Nolo's Encyclopedia of Everyday Law:

Answers to Your Most Frequently

Asked Legal Questions The Editors Of
Nolo
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/nolos-encyclopedia-of-everyday-law-answers-to-your-
most-frequently-asked-legal-questions-the-editors-of-nolo/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Nolo's Encyclopedia of Everyday Law: Answers to Your

Most Frequently Asked Legal Questions, 12th Edition The
Editors Of Nolo The Editors Of Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/nolos-encyclopedia-of-everyday-law-
answers-to-your-most-frequently-asked-legal-questions-12th-
edition-the-editors-of-nolo-the-editors-of-nolo/

Nolo's Encyclopedia of Everyday Law: Answers to Your

Most Frequently Asked Legal Questions 12th Edition The
Editors Of Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/nolos-encyclopedia-of-everyday-law-
answers-to-your-most-frequently-asked-legal-questions-12th-
edition-the-editors-of-nolo/

Law Forms of Personal Use (12th Edition) The Editors Of

Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/law-forms-of-personal-use-12th-
edition-the-editors-of-nolo/

Law Forms for Personal Use 12th Edition The Editors Of

Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/law-forms-for-personal-use-12th-
edition-the-editors-of-nolo/
NOLO • Quick & Legal Will Book, 10th Edition Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/nolo-quick-legal-will-book-10th-
edition-nolo/

Know Your Rights Answers to Texans Everyday Legal

Questions 9th Edition Richard M Alderman

https://ebookmeta.com/product/know-your-rights-answers-to-texans-
everyday-legal-questions-9th-edition-richard-m-alderman/

NOLO • Neighbor Law: Fences, Trees, Boundaries, &

Noise, 11th Edition Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/nolo-neighbor-law-fences-trees-
boundaries-noise-11th-edition-nolo/

NOLO • Solve Your Money Troubles, 19th Edition:

Strategies to Get Out of Debt and Stay That Way Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/nolo-solve-your-money-
troubles-19th-edition-strategies-to-get-out-of-debt-and-stay-
that-way-nolo/

Plan Your Estate, 16th Edition Nolo

https://ebookmeta.com/product/plan-your-estate-16th-edition-nolo/
 “Practical examples, explanations of legal
principles, and useful tips...”
LIBRARY JOURNAL

A HANDY
12th Edition
INFORMATION-PACKED
DESK REFERENCE

Nolo’s
Encyclopedia
of
Everyday
Law Answers to Your
Most Frequently Asked
Legal Questions
The Editors of Nolo

Answers more than 1,000 common legal questions

More Resources
from Nolo.com

Legal Forms, Books, & Software

Hundreds of do-it-yourself products—all written in plain English,
approved, and updated by our in-house legal editors.

Legal Articles
Get informed with thousands of free articles on everyday legal
topics. Our articles are accurate, up to date, and reader friendly.

Find a Lawyer
Want to talk to a lawyer? Use Nolo to find a lawyer who can
help you with your case.
 The Trusted Name
(but don’t take our word for it)

“ In Nolo you can trust.”

THE NEW YORK TIMES

“ Nolo is always there in a jam as the nation’s premier publisher

of do-it-yourself legal books.”
NEWSWEEK

“ Nolo publications…guide people simply through the how,

when, where and why of the law.”
THE WASHINGTON POST

“ [Nolo’s]…material is developed by experienced attorneys who

have a knack for making complicated material accessible.”
LIBRARY JOURNAL

“ When it comes to self-help legal stuff, nobody does a better job

than Nolo…”
USA TODAY

“ The most prominent U.S. publisher of self-help legal aids.”

TIME MAGAZINE

“ Nolo is a pioneer in both consumer and business self-help

books and software.”
LOS ANGELES TIMES
 12th Edition

Nolo’s Encyclopedia
of Everyday Law
Answers to Your Most Frequently
Asked Legal Questions

The Editors of Nolo

LAW for ALL

TWELFTH EDITION APRIL 2023
Editor JANET PORTMAN
Cover design SUSAN PUTNEY
Book design SUSAN PUTNEY
Proofreader JENNIFER ARTER
Index VICTORIA BAKER
Printer SHERIDAN

ISSN: 2690-9685 (print)

ISSN: 2690-9693 (online)

ISBN: 978-1-4133-3067-0 (pbk.)

ISBN: 978-1-4133-3068-7 (ebook)

This book covers only United States law, unless it specifically states otherwise.
Copyright © 1996, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2011, 2013, 2017, and 2020 by Nolo.
Copyright © 2023 by MH Sub I, LLC dba Nolo. All rights reserved. The NOLO trademark
is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Printed in the U.S.A.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
prior written permission. Reproduction prohibitions do not apply to the forms contained in this
product when reproduced for personal use. For information on bulk purchases or corporate
premium sales, please contact tradecs@nolo.com.

Please note
Accurate, plain-English legal information can help you solve many of your own
legal problems. But this text is not a substitute for personalized advice from a
knowledgeable lawyer. If you want the help of a trained professional—and we’ll
always point out situations in which we think that’s a good idea—consult an
attorney licensed to practice in your state.
Table of Contents

About Nolo’s Encyclopedia of Everyday Law ....................................................................1

1 Houses .........................................................................................................................................................3
Buying a House ........................................................................................................................................4
Selling Your House ...............................................................................................................................12
Deeds...........................................................................................................................................................17

2 Neighbors ................................................................................................................................................21
Boundaries............................................................................................................................................... 22
Fences......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Trees ............................................................................................................................................................ 25
Views .......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Noise ........................................................................................................................................................... 29

3 Landlords and Tenants.................................................................................................................. 33

Leases and Rental Agreements .................................................................................................... 34
Choosing Tenants and Choosing a Place to Live ................................................................ 36
Housing Discrimination ....................................................................................................................37
Rent and Security Deposits ............................................................................................................ 39
Tenants’ Privacy Rights ......................................................................................................................41
Roommates, Sublets, and Airbnb ................................................................................................42
Repairs and Maintenance.................................................................................................................43
Landlord Liability for Criminal Acts and Activities ........................................................... 45
Landlord Liability for Lead Poisoning ....................................................................................... 48
Landlord Liability for Exposure to Asbestos, Mold, and Bedbugs ............................ 49
Insurance .................................................................................................................................................. 50
Resolving Disputes ...............................................................................................................................52
Tenancy Terminations and Evictions ........................................................................................ 54
4 Workplace Rights...............................................................................................................................57
Fair Pay and Time Off ........................................................................................................................ 58
Workplace Health and Safety ....................................................................................................... 69
Workers’ Compensation .................................................................................................................. 72
Discrimination....................................................................................................................................... 78
Harassment ............................................................................................................................................. 91
Workplace Privacy .............................................................................................................................. 94
Losing Your Job ..................................................................................................................................... 98

5 Small Businesses ..............................................................................................................................103

Before You Start a Small Business .............................................................................................104
Legal Structures for Small Businesses ..................................................................................... 110
Nonprofit Corporations................................................................................................................. 118
Small Business Taxes ........................................................................................................................ 121
Home-Based Businesses .................................................................................................................126
Employers’ Rights & Responsibilities.......................................................................................130

6 Patents ...................................................................................................................................................149
Qualifying for a Patent....................................................................................................................150
Obtaining a Patent............................................................................................................................156
Enforcing a Patent .............................................................................................................................157
Putting a Patent to Work ..............................................................................................................161
How Design Patents Differ From Copyrights and Trademarks ................................162

7 Copyrights ...........................................................................................................................................165
Copyright Basics .................................................................................................................................166
Copyright Ownership......................................................................................................................169
Copyright Protection.......................................................................................................................171
Copyright Registration and Enforcement ............................................................................ 174
8 Trademarks .........................................................................................................................................177
Types of Trademarks ........................................................................................................................178
Trademark Protection .....................................................................................................................181
Using and Enforcing a Trademark.............................................................................................184
Conducting a Trademark Search...............................................................................................187
Registering a Trademark ................................................................................................................189
How Trademarks Differ From Patents and Copyrights.................................................193

9 Your Money ........................................................................................................................................197

Purchasing Goods and Services .................................................................................................198
Using Credit and Charge Cards..................................................................................................203
Using an ATM or Debit Card .......................................................................................................206
Strategies for Repaying Debts, House Payments, and Student Loans ..................207
Dealing With the IRS........................................................................................................................ 215
Debt Collections ................................................................................................................................219
Bankruptcy ............................................................................................................................................223
Rebuilding Credit ...............................................................................................................................226

10 Cars and Driving ..............................................................................................................................231

Buying a New Car ..............................................................................................................................232
Leasing a Car ........................................................................................................................................237
Buying a Used Car .............................................................................................................................239
Financing a Vehicle Purchase ......................................................................................................242
Insuring Your Car ...............................................................................................................................243
Your Driver’s License ........................................................................................................................246
Driving for Uber or Lyft ..................................................................................................................250
If You’re Stopped by the Police ..................................................................................................251
Drunk Driving ......................................................................................................................................252
Traffic Accidents ................................................................................................................................254
11 Wills and Estate Planning ..........................................................................................................259
Wills...........................................................................................................................................................260
Probate ....................................................................................................................................................266
Executors ................................................................................................................................................267
Avoiding Probate ...............................................................................................................................271
Living Trusts..........................................................................................................................................272
Estate and Gift Taxes .......................................................................................................................276
Funeral Planning and Other Final Arrangements ............................................................278
Body and Organ Donations .........................................................................................................283

12 Health Care Directives and Powers of Attorney........................................................285

Health Care Directives ....................................................................................................................286
Durable Powers of Attorney for Finances ............................................................................293
Conservatorships ...............................................................................................................................297

13 Older Americans .............................................................................................................................301

Retirement Plans ................................................................................................................................302
Social Security .....................................................................................................................................307
Medicare................................................................................................................................................. 313
Finding a Caregiver or Residential Care Facility ................................................................319

14 Spouses and Partners ...................................................................................................................325

