary circular reactions the baby appears to carry out mini-experiments.
6.28 Eighteen-month-old Joshua received a train set from his visiting grandmother. Joshua’s grandmother set it up
and demonstrated how to drive the train on the track while saying “chugga, chugga, choo, choo.” Later that
day, Joshua picked up a train piece and imitated the “chugga, chugga, choo, choo” sounds. Joshua’s behavior
places him in the ___________ substage of the sensorimotor stage.
a. primary circular reaction c. tertiary circular reaction
b. secondary circular reaction d. beginnings of thought

Answer: d Page(s): 146-147 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Joshua is demonstrating deferred imitation, which presents in the sixth substage of the sensorimotor
stage of cognitive development, the beginnings of thought.
148
6.29 According to Piaget, in the __________ substage, infants will push one toy out of the way to reach a partially
hidden toy underneath.
a. primary circular reaction c. coordination of secondary circular reaction
b. secondary circular reaction d. tertiary circular reaction

Answer: d Page(s): 147 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: It is in this, the fourth substage, that goal-directed behavior begins. Pushing one toy out of the way to
reach a partially hidden toy underneath is an example of goal-directed behavior.
6.30 With the attainment of the cognitive skill of ___________, children are able to imitate people and scenes they
have witnessed in the past.
a. mental symbolics c. deferred imitation
b. mind representation d. mind symbolics

Rationale: Deferred imitation is the ability to present and repeat a scene or action that was witnessed in the past.
6.31 A ___________ is an internal image of a past event or object.

a. mind representation c. mental symbol
b. mental image d. mental representation

Rationale: A mental representation is an internal image of a past event or object.
6.32 Eighteen-month-old Lawrence’s favorite pastime is to roll balls around the house. He particularly likes to roll
balls under the furniture and run to where he thinks they might emerge. This is an example of a
a. mind representation. c. mental symbol.
b. mental image. d. mental representation.

Rationale: A mental representation is an internal image of a past event or object. In this example, Lawrence has an
internal mental image of where the balls will roll and emerge.
6.33 According to Piaget, __________ is an act in which children imitate a person who is no longer present.
a. deferred imitation c. deferred modeling
b. delayed imitation d. delayed modeling

Answer: a Page(s): 147 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Deferred imitation is the ability to present and repeat a scene or action that was witnessed in the past.
6.34 Piaget’s critics cast doubt on Piaget’s view that infants are incapable of mastering the concept of
___________ until they are close to a year old.

Answer: c Page(s): 147-148 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: One criticism of Piaget’s theory deals with the concept of object permanence. Critics have suggested that
the reason Piaget’s research indicated that object permanence was not achieved until the age of 1 had more to do
with the way that he determined the presence versus the cognitive functions of the infant.
149
6.35 An approach to cognitive development that seeks to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and sort
information is called the ___________ approach.
a. data-processing c. cognitive-processing
b. information-processing d. mental-processing
Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

Rationale: The information-processing approach is a model that seeks to identify the way that individuals take in,
use, and store information.
6.36 According to the information-processing approach, ___________ refers to the maintenance of material saved
in memory.
a. encoding c. retrieval
b. storage d. automatization

Rationale: Storage refers to the placement of material into memory.
6.37 Marcus has just moved to a new town and now must learn a new telephone number. He finds that the first
three digits are the ages of his sisters and the remaining four numbers coincide with Columbus’s voyage to
America. According to the information-processing approach, Marcus is ___________ his telephone number
in a form that can be later remembered.
a. encoding c. retrieving
b. storing d. automatizing

Answer: a Page(s): 150 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Encoding is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable in memory.
6.38 According to the information-processing approach, ___________ is the process by which material in memory
storage is located, brought into awareness, and used.

Rationale: Retrieval is the process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness,
and used.
6.39 According to the information-processing approach, ___________ is the degree to which an activity requires
attention.

Answer: d Page(s): 150 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Automatization is the degree to which an activity requires attention.
150
6.40 Sixteen-year-old Amber has just completed a drivers’ education course. She often comments to friends that at
first driving required her undivided attention, but with a little practice she often finds that she has driven
home without being aware of stopping for traffic lights or stop signs. According to the information-
processing approach, driving has become ___________ for Amber.
a. automatic c. time consuming
b. boring d. trivial

Answer: a Page(s): 150 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Automatization is the degree to which an activity requires attention. In this example, Amber requires less
attention to the process of driving, causing the activity to become automatic for Amber.
6.41 Memory experiments have shown that even after two training sessions infants remember the association
between ______ ____ for up to a week later.
a. kicking and crying c. crying and eating.
b. kicking and moving a mobile. d. crying and moving a mobile.

Rationale: Infants who were later prompted to recall an association between kicking and moving a mobile showed
evidence that after just two 9-minute trainings, they were able to recall the association, but not after two weeks.
6.42 ___________ is memory that is conscious and that can be recalled intentionally. In comparison,
___________ is memory that is recalled unconsciously.
a. Implicit memory; explicit memory c. Storage memory; retrieval memory
b. Explicit memory; implicit memory d. Retrieval memory; storage memory

Answer: b Page(s): 152 Type: Factual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Explicit memory is memory that is conscious and that can be recalled intentionally. In comparison,
implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor skills, habits, and activities that can be
remembered without conscious cognitive effort.
6.43 The lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age is known as
a. juvenile amnesia. c. immature amnesia.
b. child amnesia. d. infantile amnesia.

Rationale: Infantile amnesia is the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age.
6.44 Layla was 3 years old when her brother, Cameron, was born; however, she has no memory of the birth of her
brother. This illustrates
a. juvenile amnesia. c. immature amnesia.
b. child amnesia. d. infantile amnesia.

Rationale: Infantile amnesia is the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age.
151
6.45 Memory that is recalled unconsciously is called ___________ memory.
a. explicit c. exact
b. implicit d. approximate

Rationale: Implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor skills, habits, and activities
that can be remembered without conscious cognitive effort.
6.46 Remembering how to ride a bike is an example of ___________ memory.

a. explicit c. exact
b. implicit d. approximate

Answer: b Page(s): 152 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor skills such as riding a
bicycle.
6.47 Gesell, a developmental psychologist, developed a ___________ that is an overall developmental score that
relates to performance in four domains: motor skills, language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social.
a. developmental quotient c. developmental measure
b. developmental proportion d. developmental number

Rationale: The developmental quotient, formulated by Arnold Gesell, is an overall developmental score that relates
to performance in four domains: motor skills (balance and sitting), language use, adaptive behavior (alertness and
exploration), and personal-social (feeding and dressing).
6.48 The ___________ is a measurement that evaluates an infant’s development from 2 to 42 months. It focuses
on two areas: mental and motor abilities.
a. developmental quotient c. visual-recognition memory measure
b. Bayley Scales of Infant Development d. Gesell Scales of Child Development

Rationale: The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, developed by Nancy Bayley, focuses on two areas, mental
and motor development, and evaluates an infant’s development from 2 to 42 months.
6.49 The Bayley Scales of Infant Development is composed of two scales. The ___________ scale focuses on the
senses, perception, memory, learning, problem solving, and language, while the ___________ scale evaluates
fine and gross motor skills.
a. sensation; perception c. mental; motor
b. thinking; movement d. intellectual; spatial

Answer: c Page(s): 154 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, developed by Nancy Bayley, focuses on two areas, mental
and motor development, and evaluates an infant’s development from 2 to 42 months.
152
6.50 Traditional measures of infant intelligence
a. do a good job of predicting intelligence scores in adulthood.
b. are an integral part of the assessment of newborns.
c. can help identify developmental delays or advances.
d. are roughly equivalent to adult intelligence tests.

Answer: c Page(s): 154 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: There is some correlation between efficiency of information processing and later IQ scores, suggesting
some consistency of cognitive development across the lifespan. Currently, however, the traditional measures of
infant intelligence focus on behavioral attainments, which only help to identify developmental delays or advances,
and not adult intelligence.
6.51 An overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains—motor skills, language use,
adaptive behavior, and personal-social—is called
a. a developmental quotient. c. visual-recognition memory measurement.
b. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. d. IQ.