Living Together—Gay or Straight .............................................................................................326
Domestic Partnership and Civil Unions ................................................................................330
Premarital Agreements ..................................................................................................................332
Marriage..................................................................................................................................................335
Divorce ....................................................................................................................................................339
Domestic Violence............................................................................................................................344
Changing Your Name ......................................................................................................................348
15 Parents and Children....................................................................................................................355
Adopting a Child................................................................................................................................356
Stepparent Adoptions.....................................................................................................................367
Adoption Rights: Birth Parents, Grandparents, and Children ..................................369
Child Custody and Visitation ......................................................................................................372
Child Support ......................................................................................................................................379
Guardianship of Children ..............................................................................................................386

16 Courts and Mediation .................................................................................................................391

Representing Yourself in Court ..................................................................................................392
Small Claims Court ...........................................................................................................................403
Mediation .............................................................................................................................................. 410
Finding and Working With a Lawyer ...................................................................................... 415

17 Criminal Law and Procedure...................................................................................................429

Criminal Law and Procedure: An Overview ........................................................................430
If You Are Questioned by the Police .......................................................................................436
Searches and Seizures ......................................................................................................................438
Arrests and Interrogations ...........................................................................................................442
Bail ............................................................................................................................................................ 446
Getting a Lawyer ................................................................................................................................448

Glossary .........................................................................................................................................................455

Appendix
Legal Research ...................................................................................................................................477
Learning About a Particular Area of Law .............................................................................478
Finding a Specific Law .....................................................................................................................480
Finding Answers to Specific Legal Questions.....................................................................487
Finding Legal Forms .........................................................................................................................490

Index ..................................................................................................................................................................493
About Nolo’s Encyclopedia of Everyday Law
W
hether we like it or not, the
law touches our personal lives
in many ways each day. We
might not think much about the laws that
affect us as we carry out simple tasks such
as driving a car, making a call, or shopping.
But every now and again, we’re sure to need
an answer to a common legal question that
arises in the course of daily life:
What can I do about my noisy neighbor?
What are my rights if I’m fired from my job?
Do I really need to make a will?
What should I do if I can’t pay the child
support I owe?
And so on.
This book provides answers to frequently
asked questions about hundreds of subjects
you might encounter in your personal
life—topics that range from buying a house
to getting a divorce, from paying your debts
to starting and running a small business.
Obviously, we can’t answer every question
on a particular subject, but we’ve answered
many common ones to get you started.
Throughout each chapter, you’ll find
resources for additional information,
including websites that will help you learn
more about a specific area of the law, find
the answer to your legal question, connect
you with a government or community
agency, or lead you to the form you need
to accomplish a specific legal task. And if
you need to go further, and read the text of
a specific law or court case, the appendix
in this book explains how to do basic legal
research online or at the library.
Think of this book as a desk reference
—a little encyclopedia that explains what
the law really means in a language you
can understand. But remember that the
law changes constantly, as legislatures
pass new statutes and courts hand down
their rulings. We will publish new, revised
editions of this book periodically, but it
will never be perfectly current. It’s always
your responsibility to be sure a law is up to
date before you rely on it. Check for legal
updates on our website at www.nolo.com
for the most current legal information
affecting Nolo books and software.
O
 CHAPTER

Houses 1
Buying a House .............................................................................................................................................4
Selling Your House ................................................................................................................................... 12
Deeds ............................................................................................................................................................... 17
4 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
Home is heaven for beginners.
—Charles H. Parkhurst
B
uying or selling a house is both
exciting and demanding. To
do either successfully, you need
to understand how houses are priced,
financed, and inspected; how to find
and work with a real estate agent; how to
protect your interests when negotiating a
contract; and how legal transfer of owner-
ship takes place. This chapter covers many
of the basics for buyers, sellers, and owners. your overall debt (including for your
Buying a House
Before you fall in love with a house, it’s
essential to determine how much you can
afford to pay and what your financing
options are. You’ll also need to choose a
good real estate agent or broker; decide
whether to buy an existing, pre-owned
house or a newly built house; perhaps
consider alternative forms of ownership
(such as a condo or townhouse); and
finally, even if you think you’ve found
your dream home, understand house
inspections, and insure your new home
against unforeseen problems.
How do I determine how much
house I can afford?
Don’t rely on abstract formulas. Instead,
take a close look at how much of your
monthly income you can realistically set
aside after you stop paying rent. Then,
when considering a particular house, total
up the estimated monthly loan payments
(including principal and interest) plus one-
twelfth of your yearly bill for property and
homeowners’ insurance and other house-
related costs like utilities and maintenance.
Now compare that to your monthly income.
Lenders normally expect you to keep
house) below 43% of your gross monthly
income (before taxes).
It’s best to run the numbers yourself
before you talk to a bank or lender. Various
online mortgage calculators, such as those
at www.nolo.com/legal-calculators, will
help you get a realistic picture of your
budget.
Next, ask a lender or loan broker for
a preapproval letter saying that you will
(subject to later review) be approved for a
loan of a specified amount based on your
income and credit history.
Having lender preapproval makes you
more financially attractive to sellers than
simple loan “prequalification” (which
 CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 5

involves less scrutiny by the lender). It’s How can I find the best home loan or
crucial in competitive markets or where mortgage?
sellers are wary of accepting any offer that Banks, credit unions, savings and loans,
might not close successfully. insurance companies, mortgage bankers,
and others make home loans. Lenders and
How important is my credit history
terms change frequently as new companies
in getting loan approval?
appear, old ones merge, and market
Your credit history plays a vital role in conditions fluctuate. To get the best deal,
determining the type and amount of loan compare loans and fees from at least a half-
you can qualify for. Expect prospective dozen lenders.
lenders to request your credit score from Mortgage rate websites can be a great
the credit bureaus. This score is a statistical place to examine mortgage programs
summary of the information in your credit and crunch numbers. Many also offer
report, such as: direct access to loans from one or more
• your history of paying bills on time lenders. However, many customers prefer
• the level of your outstanding debts to complete their transaction with a “live”
• how long you’ve had credit lender or broker.
• your credit limit, and To avoid all the legwork involved in
• the types of credit you have. shopping for mortgages on your own,
The higher your credit score, the easier you can work with a loan broker who
it will be to get a loan. If your score is specializes in matching house buyers
low, a lender might either reject your loan with an appropriate mortgage lender.
application altogether or insist on a very (Check the broker’s qualifications
large down payment or high interest rate to carefully—not all are licensed.) Loan
lower the lender’s risk. brokers usually collect their fee from the
To avoid problems, always check your lender, not directly from you (though
credit report and clean up your file if it might be wrapped into what you
necessary—before, not after, you apply for ultimately pay).
a mortgage. For information on how to
order and clean up your credit report, see
Chapter 9.
6 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
What are alternative options for home loans?
You might also be eligible for a government-
guaranteed loan, offered by:
• the Federal Housing Administration
(FHA), an agency of the Department
of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) (see www.hud.gov)
• the U.S. Department of Veterans
Affairs (see www.va.gov/housing-
assistance), or
• a state or local housing agency.
Government loans usually have low down-
payment requirements and sometimes offer
better-than-market interest rates as well.
Also, ask banks and other private
lenders about any “first-time buyer
programs” that offer low down-payment
plans and flexible qualifying guidelines
to low- and moderate-income buyers with
good credit.
Finally, don’t forget private sources of
mortgage money—parents, other relatives,
friends, or even the seller of the house you
want to buy. Borrowing money privately is
usually the most cost-efficient method of
all, and can benefit everyone by keeping
money within the family.
What’s the difference between a fixed
and an adjustable rate mortgage?
With a fixed rate mortgage, the interest
rate and the amount you pay each month
remain the same over the entire mortgage
term, traditionally 15 or 30 years.
With an adjustable rate mortgage
(ARM), the interest rate will fluctuate in
step with the interest rates in the economy.
Initial ARM interest rates are usually
offered at a discounted (“teaser”) rate,
which is lower than those for fixed rate
mortgages. Over time, however, initial
discounts are filtered out. To avoid constant
and drastic changes, ARMs typically regu-
late (cap) how much and how often the
interest rate and/or payments can change
in a year and over the life of the loan.
How do I decide between a fixed and
an adjustable rate mortgage?
Because interest rates and mortgage options
change often, your choice of a fixed or an
adjustable rate mortgage should depend on
their respective interest rates, how much
you can afford in the short term, your view
of the future (high inflation tends to drive
ARM rates up and vice versa), and how
willing you are to take a risk.
Risk-averse people usually choose the
certainty of a fixed rate mortgage, even
if an ARM might be cheaper in the long
run. However, some people can’t afford
the relatively higher interest rates at which
fixed rate mortgages usually begin.
Keep in mind that if you take out a loan
now, and several years from now interest
rates have dropped but your home has
retained its value, refinancing might be an
option. But if the only way you can afford
your home over the long term given your
expected income is to count on a refinance,
don’t take the risk—many others have
done so and lost.