Rationale: The developmental quotient, formulated by Arnold Gesell, is an overall developmental score that relates
to performance in four domains: motor skills (balance and sitting), language use, adaptive behavior (alertness and
exploration), and personal-social (feeding and dressing).
6.52 The memory and recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen, as well as the speed with which an
infant can retrieve a representation of a stimulus from memory, is the approach to examine intelligence
during infancy known as
a. a developmental quotient.
b. a visual-recognition memory measurement.
c. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.
d. an intelligence quotient.

Rationale: Visual-recognition memory measurement measures the memory of and recognition of a stimulus that has
been previously seen. The more quickly an infant can retrieve a representation of a stimulus from memory, the more
efficient the infant’s information processing.
6.53 Habituation tests are good predictors of later intellectual performance because they seem to measure
a. speed of learning. c. sensorimotor skills.
b. higher-order thinking skills. d. problem-solving skills.

Rationale: The speed with which infants process information may correlate most strongly with later intelligence, as
measured by IQ tests administered during adulthood.
153
6.54 To date, in infancy, the best predictor of later intelligence is
a. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.
b. the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment.
c. habituation tests.
d. the Apgar test.

Rationale: The speed with which infants process information may correlate most strongly with later intelligence, as
measured by IQ tests administered during adulthood.
6.55 The memory and recognition of stimuli that has been previously seen is known as
a. sensory-recognition memory. c. visual-recognition memory.
b. visual-recall memory. d. sensory-recall memory.

Rationale: Visual-recognition memory measurement measures the memory and recognition of a stimulus that has
been previously seen.
6.56 The ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced only through one sense by using
another sense is referred to as
a. bi-modal transference. c. overextension.
b. underextension. d. cross-modal transference.

Answer: d Page(s): 155 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Cross-modal transference is the ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced
through only one sense by using another sense.
6.57 As a baby, Simone was able to recognize by sight a screwdriver that she had previously only touched but had
not seen. This ability is referred to as
a. bi-modal transference. c. underextension.
b. underextension.. d. cross-modal transference.

Answer: d Page(s): 155 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Cross-modal transference is the ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced
through only one sense by using another sense. In this example, Simone had previously touched a screwdriver, but
could now identify that screwdriver by sight.
6.58 Research has found that the degree of cross-modal transference by an infant at age 1 is ___________ with
intelligence scores several years later.
a. associated c. not linked
b. not associated d. erroneously connected

Rationale: The degree of cross-modal transference displayed by an infant at age 1 is associated with intelligence
scores several years later.
154
6.59 Information processing looks at ___________ change.
a. qualitative c. erroneous
b. quantitative d. quality

Rationale: The information-processing model is very different from Piaget’s cognitive development model in that
the information-processing model focuses on the quantitative changes that take place.
6.60 The basic sounds of language that are combined to produce words and sentences are referred to as
a. phonemes. c. semantics.
b. morphemes. d. language.
Chapter Section: The Roots of Language

Rationale: Phonemes are the basic sounds of language that are combined to produce sounds and sentences.
6.61 The systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which provides the basis for communication, is
known as
a. language. c. speech.
b. symbolism. d. verbalization.

Rationale: Language is the systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which provides the basis for
communication.
6.62 Characterized as the smallest language units that have meaning, some ___________ are complete words,
whereas others add information necessary for interpreting a word, such as the endings “-s” for plural and
“-ed” for past tense.
a. phonemes c. semantics
b. morphemes d. phonology

Rationale: The morpheme is the smallest language unit that has meaning. Some are complete words, whereas others
add information necessary for interpreting a word, such as the ending “-s” for plural and “-ed” for past tense.
6.63 The smallest language unit that has meaning is a

a. phoneme. c. semantic.
b. morpheme. d. phonology.

Rationale: The morpheme is the smallest language unit that has meaning.
6.64 ______________________ are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.
a. Phonemes c. Semantics
b. Morphemes d. Phonology

Rationale: Semantics are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.
155
6.65 The understanding of speech is called linguistic ___________, whereas the use of language to communicate
is referred to as linguistic ___________.
a. comprehension; production c. fabrication; comprehension
b. production; comprehension d. comprehension; fabrication

Rationale: Linguistic comprehension is the understanding of speech, while linguistic production is the use of
language to communicate.
6.66 Communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means is
known as ___________ communication.
a. prelanguage c. baby talk
b. prelinguistic d. motherese

Rationale: Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation,
and other nonlinguistic means.
6.67 Prelinguistic communication teaches infants

a. the give and take of conversation.
b. to hear the sounds of their native language.
c. to listen to the noises in their environment.
d. to talk to themselves.

Answer: a Page(s): 157-158 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation,
and other nonlinguistic means. This prelinguistic communication teaches infants the give and take of social
interactions.
6.68 Making speech-like but meaningless sounds is called

a. bubbling. c. babbling.
b. gibber. d. prattle.

Rationale: Babbling, making speech-like but meaningless sounds, begins at about the age of 2 or 3 months and
continues to about the age of 1.
6.69 Which of the following statements about babbling is true?

a. Babbling sounds are typically only consonant and not vowel sounds.
b. Babbling produces the sounds of the languages infants hear.
c. Deaf children do not babble.
d. Deaf children exposed to sign language only demonstrate vocal babbling.

Answer: b Page(s): 158 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Deaf babies exposed to sign language exhibit babbling through hand motions. Babbling often begins
with vowel sounds and then consonant sounds are added later. Infants produce sounds during babbling for many
languages, even those they do not hear.
156
6.70 Deaf infants that are taught sign language babble with their
a. voices. c. facial expressions.
b. hands. d. feet.

Rationale: Deaf babies exposed to sign language exhibit babbling through hand motions.
6.71 One-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, and whose meanings depend on the particular context in
which they are used, are called
a. semantics. c. telegraphic speech.
b. holophrases. d. animates.

Rationale: Holophrases are one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, and whose meaning depends on the
particular context in which they are used.
6.72 The overly restrictive use of words, common among children just mastering spoken language, is called
a. telegraphic speech. c. overextension.
b. underextension. d. holophrases.

Rationale: Underextension is the use of words too restrictively, which is common among children just mastering
spoken language.
6.73 Speech that leaves out words that are not critical to the message is known as
a. telegraphic speech. c. telephone speech.
b. telegram speech. d. telepicture speech.

Rationale: Telegraphic speech is when words that aren’t critical to the message are left out.
6.74 Nineteen-month-old Evan enjoys books, and he often says, “Read book.” This is Evan’s shorthand version of
“I would like you to read a book to me.” This is an example of
a. telegraphic speech. c. telephone speech.
b. telegram speech. d. telepicture speech.

Answer: a Page(s): 160 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Telegraphic speech is when words that aren’t critical to the message are left out.
6.75 The overly broad use of words, where children overgeneralize their meaning, is known as
a. overextension. c. referential style.
b. underextension. d. expressive style.

Rationale: Overextension is the use of words too broadly, where children overgeneralize their meaning.
157
6.76 Much to the consternation of 15-month-old Sara’s mom, Sara constantly calls out “Daddy” to any man she
sees. Sara is making a(n ) ___________ error.
a. overextension c. referential style
b. underextension d. expressive style

Answer: a Page(s): 160 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Overextension is the use of words too broadly, where children overgeneralize their meaning. In this
example, Sara uses the term “Daddy” too broadly, using it to refer to all men.
6.77 A style of language use in which language is used primarily to label objects is called
a. expressive style. c. learning style.
b. referential style. d. reinforcement style.

Rationale: A referential style is one in which language is primarily used to label objects.
6.78 Thirteen-month-old Clara uses the word “babydoll” to refer to only her doll, and not to other dolls. Clara is
making a(n) ___________ error.
a. overextension c. referential style
b. underextension d. expressive style

Rationale: Underextension is the use of words too restrictively, which is common among children just mastering
spoken language. In this example, Clara is using the word “babydoll” only to refer to her doll and not other dolls.
6.79 As a toddler, Michael had an impressive vocabulary consisting of words like mom, dad, dog, car, bike, chair,
table, and so on. Michael’s style of language use is called the ___________ style.
a. overextension c. referential
b. underextension d. expressive

Rationale: A referential style is one in which language is primarily used to label objects.
6.80 A style of language use in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and
others is known as
a. overextension. c. referential style.
b. underextension. d. expressive style.