What’s the best way to find and work
with a real estate agent or broker?
Get recommendations from people who
have bought or sold a house in the past few
years and whose judgment you trust. Don’t
work with an agent you meet at an open
house or see advertised unless and until
you call references and thoroughly check
the person out. (In fact, it’s best to line
up an agent before visiting open houses,
because if you arrive unaccompanied and
wish to make an offer, some listing agents
have been known to claim that they found
you first and are therefore owed the full
commission.)
The agent or broker you choose should
be in the full-time business of selling real
estate and should have the following five
traits: integrity, business sophistication,
experience with the type of services you
need, knowledge of the area where you
want to live, and sensitivity to your tastes
and needs.
All states regulate and license real estate
agents and brokers. Many states also
require the agent to be upfront about the
exact nature of the relationship into which
you’re entering. You’re best off hiring an
agent who represents you and only you, as
opposed to also representing the seller as a
so-called “dual agent,” with mixed loyalties.
Typically, the seller pays the listing
agent’s commission, who then splits it with
the real estate salesperson who represents
the buyer. The total commission is a
percentage (usually 5%–6%) of the sales
CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 7
price of the house (so 2.5%–3% per agent).
What this means is that your agent or
broker has a built-in conflict of interest:
Unless you’ve agreed to pay the agent
separately (which few buyers do), there’s
no payday until you buy a home, and the
more you pay for a house, the bigger the
agent’s cut.
To offset this conflict, you need to
become knowledgeable about the house-
buying process, your ideal affordable house
and neighborhood, your financing needs
and options, your legal rights, and how to
evaluate comparable prices.
What’s the best way to get
information on homes for sale and
details about the neighborhood?
Most people begin their search online.
Virtual tours often include floor plans and
room-by-room photographs.
Once you see a house that looks
promising, contact your agent, the listing
agent, or the owner (if it’s a listing by
a FSBO—for sale by owner) to obtain
additional information or to set up an
appointment to see the home.
Your state or regional realty association
or multiple listing service (MLS) should
have a website listing homes for sale. Major
real estate companies, such as RE/MAX,
Coldwell Banker, Sotheby’s, Prudential, and
others offer home listings on their websites.
Advice on relocation decisions and
details about your new community are also
readily available online.
8 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW

There’s no substitute for your own by scheduling regular home inspections.

legwork, however. Ask questions of friends (You’ll need to negotiate for these in your
and colleagues, walk and drive around purchase contract.)
neighborhoods, talk to local residents, Many developers of new housing will
read local newspapers, and do whatever help buyers arrange financing; some
it takes to help you get a better sense of a will also pay a portion of the monthly
neighborhood or city. mortgage or subsidize interest payments for
a short period of time (called a “buydown”
I want to buy a newly built house. Is of the mortgage). As with any loan, be
there anything special I need to know?
sure to comparison shop before arranging
The most important factor in buying a financing through a builder.
newly built house is not what you buy (that Also, be ready to negotiate the prices of
is, the particular model and customized any add-ons and upgrades, such as a spa or
finishes), but rather from which builder higher-quality appliances. These can add
you buy. New is not always better, substantially to the cost of a new home.
especially if the house is slapped together
in a hurry—or months late. And as the What should I know before buying
first person to live in the house, you could a home in a development run by
be in for unpleasant surprises, such as a homeowners’ association?
water pipes that aren’t connected to the When you buy a home in a subdivision or
sewer or light switches that don’t work. planned unit development, you typically
Shop for an excellent builder—one who also become a member of an exclusive
builds quality houses, delivers on time, club—the homeowners’ association
has adequate cash reserves to finish the job or “HOA.” Its members (including a
(your home plus any promised community volunteer board of directors) are the people
amenities, such as a clubhouse or pool), who own homes in the same development.
and stands behind the work. To check out The HOA will probably exercise a lot
a particular builder, talk to existing owners of control over how you use and alter
in the development you’re considering, or your property. You’ll not only have to
ask an experienced contractor to look at pay regular dues (often several hundred
other houses the developer is building. dollars per month), but count on your
Keep tabs on the builder as work on fellow members to also pay their dues in
the home you’ve contracted for is done, order to maintain the common areas and

deal with any issues that come up, such as
major repairs or sudden damage that’s not
covered by your insurance.
Deeds to houses in new developments
almost always include restrictions—on
everything from the size of your dog to
the colors you can paint your house to the
type of front yard landscaping you can
do to where and what types of vehicles
you can park in your driveway or on the
street. Called “covenants, conditions,
and restrictions” (CC&Rs), these put
decisionmaking rights in the hands of the
HOA. Before buying, study the CC&Rs
carefully to see if they’re compatible with
your lifestyle and plans. Many CC&Rs,
for example, impose limits on renting out
one’s property.
If buying a resale home, check into the
HOA’s finances, looking for issues like
unpaid dues, debts, or pending lawsuits. If
you don’t understand something, ask for
more information and seek legal advice if
necessary.
It’s not easy to get out from under
overly restrictive CC&Rs after you
move in. You’ll likely have to submit an
application (with fee) for a variance, get
your neighbors’ permission, and possibly
go through a formal hearing. And if you
want to make a structural change, such as
building a fence or adding a room, you’ll
probably need formal permission from the
association in addition to complying with
city zoning rules.
CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 9
How can I make sure that the house
I’m buying is in good shape?
In most states, you have the advantage
of a law that requires sellers to disclose
considerable information about the
condition of the house on a standard,
written form. (See “Selling Your House,”
below.) Regardless of whether the seller
provides these disclosures, however, you
should have the property inspected for
defects or malfunctions in the building’s
structure and components. Such inspections
are traditionally done after the buyer’s offer
has been accepted but before the deal closes.
Start by conducting your own informal
inspection. To learn what to look for, see
Nolo’s Essential Guide to Buying Your First
Home, by Ilona Bray and Ann O’Connell.
Ideally, you should take a close look at a
house on your own before making a formal
written offer to buy it, so that you can save
yourself the trouble should you find serious
problems. (An
increasing number of people buy houses
after an online search, sight unseen. Pro-
ceed carefully if you must do that!)
If a house passes your inspection, hire a
general contractor to check all major house
systems from top to bottom, including
the roof, plumbing, electrical and heating
systems, and drainage. This will take two
or three hours and cost you anywhere from
$280 to $500 depending on the location,
size, age, and type of home. Accompany
the inspector during the examination so
10 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
that you can learn more about the main-
tenance and preservation of the house and
get answers to questions, including which
problems are important and which are rela-
tively minor. The inspector should prepare
a detailed written report.
Depending on the property, you might
want to arrange specialized inspections for
pest damage (your mortgage lender might
require a pest inspection), hazards from
floods, earthquakes, and other natural
disasters, and environmental health haz-
ards, such as asbestos, mold, and lead.
If the house is in good shape, you can
proceed knowing that you’re getting what
you paid for. If an inspector discovers
problems—such as an antiquated plumbing
system or a major termite infestation—you
can negotiate for the seller to pay for neces-
sary repairs or lower the purchase price.
Finally, you can back out of the deal if an
inspection turns up problems, assuming
your purchase contract includes the stan-
dard contingency allowing you to do so.
When making an offer to buy a
house, how do I avoid getting
trapped in an unworkable deal?
Real estate contracts almost always contain
contingencies—events that must happen
within a certain amount of time (such as
15 days) in order to finalize the deal. For
example, you might want to make your
offer contingent on your ability to qualify
for financing on reasonable terms, the house
passing certain physical inspections, it being
appraised for the amount you’re paying
for it, or even that you successfully enter
a contract to sell your existing house first.
Most of these are standard, and you’ll see
them in the boilerplate portions of whatever
purchase contract form is used in your area.
Be aware, however, that the more
contingencies you ask for, the less likely
the seller is to accept your offer or sign
the purchase agreement. See “Selling Your
House,” below, for more on real estate offers.
When should I start looking for
homeowners’ insurance?
A house might be your biggest asset, so
you’ll want to fully insure it against damage
(by fire, wind, vandalism, earthquakes,
floods, and mold, for example). A com-
prehensive homeowners’ insurance policy
should cover the replacement value of your
house and other structures, and partial
replacement of valuable items of personal
property like art and computers. But the
standard “replacement cost coverage”
pays only a preset amount if your house
is destroyed, so you’ll want to make sure
that’s really going to be enough to cover
your rebuilding costs.
You’ll want some liability coverage as
well, in case visitors to your property slip
and fall or are otherwise injured.
Start shopping for homeowners’ insur-
ance soon after your purchase agreement
has been signed. Don’t put this off until
escrow is about to close—finding a good
policy at a reasonable price can be hard.

The problem is particularly acute in
states such as California and Texas, where
expensive wildfire and mold claims have
pushed the industry into a state of panic.
Homebuyers who have filed past claims for
water damage (a precursor to mold) or who
are buying a house with a history of mold
problems or located in a wildfire zone could
find themselves unable to get any insurance
at all. Homebuyers with a history of making
frequent claims on their insurance policies
have similar problems. Some homebuyers
add a contingency to their purchase contract
stating that the deal can be canceled if they
can’t find adequate insurance.
Shop carefully—consider buying a
policy with a high deductible. This will
lower your premium cost and prevent you
from racking up a history of claims that
could endanger your ability to renew your
policy or get future insurance.
RESOURCE
For more information about buying
a home, see these Nolo books:
• Nolo’s Essential Guide to Buying Your First
Home, by Ilona Bray and Ann O’Connell.
Provides all the information you need to
select the best house, mortgage, agent,
inspections, and much more.
• How to Buy a House in California, by Ira
Serkes and Ilona Bray. Explains the details
of the California house-buying process.
CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 11
Strategies for Buying an
Affordable House
To find a good house at a comparatively
reasonable price, you might need to make
some sensible compromises as to size and
amenities, be patient, and employ one of
the following strategies:
• Buy a fixer-upper cheap (preferably
one that needs mostly cosmetic fixes).
• Buy a small house (with remodeling
potential) and add on later.
• Buy a house at an estate or
probate sale.
• Buy a house subject to foreclosure
(after a homeowner defaults on the
mortgage).
• Buy a shared-equity house, pooling
resources with someone other than a
spouse or partner.
• Rent out a room or two in the house.
• Buy a duplex, triplex, or house with
an in-law unit, to get rental income.
• Lease a house you can’t afford to buy
now, with an option to buy later.
• Buy a house at a short sale (where
the amount of the seller’s mortgage
is higher than the home can be sold
for, and the lender agrees to accept
a lower amount from a willing
buyer).
• Buy a house at an auction.
12 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW

Selling Your House Preparing Your House for Sale

If you’re selling a home, you need to Making your house and garden as attractive
time the sale properly, price the home as possible can put several thousand dollars
accurately, and understand the laws (such in your pocket. At a minimum, sweep the
as disclosure requirements) that cover real sidewalk; trim the landscaping; put pots of
estate transactions. These questions and blooming flowers by the front door; clean
answers will get you started. the windows; and fix chipped or flaking
paint.
I don’t need to sell in a hurry. When
are the best and worst times to Inside, clean and tidy up all rooms and
put a house on the market? remove clutter, personal items (including
photos), and some furniture, to make them
Ideally, you should put your house on
look bigger.
the market when there’s a large pool of
Be sure the house smells good—hide the
buyers—causing prices to go up. This
kitty litter box and bake some cookies.
tends to occur in the following situations:
Check for loose steps, slick areas, or
• Your area is viewed as especially
unsafe fixtures, and deal with everything
attractive—for example, because of
that might cause injury to a prospective
the high-quality schools, low crime
buyer. Take care of minor maintenance
rate, employment opportunities,
issues that might make buyers think you’ve
weather, or proximity to a major city.
taken poor care of the house, such as a
• Mortgage interest rates are low.
cracked window, leaking faucet, or loose
• The economic climate of your region
doorknob.
is healthy, and people feel confident
You can improve the look of your house
about the future.
without spending much money—a new
• There’s a jump in house-buying
shower curtain and towels might really
activity, as often occurs in springtime
spruce up your bathroom, and freshly cut
or due to a time-sensitive tax credit.
flowers or bowls of fruit will improve every
Of course, if you have to sell immediately
room. Or you can spend several thousand
—because of financial reasons, a divorce, a
dollars to have a professional “stage”
job move, or an imperative health concern
your house with rented furniture and
—and you don’t have any of the advantages
accessories, a technique shown to increase
listed above, you might have to settle
buyer excitement and yield greater returns.
for a lower price, or help the buyer with
financing, in order to make a quick sale.
 CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 13

I want to save on the real estate How much should I ask for my house?
commission. Can I sell my house myself No matter how much you love your
without a real estate broker or agent?
house, or how much work you’ve put into
Normally, yes. This is called a “FSBO” it, you must objectively determine how
(pronounced “fizzbo”)—for sale by owner. much it will fetch on the market—called
You must, however, look into the legal “appraising” a house’s value. The most
rules that govern real estate transfers important appraisal factors are recent
in your state, such as who must sign sales prices of similar properties in the
the papers, who can conduct the actual neighborhood (called “comps”).
transaction, and what to do if and when Real estate agents have access to sales
disputes or other problems arise. You also data for the area and can give you a good
need to be aware of any state-mandated estimate of what your house should sell for.
disclosures as to the house’s physical Many agents will offer this service for free,
condition, local hazards, legal disputes, hoping that you will list your house with
and the like. (See the discussion below.) them. You can also hire a professional real
If you want to go it alone, be sure you estate appraiser to give you a documented
have the time, energy, and ability to handle opinion as to your house’s value.
all the details—from setting a realistic A number of websites also offer detailed
price to negotiating offers to closing the comparable sales prices, though the
deal. Also, be aware that FSBOs are usually information isn’t always as recent as you
more feasible in hot or sellers’ markets, might need. Be especially wary of estimates
where there’s more competition for homes, generated by websites, as discussed below.
or when you’re not in a hurry to sell. The asking prices of houses still on
Be aware that you might not be able to the market can also provide guidance
save the whole 5%–6%. For example, a (adjusting for the fact that asking prices
buyer who is represented by an agent might are set strategically to bring in visitors
approach you and agree to complete the and bids, and can vary greatly from the
transaction only if you pay the commission ultimate selling price).
for the buyer’s agent. (Traditionally, that’s
one-half of the total 5%–6%.)
14 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
I checked my home’s supposed
value online, and it looks to be way
low. Who’s right, me or them?
Websites such as Zillow will give estimates
of homes’ values, based on information
drawn from public records about the house
and past sales of (theoretically) comparable
properties.
Don’t be surprised if your estimate
(or in Zillow-talk, “Zestimate”) looks to
be way off the mark, or even if estimates
from different sites are tens of thousands
of dollars different from each other.
Generating a number via a computer
algorithm is no substitute for having a live
human not only check the accuracy of the
basic data, but adjust for all the factors
the computer can’t see, such as the house’s
physical condition and aesthetic appeal.
Nevertheless, there’s a good reason to
check your online estimates: Buyers will
be looking at them! If the estimates are
far lower than your list price, the buyers
might underbid. If the estimates are far
higher, that’s better—but cases have been
reported of buyers who shied away from
such houses, worried that the seller knew
of some deep dark reason that the place
wasn’t worth what the online estimates
said. Be proactive about your online
estimates, particularly if they’re low. You
can go onto the sites and enter data about
your own house, which will both give the
public a better sense of the place and might
raise your estimates.
Do I need to take the first
offer that comes in?
You’re under no obligation to accept the
first or any other offer. Even very attractive
offers are rarely accepted as written. More
typically, the seller will negotiate to accept
some, maybe even most, of the offer terms,
while also proposing certain changes, for
example:
• price—you want more money
• financing—you want a larger down
payment
• occupancy—you need more time to
move out
• buyer’s sale of current house—you
don’t want to wait for this to occur, or
• inspections—you want the buyer to
schedule them sooner.
A contract is formed when either you
or the buyer accept all of the terms of the
other’s offer or counteroffer in writing
within the time allowed.
What are my obligations to disclose
problems about my house?
In most states, it is illegal to fraudulently
conceal material defects in your property,
such as your troublesome basement. What’s
more, most states require sellers to take a
proactive role by making written disclosures
on the condition of the property. Even in
states without such laws, local norms might
create an expectation that you will prepare a
list of disclosed items.

California, for example, has stringent
disclosure requirements. Sellers in this state
must give buyers a Transfer Disclosure
Statement listing such material defects
as a leaky roof, faulty plumbing, deaths
that occurred within the last three years
on the property, and even the presence of
neighborhood nuisances, such as a dog that
barks every night.
In addition, California sellers must
disclose potential hazards from floods,
earthquakes, fires, environmental hazards
(such as mold, asbestos, and lead), and
other problems. (The form for this is called
a “Natural Hazard Disclosure Statement.”)
California sellers must also tell buyers
about a state database maintained by law
enforcement authorities on the location of
registered sex offenders.
Broadly speaking, you are responsible
for disclosing only information within your
personal knowledge. Nevertheless, many
sellers hire a general contractor to inspect
the property. The inspection report will
help you determine which items need repair
or replacement and prepare any required
disclosures. The report is also useful in
pricing your house and negotiating with
prospective buyers.
Full disclosure of any property defects will
also help protect you from legal problems in
the event that a buyer seeks to rescind the
sale or sues you for damages suffered because
you carelessly or intentionally withheld
important information about your property.
CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 15
Sellers of Older Homes
Must Disclose Lead-Based
Paint and Hazards
If you are selling a house built before
1978, you must comply with the federal
Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard
Reduction Act of 1992 (42 U.S.C. § 4852d),
also known as Title X (Ten). You must:
• disclose all known lead-based paint
and hazards in the house
• give buyers a pamphlet prepared by
the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) called Protect Your
Family From Lead in Your Home
• include certain warning language
in the contract, as well as signed
statements from all parties verifying
that all disclosures (including giving
the pamphlet) were made
• keep signed acknowledgments for
three years as proof of compliance, and
• give buyers a ten-day opportunity to
test the house for lead.
If you fail to comply with Title X, the
buyer can sue you for triple the amount
of damages suffered—for example, three
times the cost of repainting a house
previously painted with lead-based paint.
For more information, go to www.epa.
gov/lead.
16 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
Check with your real estate broker or
attorney, or your state department of real
estate, for disclosures required in your state
and any special forms you must use.
What are home warranties, and should
I purchase one for the buyer?
Home warranties are service contracts
that cover major housing appliances
and systems—electrical wiring, built-in
refrigerators or dishwashers, heating,
plumbing, and the like—for one year
from the date the house is sold. (But they
don’t cover basic structural components
like the roof, windows, or foundation.)
Most warranties cost $350 to $600 and
are renewable. If something goes wrong
with any of the covered systems after the
sale closes, the repairs are paid for (minus
a modest service fee)—and the new buyer
saves money. Many sellers find that adding
a home warranty to the deal makes their
house more attractive and easier to sell.
Before buying a home warranty, be sure
you don’t duplicate coverage. You don’t
need a warranty for the heating system, for
example, if your furnace is just six months
old and still covered by the manufacturer’s
three-year warranty.
Your real estate agent or broker can
provide more information on home
warranties.
What is the “house closing”?
The house closing is the final transfer of
ownership from the seller to the buyer.
It occurs after both you and the buyer have
met all the terms of the contract and the
deed is recorded. (See “Deeds,” below).
Closing also refers to the time when the
transfer will occur, such as “The closing
on my house will happen on January 27
at 10:00 a.m.” Although closings formerly
required an in-person meeting, most of the
steps can now be undertaken online, except
that some documents will need to be signed
in the presence of a real live notary public.
Do I need an attorney for the house closing?
This depends on state law and local custom.
In some states, attorneys are not typically
involved in residential property sales,
and an escrow or title company handles
the entire closing process. In many other
states, particularly in the eastern part of the
country, attorneys have a more active role
in all parts of the house transaction; they
handle most or all of the details of offer
contracts and house closings. Check with
your state department of real estate or your
real estate broker for advice and local rules.
I’m selling my house and buying
another. What are some of the most
important tax considerations?
If you sell your home, you may exclude up
to $250,000 of your profit (capital gain)
from tax. For married couples filing jointly,
the exclusion is $500,000. (Unmarried
co-owners may also divide the profit and
each take a $250,000 exclusion.)
 CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 17