Rationale: An expressive style is one in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about
oneself and others.
6.81 The theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning is known as
a. learning theory. c. nativist approach.
b. interactionist approach. d. humanistic approach.

Rationale: The learning theory approach is a theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of
reinforcement and conditioning.
158
6.82 The theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language development is known as
a. learning theory. c. nativist approach.
b. interactionist approach. d. humanistic approach.

Answer: c Page(s): 161-162 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The nativist approach is a theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language
development.
6.83 The idea that language is a consequence of both environmental and innate factors is known as the
___________ of language development
a. learning theory c. nativist approach
b. interactionist approach d. humanistic approach

Rationale: The interactionist approach combines aspects of the nativist and learning theories to language
development. This perspective suggests that language is produced through a combination of genetically determined
predispositions and environmental circumstances.
6.84 A type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences, is called
a. infant-directed speech. c. motherese.
b. baby-directed speech. d. child-directed speech.

Rationale: Infant-directed speech is a style of speech that characterizes much of the verbal communication directed
toward infants.
6.85 when Compared to boys, girls hear twice as many _____ by the time they are 32 months old.
a. diminuitives c. motherese.
b. direct “ no” responses. d. child-directed speech.

Rationale: Gleason found that, by the age of 32 months, girls hear twice as many diminutives as boys hear..
True/False Questions
6.86 According to Piaget, schemes are organized patterns of mental functioning that adapt and change with
mental activity.

Answer: True Page(s): 143 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
6.87 An infant picks up a rattle and shakes it. This is an example of a physical scheme.

Answer: True Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
6.88 According to Piaget, as children develop, their schemes become less complex.

Answer: False Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
159
6.89 Piaget believed that infants acquire knowledge through direct motor behavior.

Answer: True Page(s): 143 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
6.90 Changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli is called
assimilation.

Answer: False Page(s): 143 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
6.91 According to Piaget, infants do not begin to modify their schemes until after one year of age.

Answer: False Page(s): 143 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
6.92 When a child sees a flying squirrel and calls it a “bird with a tail,” the child has begun to accommodate new
knowledge.

Answer: True Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
6.93 The sucking reflex that causes an infant to suck at anything placed at its lips is an example of a simple
reflex.

is called object permanence.

Answer: False Page(s): 145 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
6.95 Jack is playing with his favorite car, when his father takes the car and hides it under a blanket. Jack protests
and begins to look for the car. Jack has displayed the concept of object permanence.

Answer: True Page(s): 145 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
6.96 One of the major criticisms of Piaget’s theory is that he overestimated the cognitive capabilities of infants.

Answer: False Page(s): 147-148 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
6.97 The information-processing approach to cognitive development, seeks to identify the way individuals take
in, use, and store information.

160
6.98 The information-processing approach focuses on cognitive changes from a qualitative perspective.

Answer: False Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
6.99 Throughout infancy comprehension precedes production.

6.100 A two-month-old infant is babbling and cooing as her mother responds by repeating the same sounds. This
parent and child are engaged in prelinguistic communication.

Short Answer
6.101 Provide an overview of the progression of schemes according to Piaget.

Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:
• Piaget believed that the basic building blocks of the way we understand the world are mental structures
called schemes, these adapt and change with mental activity.
• At first schemes are related to physical or sensorimotor activity, such as picking up or reaching for toys.
• As children develop, their schemes move to a mental level, reflecting thought.
6.102 What are the two principles that underlie all cognitive growth according to Piaget?

Page(s): 143 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
• Piaget suggested that two principles underlie growth in children’s schemes, assimilation, and
accommodation.
• Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of
cognitive development and way of thinking.
• Accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with
new stimuli.
6.103 Describe the highlights of Substage 4 of the sensorimotor period.

Page(s): 143-145 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
• Substage 4 lasts from 8 months to 12 months. Infants begin to employ goal-directed behavior, in which
several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem.
• Object permanence emerges in this stage as well. This is the realization that people and objects exist even
when they can’t be seen.
• The recognition of object permanence fosters the infant’s growing assertiveness.
161
6.104 What is the major difference between Substage 2 (first habits and primary circular reactions) and Substage
3 (secondary circular reactions) of Piagets’s sensorimotor period?

Page(s): 144-145 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
• During Substage 2, the infant begins to coordinate separate actions into a single, integrated action.
• During Substage 3, infants take major strides in shifting their cognitive horizons beyond themselves.
• The major difference between the two stages is whether the infant’s activity is focused on the infant and
involves his/her body, or involves actions related to the outside world.
6.105 What is the relationship between the development of object permanence and social attachments?

Page(s): 145-146 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
• Object permanence extends not only to inanimate objects, but to the people in the child’s life too.
• An infant understands that parents exist, even if they are out of sight. This awareness is a key element of
social attachments and a feeling of security.
6.106 How do infants process information according to the information-processing approach to cognitive
development?

• Information-processing approaches seek to identify the way the individuals take in, use, and store
information.
• According to this approach, the quantitative changes in infants’ abilities to organize and manipulate
information represent the hallmarks of cognitive growth.
• An infant’s cognitive growth is characterized by increasing sophistication and speed in information
processing.
• Infants are believed to have memory capabilities from their earliest days, although the accuracy is
debated.
6.107 What theories explain the origins of language development?

• The learning theory approach: the theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of
reinforcement and conditioning.
• The nativist approach: the theory that a genetically determined mechanism directs language
development.
• The interactionist approach: the theory that suggests that language is produced through a combination of
genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances.
162
6.108 Describe the interactionist perspective of language development.

• The interactionist approach to language development suggests that language development is produced
through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that
help teach language.
• The interactionist perspective accepts that innate factors shape the broad outlines of language
development. However, social factors also play a role in development.
6.109 Describe prelinguistic communication.

Page(s): 157-158 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
• Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation,
and other nonlinguistic means.
• It is an early form of communication, where parents may respond to infants’ cooing and babbling with a
repetition of these sounds. The repetition sets the stage for the give-and-take of conversation.
• The most common manifestation of prelinguistic communication is babbling, the speechlike but
meaningless sounds, that start at the age of 2 or 3 months.
6.110 What role does infant-directed speech play in language acquisition?

• Infant-directed speech is a type of speech characterized by short, simple sentences.
• Newborns appear to prefer infant-directed speech over regular speech.
• Some research suggests that babies who are exposed to a great deal of infant-directed speech early in life
seem to begin to use words and show other forms of linguistic competence earlier.
Essay Questions
6.111 Define and provide examples of assimilation and accommodation.

Page(s): 143 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
• Assimilation is the process in which people understand new stimuli in terms of their current thinking.
Examples are numerous, but they should include the current scheme that is used and the similarity to
the new stimuli.
• Accommodation is the process in which people change their thinking to include the new information
gained from the new experience or stimulus.
Again, examples are numerous, but they should include how the new stimulus/experience does not
fit the current scheme and how that scheme has now been changed.
163
6.112 According to Piaget, the sensorimotor period is composed of six substages. Define and provide an example
of each substage.

Answer: A good answer would include the following substages:
• One—Simple reflexes—Various reflexes determine the infant’s interactions
• Two—Primary circular reaction—Coordination of separate actions into single, integrated activities
• Three—Secondary circular reactions—Shift occurs from focus on oneself to the outside world
• Four—Coordination of secondary circular reactions—Use more calculated approaches to produce events
and coordinate several schemes to generate a single act; goal-directed behaviors; object permanence is
achieved
• Five—Tertiary circular reactions—Use of deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable
consequences
• Six—Beginnings of thought—Develops capacity for mental representations
6.113 Why would the concept of object permanence be important to a caregiver?

• Object permanence allows the infant to live in more than the “here and now” as they recognize absent
objects as hidden.
• The awareness of people who exist when out of sight assists in the formation of social attachment
security.
6.114 What are some of the major strengths and criticisms of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

• Much research has been conducted to demonstrate the basic foundation that children learn much about
the world by acting on objects in their environment.
• The broad outlines established by Piaget of the cognitive accomplishments that occur during infancy are
generally accurate.
• There are questions about the stage conception, including the suggestion that cognitive development
occurs in waves versus stages.
• Some researchers suggest that sensation and perception should be considered to play a role in cognitive
development, not just motor activities.
• There is considerable questioning about Piaget’s assertion that object permanence is achieved at about
the age of 1. Other age ranges have been proposed.
• Piaget’s work describes children of Western countries better than those of non-Western countries.
6.115 Why is it so difficult to assess infant intelligence as a predictor of later intelligence?

Page(s): 153-155 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
• Although there is a correlation between early information-processing capabilities and later measures of
IQ, the correlation is only moderate, and it does not imply causation.
• Intelligence as measured by traditional IQ tests measure only one kind of intelligence.
164
Test Bank for Child Development, 6th Edition : Feldman
6.116 Why might linguistic comprehension precede linguistic production?

• Linguistic comprehension is the understanding of speech.
• Linguistic production is the use of language to communicate.
• An infant understands complex communication prior to being able to communicate at the same level.
• Comprehension outpaces production throughout infancy.
6.117 Define and provide examples of referential style language learners and expressive style language learners.

• In the referential style, language is used primarily to label objects.
• In the expressive style, language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others.
6.118 Describe and contrast the major theories of language development.

Page(s): 161-162 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
• Social learning theory indicates language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and
conditioning.
• The nativist approach is a theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language
development.
• The interactionist approach is a combination of the social learning and nativist theories in that language
development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and
environmental circumstances that help teach language.
Virtual Child Questions

6.121 Think about the progression of cognitive development thus far of your virtual child. Piaget noted that in
order for cognitive growth to occur, both assimilation and accommodation must take place. Have you
observed these processes with your child? Give one example of each related to your child’s cognitive
growth.
6.122 When considering the progression of language development, we note that linguistic comprehension precedes
production. What does this mean in relationship to how much your child can articulate, versus the level of
understanding? Perhaps you’ve noted you can give a detailed direction, and it is understood by your child,
but can’t be articulated. Give one example where you have observed this principle of comprehension
preceding production.
6.123 First words are generally spoken around the age of 10-14 months. What have you observed with your own
child in regard to language development? Has your child spoken his/her first words yet, and has that
development coincided with your text’s description of typical first words spoken? Explain. When do you
think your child will speak first sentences in relation to when first words were spoken?
6.124 Infant-directed speech is a type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences.
Have you spoken to your child using this type of speech? What did you notice about your infant’s response
to this type of speech? Is there a difference in the level of interest that your infant displays depending on the
type of speech you use? Explain. How do you think the use of infant-directed speech facilitates language
development? What role has it played in your relationship with your infant?
165
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vemos o começo. Em tão deploravel cousa veiu a parar o homem
que em 26 fôra como um heroe e o arbitro dos destinos da patria.
Primeiro dos chefes politicos, reunindo á influencia parlamentar a
cortezan e uma influencia militar superior á de todos, a segunda
phase da vida de Saldanha devia ser esboçada aqui, n’este
momento: é um typo revelador. Ninguem teve uma clientela maior.
Abandonou-a, renegando-a pelo paço; e esses antigos saldanhistas
de Paris, livres do estorvo que já os sopeava, preparavam-se para o
seu dia. Uma revolução andava no ar: revolução que forçaria
Saldanha a desembainhar a espada contra os seus velhos clientes.
Approxima-se a crise; mas o leitor comprimirá a sua impaciencia,
porque, se já viu as fórmas mansas do regabofe, o dissipar do
dominio nacional, o beber a chuva de libras dos emprestimos
inglezes, não viu o outro lado da scena. A orgia era tambem cruel.
Havia banquetes e matanças. Estalava champagne, mas tambem
estalavam repetidos, insistentes, os tiros dos trabucos na caça dos
vencidos. O portuguez mostrava a outra fórma da sua sanha natural,
respondendo com a bala á forca.
5.—VÆ VICTIS!
A eloquencia do nobre Passos conseguira que se revogasse o
decreto iniquo das indemnisações:
Tendes vós calculado d’onde hão do saír os meios para
provêr á miseria de tantas familias que nós vamos fazer
desgraçadas? Ou havemos de tapar os ouvidos e fechar os
olhos ao coração, para não vermos espectaculo tão
lastimoso? Quando um filho vos pedir pão, dar-lhe-heis uma
pedra, ou um punhal ou o cadafalso? (Disc. de 28 de janeiro
de 35)
A camara, como é sabido, aboliu o decreto, mas os miguelistas
ainda pagaram muitas «perdas e damnos»; pouparam-nos ao
cadafalso, mas deram-lhes pedras, punhaes e tiros de trabuco em
desforra. A segurança de uma victoria tão custosa, tão disputada,
sobretudo incerta por tanto tempo, embriagava homens que ouviam
aos mestres doutrinas feitas a proposito para os desenfrear.
Soltaram-se com effeito todas as cubiças e odios; pagaram-se a tiro
todas as offensas; roubou-se e matou-se impunemente. O
miguelista era uma victima, um inimigo derrubado: o vencedor
punha-lhe o joelho no ventre e o punhal sobre a garganta.
Caçavam-se como se caçam os lobos, e cada offensa anterior, cada
crime, era punido com uma morte sem processo. Os vencedores,
suppondo-se arbitros de uma soberania absoluta, retribuiam a cento
por um o que antes haviam recebido.
Não era só, comtudo, a vingança que os movia, nem tambem a
cubiça: era um grande medo de que o monstro vencido erguesse a
cabeça, á maneira do que ás vezes faz o touro no circo, prostrado
pelo bote do matador, levantando-se e investindo, matando ás
vezes, já nas ancias da morte. Além do medo, havia ainda a
fraqueza da authoridade liberal, fraqueza inevitavel em que prégava
ao povo a sua soberania, fraqueza natural no dia seguinte ao da
victoria; mas fraqueza infame, pois d’ella viviam os chefes,
passando culpas aos seus clientes, fechando os olhos aos roubos e
mortes: quando positivamente os não ordenavam para se livrarem
de rivaes incommodos ou de inimigos perigosos. Tal é a ultima face
da anarchia positiva; assim termina a serie de manifestações de
uma doutrina aggravada pelas condições de um momento.
Destruira-se na imaginação do povo o respeito da authoridade,
condemnando-se-lhe o principio com argumentos de philosopho;
destruira-se todo o organismo social; e em lugar d’elle via-se,
portanto, a formação espontanea das clientelas, chocando-se,
disputando-se, consummando a ruina total, explorando em proveito
proprio a confusão dos elementos sociaes desaggregados.
Toda esta dança macabra de partidos e pessoas corria sobre uma
nação faminta, apesar das libras que rodavam em Lisboa, e dos
tivolis e dos bailes das Laranjeiras. Força fôra accudir com socorros
aos lavradores. (Lei de 4 de outubro de 34) Uns queriam que o
governo comprasse gados e sementes e os distribuisse; mas a
doutrina ergueu-se, chamando a isso communismo, exigindo
liberdade. Decidiu-se emprestar dinheiro—oh, tonta tyrannia dos
systemas!—para que o pequeno lavrador comprasse grão e rezes
n’um paiz assolado.[9] Toda esta dança macabra de bandidismo
infrene, dizemos, corria por sobre um paiz devastado. No governo
não havia força para impôr ordem, e havia interessados em
fomentar a desordem. Cada Ministro tinha o seu bando, os seus
bravi, para resolverem a tiro nos campos as pendencias que a
phrases se levantavam nas camaras. Mas ainda quando isto assim
não fosse, a condemnação em massa de todos os que no antigo
regime exerciam as funcções publicas; essa universal substituição
do pessoal do Estado, indispensavel para pagar os serviços, trazia
aos lugares os aventureiros, os incapazes, e verdadeiros bandidos.
Em vão se tinha duplicado (de 70 a 140) o numero dos julgados:
era impossivel corrigir uma desordem que a tantos convinha.
Guerrilhas armadas levavam de assalto as casas do miguelista
vencido, roubando, matando, dispersando as familias. Havia uma
verdadeira, a unica absoluta liberdade—a da força! Na Beira houve
exemplos de uma habilidade feroz singular. Matava-se a familia,
deixando a vida apenas ao chefe, em troca de um testamento a
favor de alguem. Dias depois o pobre apparecia morto e enriquecia-
se d’esse modo. (A dyn. e a revol. de set.)
Os tribunaes, com o seu novo jury, eram machinas de vingança.
De Campo-maior, um bom homem escrevia a Manuel Passos o que
observara. (29 de maio de 36; corr. autog. dos Passos) Saíra
maguado de uma audiencia, em que um negociante da terra pedia
seis contos de perdas e damnos a sete miguelistas que tinham
deposto como testemunhas contra elle, no tempo do Usurpador. O
povo invadira-lhe os armazens, partira lhe as janellas: nem uma
testemunha, comtudo, accusava os réus de terem praticado ou
ordenado esses actos; mas o advogado «concluiu dizendo aos
jurados que já que não podiamos tirar a vida aos realistas por causa
da convenção d’Evora-Monte, lhes tirassemos os bens, pois que era
esse o unico mal que lhes podiamos fazer.—Os jurados eram quasi
todos da guarda-nacional e querem tambem indemnisações:
condemnaram os réus na conta pedida. Isto me fez tremer pela
liberdade!» (Carta de José Nunes da Matta)
Os magistrados novos roubavam desaforadamente; e o juiz de
Angeja conseguiu tornar-se notavel: só lhe faltou levar as portas e
os telhados das casas. (A dyn. e a revol. de set.) Era um positivo
saque. O povo creou tal raiva a esse ladrão que a gente do Pinheiro
foi esperal-o, quando ia a Ovar, obrigando-o a fugir n’uma carreira
que só parou no Alemtejo. (Ibid.) Na propria Lisboa succediam
cousas incriveis. Por ordem do governo foi saqueada a casa do
visconde de Azurara, ausente, e dois amigos do ministro ficaram-lhe
com as mobilias. (Ibid.) O que succedeu ás dos conventos sabe-se
—ou antes ninguem soube. Bandeira, o Esopo liberal, que bom foi
não ter morrido em 28, publicava no novo diccionario: «Delicto-
Delirio.—A significação d’estas duas palavras ainda não está bem
fixada, e varía em tempos e paizes diversos».
Não se imagine que escurecemos as côres do quadro. Leia