To claim the whole exclusion, you must Deeds

have owned and lived in your residence an
aggregate of at least two of five years before
the sale. You can claim the exclusion once Castles in the air are the only property you
can own without the intervention of lawyers.
every two years.
Unfortunately, there are no title deeds to them.
Even if you haven’t lived in your home
—J. Feidor Rees
a total of two years out of the last five,
you are still eligible for a partial exclusion
of capital gains if you sold because of a
Remember playing Monopoly as a kid,
change in employment or health, or due
where amassing deeds to property—
to unforeseen circumstances. You get a
those little color-coded cards—was all-
portion of the exclusion, based on how
important? Real-life deeds aren’t nearly so
long you lived in the house. To calculate it,
colorful, but they’re still very important.
take the number of months you lived there
before the sale and divide it by 24. What is a deed?
For example, if you’re an unmarried
A deed is the document that transfers
taxpayer who’s lived in your home for
ownership of real estate. It contains the
12 months, and you sell it for health
names of the old and new owners and
reasons at a $100,000 profit, the entire
a legal description of the property, and
amount would be excluded from capital
is signed by the person transferring the
gains. Because you lived in the house
property.
for half of the two-year period, you
could claim half the exclusion, or up to Do I need a deed to transfer property?
$125,000. (12/24 × $250,000 = $125,000.) Almost always. You can’t transfer real estate
For more information on current tax without having something in writing.
laws involving real estate transactions, see
IRS Publication 523, Selling Your Home, I’m confused by all the different
available at www.irs.gov. kinds of deeds—quitclaim deed,
grant deed, warranty deed. Does it
matter which kind of deed I use?
RESOURCE Probably not. Usually, what’s most impor-
For more about selling a home, see tant is the substance of the deed: the
Selling Your House: Nolo’s Essential Guide, by Ilona description of the property being trans-
Bray (Nolo). This book offers practical strategies ferred and the names of the old and new
on pricing, staging, marketing, and negotiating the owners. Below is a brief rundown of the
sale of your home. most common types of deeds.
18 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
A quitclaim deed transfers whatever
ownership interest someone has in the
property. It makes no guarantees about
the extent of the interest. Quitclaim deeds
are rarely used in regular home sales.
They’re commonly used by divorcing
couples; one spouse signs over all rights
in the couple’s real estate to the other.
This can be especially useful if it isn’t
clear how much of an interest, if any, one
spouse has in property that’s held in the
other’s name.
A grant deed transfers ownership and
implies certain promises—that the title
hasn’t already been transferred to someone
else or been encumbered, except as set out
in the deed.
A warranty deed transfers ownership and
explicitly promises the buyer that the seller
has good title to the property. It can make
other promises as well, to address particular
problems with the transaction.
Does a deed have to be notarized?
Yes. The person who signs the deed (the
person who is transferring the property)
must have a notary public sign and stamp
it. (Your escrow company will likely
arrange this.) Signing in front of a notary,
who confirms your identity by checking a
valid photo ID, verifies that the signature
on the deed is genuine. The signature
must be notarized before the deed will be
accepted for recording. And in some states,
deeds must also be witnessed, just like wills.
What does it mean for a
deed to be recorded?
When real estate is sold, one needs to
“record” (file) the deed in the land records
office in the county where the property
is located. It’s usually called the county
recorder’s office, land registry office, or
register of deeds.
Recording a deed basically involves
submitting the signed, original deed to the
office described above, either in person or
online. The clerk will stamp it with the date
and some numbers, make a copy, and give
the original back to you—or more likely, to
an employee of the escrow agency handling
this transaction on your behalf.
The numbers are usually book and
page numbers, which show where the deed
will be found in the county’s filing system.
You will pay a recording fee, probably
around $100.
What’s a trust deed?
A trust deed (also called a “deed of trust”)
isn’t like the other types of deeds; it’s not
used to transfer property. It’s really just a
version of a mortgage, commonly used in
some states.
A trust deed transfers title to land to a
“trustee,” usually a trust or title company,
which holds the land as security for a
loan. When the loan is paid off, title is
transferred to the borrower. The trustee
has no powers unless the borrower defaults
on the loan; then the trustee can sell the

property and pay the lender back from the
proceeds, without first going to court.
What’s a transfer-on-death deed?
A transfer-on-death (TOD) deed (called a
“beneficiary deed” or “transfer-on-death
instrument” in some states) lets you name
a beneficiary to inherit real estate at your
death, without the need for probate court
proceedings. A TOD deed looks a lot like
any other real estate deed but contains a
statement making it clear that the deed
CHAPTER 1 | HOUSES | 19
does not take effect until the current
owner’s death.
After you’ve signed the deed, you must
record it with the local county land records
office before your death. Otherwise, it
won’t be valid. You can revoke the TOD
deed at any time.
These deeds are not allowed in all states.
Nolo’s online form, Transfer-on-Death
(Beneficiary) Deed, can help you create
one that’s valid in your state, if allowed
there.
O
 CHAPTER

Neighbors 2
Boundaries....................................................................................................................................................22
Fences ..............................................................................................................................................................23
Trees..................................................................................................................................................................25
Views ................................................................................................................................................................26
Noise .................................................................................................................................................................29
22 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
People have discovered that they can fool the
devil, but they can’t fool the neighbors.
—Edgar Watson Howe
Y
ears ago, problems between neigh-
bors were resolved informally,
perhaps with the help of a third
person respected by both sides. These days,
neighbors—who might not know each
other well, if at all—are quicker to call the
police or head for court. Usually, of course,
lawsuits only cost everyone money and
exacerbate bad feelings, which makes it even
harder for neighbors to coexist peacefully.
But knowing the legal ground rules is
important; it can help you figure out who’s
right, who’s wrong, and what your options
are—without having to call in a judge.
Boundaries
Most of us don’t know, or care, exactly
where our property boundaries are located.
But if you or your neighbor want to fence
the property, build a structure, or cut
down a tree close to the line, you need to
know where the boundary actually runs.
How can I find the exact
boundaries of my property?
You can hire a licensed land surveyor
to survey the property and place official
markers on the boundary lines. A simple
survey usually costs about $500; if no
survey has been done for a long time, or if
the maps are unreliable and conflicting, be
prepared to spend $1,000 or more.
My neighbor and I don’t want to pay a
surveyor. Can’t we just make an agreement
about where we want the boundary to be?
You and the neighbor can decide where
you want the line to be, and then sign
deeds that describe the boundary. If
you have a mortgage on the property,
consult an attorney for help in drawing
up the deeds. You might need to get the
permission of the mortgage holder before
you give your neighbor even a tiny piece
of the land.
Once you have signed a deed, you
should record (file) it at the county land
records office, usually called the county
recorder’s office, land registry office, or
something similar. Deeds are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 1.
What can I do if a neighbor starts
using part of my property?
If a neighbor starts to build or otherwise
encroach on what you think is your property,
do something immediately. If the encroach-
ment is minor—for instance, a small fence
in the wrong place—you might think you
shouldn’t worry. But you’re wrong. When
you try to sell your house, a title company
might refuse to issue insurance because the
neighbor is on your land.
Also, if you don’t act promptly, you
could lose part of your property. A person

who uses another’s land for a long enough
time can gain a legal right to continue to
do so and, in some circumstances, gain
ownership of the property through what’s
called “adverse possession.”
Talk to your neighbor right away. Most
likely, a mistake has been made because of
a conflicting description in the neighbor’s
deed or just an erroneous assumption
about the boundary line. Try to get your
neighbor to agree to share the cost of a
survey. If your neighbor is hostile and
insists on proceeding without the survey,
state that you will sue if necessary. Then
send a firm letter—or have a lawyer send
one. If the building doesn’t stop, waste no
time in having a lawyer get a judge’s order
to temporarily stop the neighbor until
you can bring a civil lawsuit for trespass
before the judge. (Mediation, discussed in
Chapter 16, is often a good way to resolve
neighbor issues.)
Fences
Local fence ordinances are usually strict
and detailed. Most regulate height and
location, and some control the types of
material that can be used and even the
fence’s appearance. Residents of planned
unit developments and subdivisions are
often subject to even pickier rules. On
top of all this, many cities require you to
obtain a building permit before you begin
construction.
CHAPTER 2 | NEIGHBORS | 23
A Little Common Sense
If you are having no trouble with your
property and your neighbors, yet you feel
inclined to rush out and determine your
exact boundaries just to know where they
are, ask yourself a question. Have you been
satisfied with the amount of space that you
occupy? If the answer is yes, then consider
the time, money, and hostility that might
be involved if you pursue the subject.
If a problem exists on your border, keep
the lines of communication open with the
neighbor, if possible. Learn the law and
try to work out an agreement. Boundary
lines simply don’t matter that much to us
most of the time; relationships with our
neighbors matter a great deal.
Fence regulations apply to any structure
used as an enclosure or a partition. Usually,
they also include hedges and trees.
How high can I build a fence
on my property?
In residential areas, local rules commonly
restrict artificial (constructed) backyard
fences to a height of six feet. In front yards,
the limit is often four feet.
Height restrictions might also apply to
natural fences—such as bushes or trees—if
they meet the ordinance’s general definition
of fences. Trees that are planted in a row and
grow together to form a barrier are usually
24 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
considered a fence. When natural fences
are specifically mentioned in the laws, the
height restrictions commonly range from
five to eight feet.
If, however, you have a good reason (for
example, you need to screen your house
from a noisy or unsightly neighboring use,
such as a gas station), you can ask the city
for a onetime exception to the fence law,
called a “variance.” Talk to the neighbors
before you make your request, to explain
your problem and get them on your side.
My neighbor is building a fence that
violates the local fence law, but nothing’s
happening. How can I enforce the law?
Cities are not in the business of sending
around fence inspection teams, and as long
as no one complains, a nonconforming
fence may stand forever.
Tell the neighbor about the law as soon
as possible. If the fence is still being built,
your neighbor might be able to modify it
at a low cost. If the neighbor suggests that
you mind your own business, you can alert
the city. All it takes in most circumstances
is a phone call to the planning or zoning
department or the city attorney’s office. If
the neighbor refuses to conform, the city
can issue a citation, impose a fine, and
even sue.
My neighbor’s fence is hideous.
Can I do anything about it?
As long as a fence doesn’t pose a threat
of harm to neighbors or those passing
by, it probably doesn’t violate any law
just because it’s ugly. Occasionally,
however, a town or subdivision allows
only certain types of new fences—such
as board fences—in an attempt to create
a harmonious architectural look. Some
towns also prohibit certain materials—
for example, electrically charged or barbed
wire fences.
Even without such a specific law, if a
fence is so poorly constructed that it is an
eyesore or a danger, it might be prohibited
by another law, such as a blighted property
ordinance. And if the fence was erected just
for meanness—it’s high, ugly, and has no
reasonable use to the owner—it could be
considered a “spite fence,” which means you
can sue the neighbor to get it torn down.
The fence on the line between my
land and my neighbor’s is in bad
shape. Can I fix it or tear it down?
Unless the property owners agree
otherwise, fences on a boundary line
belong to both owners as long as both
are using the fence. Both owners are
responsible for keeping the fence in good
repair, and neither may remove it without
the other’s permission.
A few states impose harsh penalties
on neighbors who refuse to chip in for
maintenance after a reasonable request
from the other owner.
Of course, it’s rare that a landowner
needs to resort to a lawsuit. Your first step
should be to talk to the neighbor about