qualquer as memorias do tempo, ouça os que ainda vivem, e ficará
sabendo como a anarchia na doutrina, que era uma anarchia no
governo, era tambem uma anarchia de bandidos por todo o reino,
matando e roubando impunemente. E por cima de tudo isto pairava
um medo positivo que entorpecia a acção dos mandantes, e
justificava, no sentido de uma defeza feroz, a caça do miguelista.
Aos corcundas promette-se D. Miguel; aos liberaes
vertiginosos a carta de 20: revoluçãosinha no Casal-dos-
ovos; Juntinha na Pederneira; Juntinha em Barrozas: ahi está
tudo em aguas turvas; e é então que D. Miguel pesca. D’um
lado o Ecco, o Interessante, o Percursor e o Contrabandista;
e do outro o Nacional, o Diabrete, o Marche-Marche e a
Vedeta dão com vocês doidos; e no meio d’esta confusão
chega o casus fœderis, invoca-se a estupidez da nação, o
desejo do absolutismo—e apparece o Homem! (Bandeira,
Artilheiro n.º 16)
Á sombra d’esta confusão e d’este medo havia impunidade para
tudo; e n’um sentido era benemerito o bandido que assassinava e
roubava o inimigo. De facto não terminara a guerra: continuava, sob
a fórma de uma caçada. Em Setubal havia infinidade de ladrões e
os proprios militares não se atreviam a sair sem armas. (Shaw,
Letters) Os salteadores faziam batidas, traziam cadaveres que o
povo, tomado de um furor egual ao antigo, mas inverso no objecto,
enterrava, cantando e bailando. Pareciam selvagens. (Ibid.) Serpa
ficou celebre pela gente que ali foi morta a tiro, sem combate, pelas
janellas e pelas portas. Batia-se: vinham abrir, e uma bala entrava e
o infeliz morria. Era um miguelista: não vale a pena incommodos. A
justiça não se movia; pagou culpas antigas! E os assassinos eram
benemeritos. No Porto (20 de março de 35) o façanhudo Pita
Bezerra, antigo carrasco cuja morte se comprehende melhor, indo á
Relação a perguntas, foi assaltado pela multidão que o tirou á
escolta, levando-o á Praça-Nova onde o matou; arrastando o
cadaver puxado por uma corda, pela ponte, a Villa-nova, como
quem mostra um lobo morto ás aldeias, e deitando-o por fim ao rio.
As quadrilhas de Midões assolavam toda a Beira. Arganil, Avô, Coja,
Folques, Goes, Villa-cova foram positivamente saqueadas, levando
os bandidos o despejo em comboyos de carros. (Secco, Mem.) O
bandoleirismo florescia n’essa região serrana, como raiz de uma
velha planta que rebenta assim que bebe um raio de sol. Eram os
descendentes de Viriato. O miguelismo armara-os, e agora,
bafejados pelo ar benefico da anarchia, uns, implorados e
defendidos pelos senhores de Lisboa a quem serviam, voltavam-se
contra os miguelistas, indifferentes a partidos e opiniões, seguindo o
seu instincto de uma vida aventurosa e bravia. Outros, porém,
mantinham-se fieis aos padres, e nos broncos cerebros d’esses
quasi selvagens apenas os fetiches do catholicismo[10] podiam ás
vezes mais do que os instinctos espontaneos. Era uma Italia
meridional, nas suas serras, o paiz que acabara sendo em Lisboa
uma Napoles. As Beiras viviam, á maneira da Grecia de ha poucos
annos, uma existencia primitiva da tribu armada, alimentando-se do
roubo, admirando a destreza e a coragem dos seus chefes.
Havia na serra da Estrela a guerrilha miguelista do padre
Joaquim, de Carragozela, irmão do celebre Luiz Paulino secretario
da Universidade no tempo de D. Miguel. Havia contra ella as dos
Brandões, de Midões, que serviam o Rodrigo e o Saldanha, chefes-
de-partido em Lisboa. Fundiram-se um dia esses inimigos no
convenio de Gavinhos; mas ficaram dessidentes os do Caca, fieis
ao miguelismo, e acabaram queimados n’uma adega, depois de a
defenderem contra os sitiantes. (Secco, Mem.) A fusão das
guerrilhas da Beira creou na serra um verdadeiro terror, porque
ninguem ousava desobedecer, e imperavam, saqueavam: houve
casas queimadas e, á luz dos incendios, orgias de vinho e estupros.
(Ibid.)
E nas revoluções e pronunciamentos que vão principiar em 36,
n’essa segunda epocha em que a anarchia passa violentamente
para o governo, tornando todo o exercito n’um corpo de guerrilhas,
vê-se a tropa, ora alliada, ora inimiga dos bandidos; e os palikaras
portuguezes fazendo eleições, pela Patuléa ou pelo Cabraes,
levando as leis nas boccas dos trabucos e resolvendo a tiro as
pendencias locaes.
Vem distante, porém, isso ainda. Agora a faina é saquear e
eliminar o miguelista. De 34 a 39 só em Oliveira-do-Conde e nas
Cabanas houve mais de trinta assassinatos impunes. (Ibid.) E nas
côrtes e 38, Franzini apresentou uma nota do periodo de julho de 33
a 37, que diz assim:
Faro — assassinatos 285 roubos 509
Castello- » 84 » 90
branco
Portalegre assassinatos 89 roubos 595
Guarda » 221 » 373
Porto » 528 » 378
Braga » 41 » 620
O minhoto roubava melhor; na Beira e no Algarve matava-se com
mais furia. No Porto houvera mais de quinhentos mortos; mas a
capital, onde em um anno apenas (Disc. de Franzini, sess. de 38) se
tinham visto 194 assassinatos e 614 roubos—homem morto, um dia
sim um dia não, e dois roubos em cada dia!—a capital levava a
palma a tudo. Não era ahi o centro, o foco, o tabernaculo?
Voltemos ao nosso Esopo: «Filho de burro não póde ser cavallo,
dizia meu avô», e valendo-se da fórma popular da fabula, põe o
burro em dialogo com a Liberdade:
Não fujas, diz-lhe o jumento,

Burro, que havia eu fazer?
Burro nasci e só burro
É meu destino morrer!
Burro, como se sabe, queria dizer miguelista; e o poeta exprimia a

convicção intima da nossa incapacidade para comprehender a nova
lei. Com effeito, assim parecia, ao observar-se o que se passava por
toda a parte: a vergonhosa miseria dos caracteres, a absoluta
impotencia das vontades no sentido de reconstituirem de qualquer
modo o organismo derrubado pelos golpes do machado de
Mousinho. As lascas do velho tronco, os ramos e as folhas da
arvore antiga, caídos por terra, apodreciam no charco das lagrimas
e das saudades dos vencidos, do sangue copioso dos cadaveres.
Era uma decomposição rapida e já tudo fermentava.
Mas no lodo dos paúes, nadando sobre as aguas esverdeadas e
putridas, vê-se abrir, elegante e candida, a flôr do nenuphar. Assim
brotava pura no charco nacional a esperança de um futuro, a
miragem de um destino, a chimera de uma doutrina, o encanto de
uma voz—a meiga voz de Passos, um messias, pedindo paz,
ensinando amor.
Eu detesto os homens rancorosos. Essa gente é má.
Quem aborrece e não ama, não póde ser virtuoso, nem póde
ser livre,—porque a liberdade é a humanidade. (Disc. de 10
de set. de 34)
A liberdade era para o novo apostolo uma cousa diversa, porque
as expressões vagas consentem que cada qual introduza n’ellas os
mais variados pensamentos. Para Mousinho fôra um estoicismo
secco uma negação do passado, uma doutrina racional e utilitaria:
agora surgia uma liberdade nova, especie de vestal sagrada e
evangelica, envolvida n’uma nuvem doirada de ambições poeticas.
O liberalismo portuguez via nascer-lhe um Lamartine; e no
descredito da primeira definição, as esperanças voltavam-se para a
nova fórmula.
Temo muito a liberdade nos discursos, mas pouca nos
corações. Ha muitos que a intendem, mas poucos que a
saibam amar. Temos mais liberaes nas bibliothecas do que
nas praças, nos tribunaes, no gabinete. Muitos ha que tém
lido, que sabem toda a liberdade, e que ainda tém coração
para a amarem, mas não o tém para a defenderem. (Disc. de
10 de nov. de 34)
Ardia então na camara o odio aos vencidos, e as palavras de paz
eram um acto de coragem. Essas palavras do parlamento, ainda
ouvidas com attenção de colera ou de esperança, eram
commentadas pelas provincias; e de muitos pontos, em numerosas
cartas sem nome, chegavam ao tribuno eloquente os abraços, os
applausos. «Não estranhe chamar-lhe amigo, sem nunca o ter
conhecido: quem trabalha para o meu bem, tem jus á minha
amisade», dizia um; e outro: «O modo por que se houve na questão
das indemnisações denota um saber profundo. É nimiamente liberal
porque é tolerante, e humano porque é sabio. Acceite o signal de
reconhecimento de um militar que recebeu duas feridas na guerra e
se gloria de pensar pela cabeça de v. s.» E assim outros, muitos.
(Corr. authogr. dos Passos, 34-5)
Mas, por duros e resequidos que a guerra e a baixeza tornem os
corações dos homens, raro será o instante em que os não commova
uma palavra sentida, de uma bocca virtuosa. Intemerato no seu
nome, seductor na sua voz, candido, ingenuo, virtuoso, tambem
estoico, Passos destacava-se e erguia-se por sobre os outros com a
superioridade dos genios caridosos sobre os espiritos sómente
lucidos. Era mais do que uma rasão, era uma virtude; mais que um
homem, quasi um santo. Em baixo, muito em baixo, ficavam,
chafurdando em odios e vilezas, as turbas dos politicos. A palavra
d’elle subia, evaporando-se nas nevoas de uma aspiração poetica,
superior ao que a condição dos homens permitte realisar. Na sua
caridosa chimera pedia mais do que paz, pedia egualdade e um
estreito abraço dos vencedores e dos vencidos.
A minha firme convicção é que todas as opiniões devem
ser representadas e que todas devem ter garantias. Isto que
eu quero, querem-no tambem os opprimidos ... Não quero a
pena de morte para nenhum cidadão portuguez: oxalá que
nunca mais ella seja executada sobre a terra! Não quero
tambem penas perpetuas, porque até no fundo de uma prisão
a nenhum desgraçado deve faltar o balsamo consolador da
Esperança ... Penso que as lagrimas de um parricida,
regando o tumulo do pae trucidado, são bastantes para lhe
fazer perdoar tão grande crime. (Disc. de 28 de jan. de 35)
A liberdade é a humanidade, dissera o novo apostolo da doutrina;
mas o seu Evangelho não era, como o antigo, apenas um discurso,
falando ao sentimento indefinido, á piedade, á caridade, irreductivel
a formulas e doutrinas, fundo de luz nebulosa do puro espirito
humano, que o eleva acima da realidade triste e o poetisa
amaciando-lhe as agruras e espinhos: o Evangelho de Passos era
um canon, uma lei, uma doutrina—e por isso uma chimera. Era uma
poesia, posta na prosa necessariamente rasteira da politica. D’esses
miguelistas que a sua caridade perdoava, e a sua humanidade
restaurava ao gremio de cidadãos, dizia:
Deixal-os ... se ainda não tém olhos para fitar a Urna e vêr
que alli está a liberdade de todos os homens! (Disc. de 10 de
nov. de 34)
Os bellos sentimentos tornavam-se opiniões, e faziam-se idolatria;
das nuvens doiradas de esperanças e desejos ficava o pó de umas
formulas e a illusão de um symbolo. A Urna era outra Cruz. E onde
os artigos doutrinarios punham a soberania da razão individual e o
absolutismo do direito do homem, a nova definição que Passos dava
á Liberdade, rejuvenescendo o jacobinismo da sua infancia com a
poesia da sua alma, punha a soberania do povo, a voz da multidão,
congregada nos seus comicios. O paiz perdia-se por não a querer
ouvir; Portugal caía por vêr na Liberdade uma doutrina de
individualismo, não uma doutrina de democracia. Tudo o que se
fizera fôra um erro: tudo havia a fazer de novo. Assim, nas ruinas da
velha cidade portugueza assentára o dominio de um systema que,
arruinado em dois annos, ia ceder o lugar a outro systema novo e a
novas ruinas.
Havia cá fóra, para commentar e applaudir as palavras calorosas
do tribuno, prégando a nova lei, um vasto numero de homens
armados, e uma opinião unanime condemnando a gente velha.
Havia, além d’isso, esse estado de espirito aventuroso, excitado,
prompto a romper: estado de espirito proprio de quem chega de
uma guerra. Ao voltarem á capital, os batalhões de voluntarios não
tinham desarmado; percebiam vagamente que, apesar de terminada
a campanha, a guerra não acabara ainda. Tudo o que o governo fez
para os desarmar por boas foi inutil: punham guardas ás portas dos
lugares indicados para a entrega das espingardas, afim de impedir
que os pusillanimes obedecessem. (A dynastia e a revol. de set.) De
arma ao hombro, pois, havia uma legião prompta a apoiar as
palavras do tribuno que a força das cousas ia obrigar a descer da
camara para a rua, do céu ethereo das suas esperanças para o
triste fim das suas desillusões. Passos acabará, como acabou
Mousinho.
De tal fórma termina o primeiro periodo d’esta historia: dois annos
que principiaram com o acabar da grande guerra. Vamos estudar a
segunda liberdade; depois estudaremos a terceira, a quarta, etc.—
até ao fim.
NOTAS DE RODAPÉ:
[1] Pela primeira vez tenho occasião de me referir ao