how to tackle the problem. Your neighbor
will probably be delighted that you’re
taking the initiative to fix the fence. When
you and your neighbor agree on how to
deal with the fence and how much you’ll
each contribute to the labor and material
costs, put your agreement in writing. You
don’t have to make a complicated contract.
Just note the specifics of your agreement
and sign your names.
Trees
Woodman, spare that tree!
Touch not a single bough!
In youth it sheltered me,
And I’ll protect it now.
—George Pope Morris
We human beings exhibit complicated,
often conflicting, emotions about trees.
We take ownership of our trees and their
protection very seriously in this country, and
this is reflected in the law.
Can I trim the branches of the neighbor’s
tree that hang over my yard?
You have the legal right to trim tree
branches up to the property line. But you
may not go onto the neighbor’s property or
destroy the tree itself.
CHAPTER 2 | NEIGHBORS | 25
Most of a big oak tree hangs over my
yard, but the trunk is on the neighbor’s
property. Who owns the tree?
Your neighbor. It is accepted law in all states
that a tree whose trunk stands wholly on
the land of one person belongs to that person.
If the trunk stands partly on the land of
two or more people, it is called a “bound-
ary tree,” and in most cases it belongs to all
the property owners. All the owners are
responsible for caring for the tree, and
one co-owner may not remove a healthy
boundary tree without the other owners’
permission.
My neighbor dug up his yard, and in
the process killed a tree that’s just
on my side of the property line. Am I
entitled to compensation for the tree?
Yes. The basic rule is that someone who
cuts down, removes, or hurts a tree
without permission owes the tree’s owner
money to compensate for the harm done.
You can sue to enforce that right—but you
probably won’t have to, once you tell your
neighbor what the law is.
Deliberately Harming a Tree
In almost every state, a person who
intentionally injures someone else’s tree is
liable to the owner for two or three times
the amount of actual monetary loss. These
penalties protect tree owners by providing
harsh deterrents to would-be loggers.
26 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
My neighbor’s tree looks like it’s going
to fall on my house. What should I do?
You can trim back branches to your
property line, but that might not solve
the problem if you’re worried about the
whole tree coming down.
City governments often step in to take
care of dangerous trees or make the owner
do so. Some cities have ordinances that
prohibit maintaining any dangerous con-
dition—including a hazardous tree—on
private property. To enforce such an ordi-
nance, the city can demand that the owner
remove the tree or pay a fine. Some cities
will even remove such a tree for the owner.
To check on your city’s laws and policies,
call the city attorney’s office. Search for your
city or town’s municipal codes online.
You might also get help from a
utility company, if the tree threatens its
equipment. For example, a company like
Pacific Gas &Electric (PG&E) will trim a
tree that hangs menacingly over its lines.
If you don’t get help from these sources,
and the neighbor refuses to take action,
you can sue. The legal theory is that the
dangerous tree is a “nuisance” because it
is unreasonable for the owner to keep it in
its current state, and it interferes with your
use and enjoyment of your property. You
can ask the court to order the owner to
prune or remove the tree. You’ll have to sue
in regular court (not small claims court)
and prove that the tree really does pose a
danger to you.
Views
The privilege of sitting in one’s home and
gazing at the scenery is a highly prized
commodity. Some homebuyers commit
their life savings to properties, assuming
that a stunning view is permanent.
However, that isn’t always the case.
If a neighbor’s addition or growing tree
blocks my view, what rights do I have?
Unfortunately, you have no general right to
light, air, or view unless it has been granted
in writing by a local law or subdivision rule.
The exception is that someone may not
deliberately and maliciously block another’s
view with a structure that has no reasonable
use to the owner.
This rule encourages building and
expansion, but the consequences can be
harsh. If a view becomes blocked, the law
will help only if:
• a local law protects views
• the obstruction violates private
subdivision rules, or
• the obstruction violates some other
specific law.
How can a view ordinance help?
A few cities that overlook the ocean or
other desirable vistas have adopted view
ordinances. These laws protect property
owners from having their view (usually,
the view that they had when they bought
the property) obstructed by growing trees.

The laws don’t cover buildings or other
structures that block views.
The ordinances allow someone who
has lost a view to sue the tree owner for
a court order requiring the tree owner to
restore the view. A neighbor who wants
to sue must first approach the tree owner
and request that the tree be cut back. The
complaining person usually bears the cost
of trimming or topping, unless the tree
was planted after the law became effective
or the owner refuses to cooperate.
Some view ordinances contain extensive
limitations that take away much of their
power. Some examples:
• Certain species of trees might be
exempt, especially if they grew
naturally.
• A neighbor might be allowed to com-
plain only if the tree is within a certain
distance from the neighbor’s property.
• Trees on city property might be
exempt.
I live in a subdivision with a
homeowners’ association. Will that
help me in a view dispute?
Often, residents of subdivisions and
planned unit developments are subject to
a detailed set of rules called “covenants,
conditions, and restrictions” (CC&Rs).
They regulate most matters that could
concern a neighbor, including views. For
CHAPTER 2 | NEIGHBORS | 27
example, a rule might state that trees can’t
obstruct the view from another lot, or
might simply limit tree height to 15 feet.
How to Approach a View Problem
Before you approach the owner of a tree
that has grown to block your view, answer
these questions:
• Does the tree affect the view of
other neighbors? If it does, get them
to approach the tree owner with
you. You could all pitch in to cover
trimming costs.
• Which part of the tree is causing
view problems for you—one limb,
the top, or one side?
• What is the least destructive action
that could be taken to restore your
view? Maybe the owner will agree to
a limited and careful pruning.
• How much will the trimming cost?
Be ready to pay for it. Remember
that every day you wait and grumble
is a day for the tree to grow and for
the job to become more expensive.
The loss of your personal enjoyment
is probably worth more than the
trimming cost, not to mention the
devaluation of your property (which
can be thousands of dollars).
28 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW

If someone violates the restrictions,

Cities Without View Ordinances
the homeowners’ association can apply
pressure (for example, by taking away If your city (like most) doesn’t have a view
swimming pool or clubhouse privileges) ordinance, you might find help from other
or even sue. A lawsuit is costly and time local laws. Here are some laws that could
consuming, however, and the association help restore your view:
might not want to sue unless there have Fence height limits. If a fence is
been serious violations of the rules. blocking your view, it might violate a local
If the association won’t help, you can law. Commonly, local laws limit artificial
take the neighbor to court yourself, but be (constructed) fences in backyards to six
prepared for a lengthy and expensive ordeal. feet high and in front yards to three or four
feet. Height restrictions might also apply to
I want to buy a house with a great
view. Is there anything I can do to natural fences, such as hedges.
make sure I won’t ever lose the view— Tree laws. Certain species of trees might
and much of my investment? be prohibited—for example, trees that
cause allergies or tend to harm other plants.
First, ask the property owner or the city
Laws might also forbid trees that are too
planning and zoning office whether the
close to a street (especially an intersection),
property is protected by a view ordinance.
to power lines, or even to an airport.
Then check with the real estate agent to see
Zoning laws. Local zoning regulations
whether neighbors are subject to restrictions
control the size, location, and uses of
that would protect your view. Also, if the
buildings. In a single-family area, buildings
property is in a planned unit development,
are usually limited to heights of 30 or 35
find out whether a homeowners’ association
feet. Zoning laws also usually require a
actively enforces the restrictions.
certain setback (the distance between a
Check local zoning laws for any property
structure and the boundary lines). They also
that might affect you. Could the neighbor
limit how much of a lot can be occupied by
down the hill add a second-story addition?
a structure. For instance, many suburban
Finally, look from the property to see
cities limit a dwelling to 40% to 60% of the
which trees might later obstruct your view.
property.
Then go introduce yourself to their owners
and explain your concerns. A neighbor who
also has a view will probably understand
your concern. If someone is unfriendly and
uncooperative, you stand warned.