interessante livro do snr. Macedo, Traços da historia
contemporanea; e no decurso d’este trabalho o leitor verá quanto
me valeram os subsidios que encerra e de que me utilisei a mãos
largas. Quando este facto me não auctorisasse a confessa-lo,
obrigava-me a isso a nimia benevolencia com que, inspirado por
uma amisade que o levou a vêr em mim meritos que não possuo,
o snr. Macedo me honrou dedicando-me o seu livro. Estas
palavras são o testemunho de um agradecimento que devia ser
publico, assim como a offerta o foi.
[2] «Tudo sorria; e não se divisava pedaço de terra sem
lavoura: o systema das irrigações lombardas era admiravelmente
percebido e executado. Todas as cottages, respirando um bem-
estar industrioso, tinham hortas bem resguardadas com seus
meloaes e aboboras, sua fonte, e cepas, figueiras e macieiras em
latadas. Os camponezes bem vestidos, olhavam-nos
affavelmente, porque tinham o coração aberto pelo bom trato, os
celleiros cheios, numerosos os rebanhos, e nos frades de
Alcobaça senhorios, nem avarentos nem tyrannos.»
Recollections, etc. (1794) do auct. de Vathek. (Beckford.)
[3] Desde muito que, no conselho, Aguiar, contra a opinião da
maioria, instava pela abolição dos conventos. No dia em que em
Evora-Monte se assignava a convenção, terminando a guerra,
Aguiar voltou a insistir e tornou a ser vencido. D. Pedro, porém,
reteve-o, depois da saida dos collegas, e ordenou-lhe que
lavrasse o decreto. O ministro foi do paço para a imprensa, ahi
redigiu o decreto, que se compôz e imprimiu em segredo, á sua
vista, e não saiu da imprensa senão quando o Diario saiu
tambem. Os collegas souberam, pois, pela folha, da decisão
tomada, e que, a não ser assim, nunca se effectuaria.—Comm.
verbal de Duarte Nazareth, que a houvera do proprio Aguiar.
Eis aqui a estatistica das corporações monasticas e os seus
rendimentos em 1834. (V. Mappa das corp. ext. pub. 42.)
a) Ordens Christo com 3 casas Rendimentos 34:482
militares m. rs.
S. Thiago » 1 »
Aviz » 1 »
b) Ordens Cruzios » 12 conv. e hosp. 120:244 m.
monachaes 5 rs.
Loyos » 8 » e » 55:066 »
1
Cartuxos » 2 6:253 »
Bentos » 22 » 4 » 106:665 »
Bernardos » 15 » 1 » 63:178 »
Jeronymos » 9 » 1 » 44:391 »
c) Neris » 8 » 30:053 »
Congregações
Rilhafoles » 4 » 9:015 »
Camillos » 6 » 6:427 »
Congregados » 1 » 1:674 »
Theatinos » 1 » 1:116 »
d) Ordens Paulistas com 13 conv. e hosp. 25:963 »
mendicantes 2
Gracianos » 17 » 2 » 45:749 »
Carmelitas » 13 » 2 » 22:913 »
Dominicos » 22 » 2 » 65:563 »
Trinos » 8 » 1 » 15:335 m.
rs.
Hospitaleiros » 6 » 4:566 »
Franciscanos » 57 » 4 » 19:437 »
e) Id. Paulistas » 2 » 528 »
reformadas
Grillos » 17 3 » 14:790 »
Marianos » 15 1 » 26:844 »
Trinos » 2 222 »
Capuchos » 99 10 » 19:794 »
Terceiros » 20 1 » 13:289 »
Missionarios » 4 476 »
f) Diversos Conceição » 1 2 » 283 »
Minimos » 1 1 » 2:051 »
Nazarenos » 1 » 53 »
Barbadinhos » 2 » 630 »
Carm. all. » 1 » 3:124 »
Dom. irland. » 1 3:364 m.
rs.
Total: 389 estabelecimentos com o rendimento de
763 contos de réis; sem contar 12 conventos de
freiras egualmente supprimidos.
Para que se possa comparar a decadencia das corporações no
periodo das luctas civis desde 20, eis aqui a estatistica do
Mappa, pub. em 22: Conventos e hospicios do sexo masculino,
402; com 6:249 pessoas, (sendo 628 creados) e rendimento em
dinheiro, fóra os fructos, 607 contos. Id. do sexo feminino, 132;
com 5:863 pessoas, (sendo educandas 912 e 1:971 creadas) e
rendimento em dinheiro, fóra os fructos, 341 contos. O sr.
Soriano (Utopias desmascaradas, op.) calcula assim o total dos
bens-nacionaes provenientes das leis de 32-4:
Rendimentos dos conventos 763 contos
supprimidos
Deduzindo o valor dos 240 »
dizimos, direitos senhoriaes,
quartas, oitavas, jugadas, etc.
abolidos
Rendimento da propriedade 523 »
O que equivale a um capital 12:000
de contos
Propriedade dos 12 ?
conventos de freiras
supprimidos
Alfaias de todos os (400)
conventos, sumidas
Bens da Universidade de 4:000
Coimbra, da Patriarchal, de
S. Maria-Maior, das capellas
da corôa, das casas do
Infantado e das Rainhas
Até 1836 tinham-se vendido cinco mil contos; e no orçamento
de 1838-9 apparecem como para vender 11:595.
[4] Se o leitor quizer exprimir o valor real dos numeros com que
se denominam todos os emprestimos, expropriações etc. que
vamos estudando, tem n’este preço um meio. Como se sabe,
varias causas, e principalmente a descoberta das minas da
California, diminuiram posteriormente o valor dos metaes
preciosos. Se a libra sterlina valia (em 34) 3$750 rs. e hoje vale
4$500, é claro que os numeros que temos estudado têem da ser
augmentados com a quinta parte. Assim, o valor dos bens dos
conventos orçado em doze mil contos era o equivalente de
14:400 de hoje.
[5] V. as Contas, na sessão de 35 (9 de janeiro), de agosto 33
ao fim de junho 34:
Receita: Ordinaria contos 3:513
Extraordinaria: Emprestimos 7:847
Prop. 2:516 10:363 13:876
nacion.
Despeza: Ordinaria: Casa real 177
Reino, Extr. 672
Justiça
Marinha 1:299
Guerra 4:932
Fazenda 411 7:491
Especial: Serviço da divida e oper. de 3:415
fundos
Diversas 2:970 12:876
[6] V. Orçamento de 35-6, sessão de 35:

Receita Despeza
Imp. 1:638 Serviço 8:890
directos dos
ministerios
» 5:604 Divida 1:984
indirectos interna
Proprios 1:178 » 1:870
e externa
diversos
Ultramar 1:482 Ultramar 1:612
Deficit 4:454
Contos 14:356 Contos 14:356
[7] 1.ª ed. (1881).

[8] V. Quadro das instituições primitivas, pp. 57 e segg.
[9] A lei de 4 de outubro de 34 mandou emprestar até 650
contos (a juro de 5 por cento e amortisação em 5 annos) assim
distribuidos por provincias: Algarve 108; Alemtejo 123; Beira-Alta
21; Beira-Baixa 25; Douro 103; Extremadura 161; Minho 55; Traz-
os-Montes 28.—Em novembro havia metade dos emprestimos
feitos.
[10] V. Syst. dos mythos relig., pp. 297 e segg.
II
PASSOS MANUEL
1.—A REVOLUÇÃO DE SETEMBRO
A antiga gente do governo não se achava melhor com a