Noise
Nothing so needs reforming as other people’s
habits.
—Mark Twain
If you are a reasonable person and your
neighbor is driving you crazy with noise,
the neighbor is probably violating a noise
law.
Do I have any legal recourse
against a noisy neighbor?
You bet. Almost every community
prohibits excessive, unnecessary, and
unreasonable noise, and police enforce
these local noise ordinances.
Most designate certain “quiet hours”—for
example, from 10 p.m. to 7 a.m. on week-
days, and until 8 or 9 a.m. on weekends. So
running a power mower might be perfectly
acceptable at 10 a.m. on Saturday, but not
at 7 a.m. Many towns also have decibel level
noise limits. When a neighbor complains,
the officials can measure the noise with
electronic equipment. To find out what your
town’s noise ordinance says, run a search
online, or ask at the public library or the city
attorney’s office.
Once you’ve figured out that your neigh-
bor is in fact violating a noise ordinance, try
approaching the neighbor in a friendly way
and letting the neighbor know the noise is
disturbing you. It’s always possible that you’ll
CHAPTER 2 | NEIGHBORS | 29
get an apology and the noise will stop. If
the noise continues, the next step would be
to ask the neighbor to attend a mediation
session and try to work it out. (To learn
about mediation, see Chapter 16.) If all else
fails and your neighbor keeps disturbing you,
you can also sue and ask the court to award
you money damages or to order the neighbor
to stop the noise (“abate the nuisance,” in
legal terms). For money damages alone, you
can use small claims court (also covered
in Chapter 16). For a court order telling
somebody to stop doing something, you’ll
have to sue in regular court.
Of course, what you really want is for
the nuisance to stop. But getting a small
claims court to order your neighbor to pay
you money can be amazingly effective.
And suing in small claims court is easy
and inexpensive, partly because you don’t
need a lawyer.
Noise that is excessive and deliberate
might also violate state criminal laws
against disturbing the peace or disorderly
conduct. This means that, in very extreme
circumstances, the police can arrest your
neighbor. Usually, these offenses are
punishable by fines or short jail sentences.
The neighbor in the apartment next
to mine is very noisy. Isn’t the landlord
supposed to keep tenants quiet?
In addition to the other remedies all
neighbors have, you have another arrow in
your quiver: You can lean on the landlord
30 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
to quiet the neighbor. Standard rental
and lease agreements contain a clause
entitled “Quiet Enjoyment.” This clause
gives tenants the right to occupy their
apartments in peace, and also imposes
upon them the responsibility not to disturb
their neighbors. It’s the landlord’s job to
enforce both sides of this bargain.
If the neighbor’s stereo is keeping you
up every night, the tenants are probably
violating the rental agreement, and could
be evicted. Especially if several neighbors
complain, the landlord will probably
order the tenant to comply with the lease
or face eviction. For more information
about tenant rights and responsibilities,
see Chapter 3.
Tips for Handling a Noise Problem
• Know the law and stay within it.
• Be reasonably tolerant of your neighbors.
• Communicate with your neighbors—
both the one causing the problem and
the others affected by it.
• Try mediation before taking more
aggressive steps.
• Assert your rights.
• Ask the police for help when it is
appropriate.
• Use the courts when necessary.
My neighbor’s dog barks all the time,
and it’s really annoying. What can I do?
Usually, problems with barking dogs can
be resolved without resorting to police
or courts. If you do eventually wind up
in court, however, a judge will be more
sympathetic if you made at least some
effort to work things out first. Here are the
steps to take when you’re losing patience
(or sleep) over a neighbor’s noisy dog:
1. Ask your neighbor to keep the dog quiet.
Sometimes owners are blissfully unaware
that there’s a problem. If the dog yaps
for hours every day—but only when it’s
left alone—the owner might not know
that the barking is happening.
If you can establish some rapport
with the neighbor, try to agree on specific
actions to alleviate the problem: for
example, that your neighbor will take
the dog to obedience school, get the dog
a citronella collar to prevent barking, or
consult with an animal behavior specialist,
or that the dog will be kept inside after 10
p.m. After you agree on a plan, set a date
to talk again in a couple of weeks.
2. Try mediation. Mediators, both profes-
sionals and volunteers, are trained to
listen to both sides, identify problems,
keep everyone focused on the real issues,
and suggest compromises. A mediator
won’t make a decision for you but will
help you and your neighbor agree on a
resolution.

Many cities have community mediation
groups that train volunteers to mediate
disputes in their own neighborhoods. You
can ask for a referral from:
• the small claims court clerk’s office
• the police
• the local district attorney’s office—
the consumer complaint division,
if there is one
• radio or television stations that offer
help with consumer problems, or
• a state or local bar association.
For more information on mediation,
see Chapter 16.
3. Look up the law. In some places, barking
dogs are covered by a specific state or
local ordinance. If there’s no law aimed
specifically at dogs, a general nuisance
or noise ordinance makes the owner
responsible. Local law might forbid
loud noise after 10 p.m., for example, or
prohibit any “unreasonable” noise. And
someone who allows a dog to bark after
numerous warnings from police may be
arrested for disturbing the peace.
To find out what the law is where
you live, call the local animal control
agency or city attorney. Or go to a law
library and check the state statutes and
city or county ordinances yourself.
Look in the index under “noise,”
“dogs,” “animals,” or “nuisance.” For
more information on how to do this,
CHAPTER 2 | NEIGHBORS | 31
see the “Legal Research” appendix.
You can run a search online; most
cities maintain online libraries of their
municipal codes and ordinances.
4. Ask animal control authorities to enforce
local noise laws. Be persistent. Some cities
have special programs to handle dog
complaints.
5. Call the police if you think a criminal law
is being violated. Generally, police aren’t
too interested in barking dog problems.
And summoning a police cruiser to
a neighbor’s house obviously will not
improve your already-strained relations.
But if nothing else works, and the
relationship with your neighbor is shot
anyway, give the police a try.
My neighbor just started giving piano
lessons at her home—loud lessons,
starting at 7 a.m. on weekends.
What can I do about this?
First, figure out whether your neighbor
is breaking any laws. Check your local
zoning law to find out whether your
neighborhood is zoned for residential use
only—if so, your neighbor might be in
violation for running a private business
out of her home. Next, find out whether
your neighborhood imposes “quiet hours,”
during which neighbors can’t make
excessive noise. Typically, quiet is enforced
until at least 8 a.m. on weekends.
32 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
Once you know your rights, talk to the
other folks on your block (and perhaps
those who live behind your noisy neighbor).
Are others also bothered by the noise? If
so, approach the piano teacher as a group.
Explain the problem and present possible
solutions. For example, perhaps your
neighbor can soundproof her practice room
and agree to hold her first lesson of the day
at 9 a.m.
If your neighbor is breaking the law,
make that clear—but also emphasize that
you have not yet spoken to the police or
any other local authority, and that you’d
like to work the problem out informally.
Don’t let yourself get pushed around,
however—if your neighbor refuses to be
reasonable, explain that you know your
legal rights and are prepared to enforce
them. And remember, even if your neighbor
isn’t violating a particular zoning or
noise regulation, she might be creating a
nuisance.
If your neighbor agrees to your proposed
solution, great. If not, you might try to
solve the problem through neighborhood
mediation. (For information about
mediation, see Chapter 16.) If all efforts at
compromise fail, you can either complain
to local authorities (such as the zoning
board, if your neighbor is violating the
zoning laws, or the police if your neighbor
is breaking a noise ordinance) or take your
neighbor to court.
RESOURCE
For more about dealing with
neighbors, see Neighbor Law: Fences, Trees,
Boundaries & Noise, by Emily Doskow and
Lina Guillen (Nolo). Explains laws that affect
neighbors and shows how to resolve common
disputes without lawsuits.
ONLINE HELP
The following sites are good resources
for dealing with neighbors:
• www.nolo.com Information about a wide
variety of legal topics, including neighbor
law disputes, from trees and noise to
secondhand smoke and easements.
• www.statelocalgov.net Comprehensive
index of websites for states, counties,
cities, and towns. Check here first for
the local laws that are so important in
neighbor disputes.
• www.amlegal.com American Legal
Publishing Corporation maintains a free
online library of local municipal codes.
O
 CHAPTER

Landlords and Tenants 3

Leases and Rental Agreements ........................................................................................................34
Choosing Tenants and Choosing a Place to Live ...................................................................36
Housing Discrimination ....................................................................................................................... 37
Rent and Security Deposits ................................................................................................................39
Tenants’ Privacy Rights ......................................................................................................................... 41
Roommates, Sublets, and Airbnb................................................................................................... 42
Repairs and Maintenance.................................................................................................................... 43
Landlord Liability for Criminal Acts and Activities ............................................................ 45
Landlord Liability for Lead Poisoning ..........................................................................................48
Landlord Liability for Exposure to Asbestos, Mold, and Bedbugs .............................49
Insurance .......................................................................................................................................................50
Resolving Disputes................................................................................................................................... 52
Tenancy Terminations and Evictions ...........................................................................................54
34 | NOLO’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYDAY LAW
Property has its duties as well as its rights.
—Thomas Drummond
F
ifty years ago, custom, not law,
controlled how most landlords and
tenants interacted with each other.
This is no longer true. Today, whether
you focus on leases and rental agreements;
habitability; discrimination; the amount,
use, and return of security deposits; how
and when a landlord may enter a rental
unit; or a dozen other issues, both landlord
and tenant must understand their legal
rights and responsibilities.
Here’s an overview of the key legal issues
affecting landlords and tenants. Because
landlord-tenant laws vary significantly
depending on where you live, you’ll need to
check your state and local laws for specifics.
The Nolo resources listed at the end of
this chapter provide the detailed legal
information landlords and tenants need,
including state statutes on security deposits,
late rent fees, repairs, and evictions.
Leases and Rental Agreements
Your lease or month-to-month rental
agreement is the contract that describes
many important aspects of the landlord-
tenant relationship.
A thorough lease or rental agreement
will cover important issues such as:
• the length of the tenancy
• the amount of rent and deposits the
tenant must pay
• the number of people who can live
on the rental property
• who pays for utilities
• whether the tenant may have pets
• the landlord’s access to the rental
property
• grounds for termination, and
• who pays attorneys’ fees if there
is a lawsuit over the meaning or
implementation of the agreement.
While a thorough rental document
will cover these issues, both landlords and
tenants are also bound by federal, state,
and sometimes local laws, which don’t have
to be reproduced in the rental document.
Leases and rental agreements should
always be in writing, even though oral
agreements are enforceable for up to one
year in most states. Though oral agreements
can be easy and informal, they often lead to
disputes if people misremember (or deny)
what was agreed to. The result can be a
court argument over who said what to
whom, when, and in what context.
What’s the difference between a
rental agreement and a lease?
The biggest difference is the length of
occupancy. A rental agreement provides
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CAPITOLO CLXXIX.
Buonaparte ordinatore. Rimpasto di paesi.
Concordato. Pace di Presburgo. Regno d’Italia.