substituição de Palmella por Terceira: o segundo duque valia pouco
e estava ameaçado de cair depressa. Esse primeiro semestre de 36
corria prenhe de ameaças. Já Carvalho não podia sacar dinheiro de
fóra e a sua fecundidade desacreditava-se. Succedia-lhe atrazar os
pagamentos, como a qualquer outro. Já se deviam 15:000 contos,
por vencimentos e despezas dos ministerios (5:426), por letras e
escriptos do Thesouro (3:610), por adiantamentos do banco, (4:494
—V. Rel. de Passos, sess. de 37) sem falar na matilha de credores
por divida mansa não reconhecida, ou esquecida, em 34. N’um
regime de communismo burocratico, como o nosso, isto era
gravissimo: casa onde não ha pão ...
Por isso, não falando dos clamores das ruas, havia no seio da
camara uma opposição vehemente e applaudida. Eram os dois
Passos e Sampaio, era José Estevão e o banqueiro Rio-Tinto; eram
Costa-Cabral, o Nunes, Sá-Nogueira e Julio Gomes. O ministerio
sentia-se tão mal que em julho (14) dissolvera a camara, para reunir
gente sua, convocada para setembro. De fóra batia-o o Nacional, á
frente da imprensa inimiga; e no club celebre dos Camillos (os
ministros diziam Camellos) troava acima de todas a voz de Costa
Cabral pedindo uma tyrannia de plebe, o sangue dos aristocratas e
dizem que até a cabeça da rainha. (Costa Cabral em relevo, anon.)
Era o nosso Marat: porque nós, copiando a França, imitavamos
sempre os figurinos de Paris.
O governo fez as eleições, que foram como todas; e como
sempre, venceu. O reino inteiro o queria com uma unanimidade e
um enthusiasmo, que poucas semanas bastaram para demonstrar.
Venceu em toda a parte: salvo no Porto rebelde, imperio, cidadella,
dos irmãos Passos, de Bouças. Já que tudo era copia, digamos
tambem que a chegada dos deputados do Porto a Lisboa foi como a
dos marselhezes a Paris.
Succedeu isso no dia 9, no Terreiro-do-Paço, onde gente armada
foi esperar os recemvindos e acclamal-os, com morras á carta e ao
governo, vivas á constituição de 1820 (ou 22) e á revolução. «Indo-
nos deitar na cama á sombra da carta, acordámos debaixo das leis
da constituição dada pelo povo no anno de 1820. Todos esfregavam
os olhos e perguntavam se era um sonho o que ouviam: mas era
com effeito uma realidade.» (Liberato, Mem.) Foi assim, com esta
simplicidade, que as cousas mudaram; o que prova, não a força dos
que venciam, mas a podridão das cousas vencidas. Havia a
consciencia de que a machina social, por desconjuntada, não
marchava; e um tal sentimento deu o caracter de uma saldanhada á
revolução de setembro, contra a qual ninguem protestou. No dia 10,
de madrugada, a guarda-nacional foi ao Paço exigir a queda do
gabinete e a proclamação da constituição de 20. No dia 11 o
ministerio caía, e de tarde foi a rainha aos Paços do concelho jurar a
nova—ou antiga—constituição. Inutil é dizer que a camara feita não
se reuniu: era necessario fazer outra, de feitio diverso. Entretanto
acclamara-se a dictadura de Passos, Vieira de Castro e Sá da
Bandeira. A victoria surprehendera a todos, e mais do que ninguem
aos vencedores que a não esperavam. Era mistér decisão, porque o
barometro não é fiel quando sobe rapidamente. Chamou-se a
capitulo: o dictador-em-chefe, com Leonel e Julio Gomes, deviam
ordenar a maneira de eleger as novas côrtes. O Rio-Tinto offerecia
dinheiro. Havia um formigar espesso de gente dedicada, prompta a
sacrificar-se pela patria, pedindo os lugares que os vencidos
devoravam havia tempo demasiado. Passos «tinha o braço cançado
de assignar demissões».
Nós já conhecemos, desde 26, o tribuno do Porto elevado ao

fastigio do poder. Os dois Passos, filhos de um proprietario de
Bouças, pertenciam a essa burguezia do norte do reino por estirpe e
temperamento. Tinham nascido na abastança, desconhecendo as
privações crueis da infancia que umas vezes formam os homens,
mas muitas mais os estragam. Seus paes, sem grandes
propriedades ruraes—ninguem as tem no Minho—possuiam bastos
capitaes moveis, o que tambem no Minho é commum: em 28 tinham
na companhia dos vinhos e em casas de commercio do Porto o
melhor de sessenta mil cruzados. Na casa de Guifões havia
frequentes banquetes á antiga portugueza, servidos em velhas
pratas; e os dois moços foram mandados a Coimbra, onde só iam
os abastados. O pae destinava o mais velho, José, ao clero; o
segundo talvez á magistratura. Por quarenta mil cruzados a dinheiro
tinha contratada a compra do priorado de Cedofeita para o que veiu
a ser vice-presidente da junta em 46, bacharel formado em
Canones. 1828 destruiu todos estes planos, arrastando os dois
irmãos á emigração, onde a riqueza da familia começou a fundir-se.
De 28 a 31 a mãe mandou-lhes trinta mil cruzados para Paris: ahi os
moços irmãos Passos, dos raros emigrados ricos, eram uma
providencia dos companheiros pobres, entre os quaes estava
Saldanha. (Corresp. de Port. 13 de dez. 80)
Agora, supprimida a carta, começava-lhes uma vida nova, e um
reinado; mas a seu lado vê-se um nome que não ficaria decerto
esquecido depois dos louros de honra conquistados no exodo para
a Galliza, em 28.
Sá da Bandeira nascera em 29 de setembro de 1795. Tinha pois
agora quarenta annos: o vigor da vida, e um braço de menos levado
por uma bala no lugar que, mutilando-o, lhe accrescentou o nome.
Cadete em 1810, aos quinze annos, foi para a guerra da Peninsula,
ficando até á paz prisioneiro em França. O liberalismo entre
cesarista e demagogo do imperio napoleonico aprendeu-o, pois, na
infancia. Voltou a Portugal com a paz, e esteve ao lado dos
jacobinos em 20, tornado a França do seu degredo de Almeida.
Intelligencia recta e caracter forte, nem podia perceber as nuances
das cousas, nem dobrar-se ao imperio das conveniencias. Militar fiel
á bandeira, subdito fiel ao rei, cidadão fiel á patria, espirito fiel aos
principios, Sá-da-Bandeira não podia ser um condottiere como
Saldanha, nem um politico como Palmella, nem simplesmente um
instrumento militar como Terceira, nem tampouco um tribuno, idolo
revolucionario, como Passos.
A reacção de 1823 acha-o em Lisboa com vinte e oito annos e
não o seduz. Em vez de pregar no peito a medalha da poeira, como
fizeram Saldanha e Villa-Flôr, emigra outra vez; para regressar em
26, collocando-se ao lado do governo, fazendo a campanha contra
os apostolicos e acabando-a em 27, nomeado major por distincção.
No anno seguinte foi prestar os seus serviços á Junta do Porto, e
bem se póde dizer que lhe salvou o exercito e a honra militar na
retirada para a Galliza que o fez chorar de amargura. Tinha trinta e
tres annos.
Sereno e firme, estoico o virtuoso, julgava-se o homme-lige da
liberdade portugueza. Ligado por principios ao radicalismo, andou
separado das suas intrigas na emigração. Viu sempre a questão
como uma guerra e sobretudo queria desembainhar a sua espada,
obedecendo, sem ambições de mandar, com a serena ambição de
seguir o seu dever, servindo onde, como e quando fosse necessario.
Por isso, logo em 29 passou de Inglaterra á Terceira; e tendo sido
aprisionado pelo cruzeiro miguelista, escapou da cadeia de S.
Miguel, indo apresentar-se a Villa-flôr com o qual fez a campanha
dos Açores.
Veiu com a expedição ao reino; e D. Pedro nomeou-o governador
militar do Porto em 26 de julho, substituindo o antecessor (D.
Thomaz Mascarenhas) que fugira na noite panica de 23-4. Depois
foi ministro; e em 34 governador do Algarve, para bater as guerrilhas
do Remechido. Consolidada a paz, tributado o preito de fidelidade
ao throno que a guerra levantára, embainhou a espada e sentou-se
na camara do lado esquerdo, pois, no seu entender, de ambos os
lados se era egualmente fiel á monarchia liberal. Imperturbavel na
sua serenidade, com um systema de opiniões assaz concatenadas
para um espirito avesso a profundar as cousas, a humanidade era a
sua religião, o dever a sua moral, a monarchia o seu principio, a
espada o seu amor, o povo o seu dilecto. Estava pois longe de ser
um demagogo como os dos Camillos, nem um tribuno da plebe, á
maneira dos de Roma—como do facto era Passos.

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5. Which of the following measures mental and motor abilities in infants?

2. Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

3. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

4. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

5. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

6. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language

7. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language

8. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language

9. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

6.31 A ___________ is an internal image of a past event or object.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development