Le paci di Campoformio e di Lunéville ripristinavano dunque il diritto

pubblico, dalla rivoluzione abbattuto; e dopo le radicali dottrine e le
pompose promesse, la Francia stessa immolava popoli e nazionalità
al vecchio sistema dell’equilibrio. Buonaparte, benedetto dall’Europa
come il genio dell’ordine, del buon senso, della pace, ai migrati
restituì la patria e i beni non ancora venduti, schiudeva una società
nuova al calore della sua gloria, e avviavasi alla dittatura: ma non
che ripudiasse i costosi frutti della rivoluzione, li fece ordinare e
sanzionare nel Codice, costruito sull’individuale libertà e
sull’eguaglianza di tutte le persone e tutte le cose sotto leggi e
tribunali identici, pareggiando i cittadini nella società, i figliuoli nella
famiglia; svincolando la proprietà, sicchè ognuno potesse disporne
co’ soli limiti imposti dall’utilità pubblica; secolarizzando l’ordine
politico e il civile.
Alle idee riordinatrici di Buonaparte confacevasi il ripristino della
religione, sentimento che tocca più degli interessi. Il culto era stato
abolito, abolito Dio sotto il Terrore, quasi a dimostrare che una
società non poteva imbrutire a quel segno se non rinnegando Iddio.
Sentì quel vuoto il Direttorio, e mediocre come era, credè surrogarvi
l’assurdo culto teofilantropico, i cui sacerdoti, alla ricorrenza di certe
feste della Virtù, venivano a deporre fiori su quegli altari, donde erasi
eliminato il sacrosanto rito dell’espiazione. Pio VI, cacciato da Roma
poi anche da Firenze, fuggì a Parma e di là a Valenza di Francia,
meglio accompagnato nella nobile miseria da dimostrazioni popolari,
che dalle cortigianesche nel fastoso e umiliante pellegrinaggio a
Vienna. Quando colà morì di ottantun anno (1799 29 agosto), i
filosofi dissero, — Ecco sepolto l’ultimo papa», e Revellière-Lépaux,
inventore del culto teofilantropico, scriveva a Buonaparte impedisse
di eleggere un successore, e profittasse della circostanza per
istabilire a Roma un Governo rappresentativo, e sottrarre l’Europa
dalla supremazia papale.
Ma Buonaparte avea trattato il papa da vincitore bensì, pur con
riguardi, e «come avesse centomila soldati». Rientrato in Milano,
assistette ai Tedeum che qui celebravano le sue vittorie, e potè
chiarirsi che il popolo nostro era e voleva essere cristiano. Onde
raccolti i parroci di Milano disse loro: — Persuaso che la religione
cattolica è la sola che possa procurare felicità vera ad una società
ben ordinata, e assodar le basi di un Governo, volli accertarvi che
metterò ogni cura a proteggerla: avrò come perturbatori del pubblico
riposo e nemici del ben comune, e punirò rigorosamente e fin colla
morte chiunque le farà il minimo insulto: voglio sia conservata nella
sua interezza, pubblicamente esercitata e libera come la prima volta
ch’io entrai in questo felice paese. I cambiamenti posteriori
avvennero contro l’inclinazione e il veder mio, nè potevo oppormi ai
disordini, ad arte eccitati da un Governo, sprezzatore della religione
cattolica. I filosofi vollero dipingerla nemica d’ogni sentimento
democratico e del Governo repubblicano. L’esperienza disingannò i
Francesi; ed io, che pur sono filosofo, so che nessuno potrebbe
passare per virtuoso se non sa donde viene e dove va; nè saperlo si
può che dalla religione, senza di cui la società è vascello privo di
bussola. Dei trattamenti usati al papa defunto, han colpa gl’intrighi di
quelli in cui avea posto confidenza, e la crudele politica del
Direttorio. Col nuovo papa spero tôrre gli ostacoli all’intera
riconciliazione della Francia. Voi so quanto soffriste nella persona e
nei beni, e vi provvederò; e quel che vi dico, desidero sia noto non
solo all’Italia e alla Francia, ma a tutta Europa» [60].
Anche in Francia, se per moda, per idolatria a Voltaire, per rispetto
umano, durava ancora fra la gente colta l’empietà, il popolo tornava
a sentir bisogno del Redentore, che riabbellisse la natura,
benedicesse le cune e i feretri, giudicasse le iniquità de’ forti: i
pensatori disingannati vedeano dover rintracciare un’eguaglianza più
vera, una libertà più salda e meno fallibile, meditavano
melanconicamente sulle ruine che da tre secoli le sêtte religiose e
filosofiche facevano nel cristianesimo senza sostituirvi una legge
generale dell’uomo e del mondo, senza trovare un essere intermedio
fra il gran tutto che rapivano all’umanità, e il nulla in cui la
sobbissavano.
Sarebbesi detto che le vittorie de’ Nordici in Italia s’effettuassero al
solo fine, che all’ombra loro fosse in Venezia (1800 14 marzo)
adunato il conclave [61], dove avendo l’Austria dato l’esclusione al
famoso Gerdil, uscì papa Barnaba Chiaramonti. Stando vescovo
d’Imola, aveva questi pubblicato in una pastorale che «la libertà cara
a Dio ed agli uomini, è la facoltà di poter fare e non fare, ma sempre
sotto la legge divina ed umana; la forma democratica non repugna al
vangelo, anzi esige quelle sublimi virtù che s’imparano soltanto nella
scuola di Cristo; esse faranno buoni democratici, d’una democrazia
retta, forbita da infedeltà e da ambizioni, e intesa alla felicità
comune; esse conserveranno la vera eguaglianza, la quale,
mostrando che la legge si estende su tutti, mostra insieme qual
proporzione deva tenere ogni individuo rispetto a Dio, a sè, agli altri.
Ben più che le filosofie, il vangelo e le tradizioni apostoliche e i
dottori santi creeranno la grandezza repubblicana, gli uomini
rendendo eroi di umiltà e prudenza nel governare, di carità nel
fraternizzare con sè e con Dio. Seguite il vangelo, e sarete la gioja
della repubblica: siate buoni cristiani e sarete ottimi democratici».
Questa moderazione parve attagliata ai tempi; ed egli, assunto il
nome di Pio VII (1800 3 luglio), comparve a Roma, dove la noja della
dominazione forestiera il faceva invocato: scelse a segretario di
Stato il cardinale Consalvi, destro quanto moderato; ricostituì il
governo all’antica, proclamando il perdono, e invitando i sudditi a
imitarlo col sopire gli odj e le querele reciproche. Toltigli
settecentomila sudditi delle Legazioni, gliene aveano lasciato un
milione e settecentomila, ma intero il debito di settantaquattro milioni
di scudi, di cui da tre anni non si pagava l’interesse. Si cercò
sistemare l’imposta in modo d’ottenere una rendita di quattro milioni
di scudi; fu proclamata la libertà di commercio, riconoscendo «che
tutte le leggi proibitive o vincolanti l’industria e il commercio erano
perniciose quanto vane [62]»; il papa diminuì le spese di corte;
condiscese ai teatri; impose una tassa speciale sui terreni incolti,
sciolse i vincoli di fedecommesso, di manomorta, di pascolo; dava
premj a chi piantasse, prometteva edificare casali, via via che la
cultura si estendesse. Secondando le istanze di Paolo I e di
Ferdinando IV, ristabilì i Gesuiti in Russia e nel Napoletano.
Con un papa sì conciliativo e pien d’amore per la Francia,
d’ammirazione per l’eroe che la dirigeva, non sarebbe possibile
ravvicinarla alla Chiesa? Tre giorni dopo la vittoria di Marengo,
Buonaparte ne gittò parola al cardinale Martiniana; poi Consalvi e
Giuseppe Buonaparte ne trattarono a Parigi (1801): ma ricuperare
questo regno primogenito del cristianesimo non poteasi senza grandi
sagrifizj. Voleasi il matrimonio de’ preti: e Pio rispose, potersi
assolvere gli ammogliati, ma autorizzarlo per massima no. Sui
possessi tolti alle manimorte non si fe malagevole, le ricchezze non
essendo essenziali al clero. E così tra cedere e negare si conchiuse
il famoso concordato. La Francia ebbe un ministro pel culto
(Portalis); la pasqua del 1802 i cannoni salutarono di nuovo una
festa cristiana; il Caprara legato a latere cantò messa in Nostra-
donna, mentre l’aerea armonia de’ sacri bronzi richiamava il popolo
ai riti solenni e all’ineffabile gusto della parola divina.
Tutto ciò dava lusinghe di ordine all’Europa: la coalizione regia s’era
sconnessa: anche l’Inghilterra ascoltò proposte di pace, la quale fu
conchiusa ad Amiens (1802 27 marzo). L’Inghilterra si era avventata
alle armi per difendere la minacciata libertà europea, ed ecco neppur
motto ne fa nelle stipulazioni: avea posto come preliminare lo
sgombro di tutt’Italia, poi lasciava al nemico il Piemonte e gl’emporj
di Genova e Livorno; Francia sgombrerebbe il Napoletano e il
Romano, e gl’Inglesi ogni posto nel Mediterraneo e nell’Adriatico, e
Malta che si restituirebbe all’Ordine.
A Buonaparte, volontà ineluttabile, sistematore risoluto, bastava un
atto per riunire un paese che la natura fece uno e le convenzioni
sbranarono: ma già il Piemonte consideravasi fuso colla Francia,
come Venezia coll’Austria; Buonaparte volle fossero distrutte le
fortezze che davano soggezione alla Francia, quali Arona, Bard,
Ceva, Cuneo, Tortona, Serravalle; smurata Torino, come il castello di
Milano, e Forte Urbano sul Bolognese. La Toscana era stata eretta in
regno d’Etruria per un infante di Spagna; al papa riconciliato
bisognava confermare il patrimonio; al regno di Napoli serviva di
scudo la protezione della Russia: e i fantastici Italiani piansero
svanita ancora la speranza che la vittrice spada e la ferrea volontà
d’un loro paesano ricostruisse la patria una e libera.
Ne’ varj Stati furono poste una commissione esecutrice e una
consulta legislativa, ma tutto pendea dai ministri di Francia [63]. Del
bello e forte paese cisalpino, con cinque milioni d’abitanti, settanta in
ottanta milioni d’entrata, e quarantamila uomini in arme, Talleyrand
avrebbe voluto si formasse un regno, da dare a qualche principe
austriaco siccome compenso e pegno di pace: ma Buonaparte
stabilì conservarlo repubblica, estesone il limite fin alla Sesia col
recuperare gli sbrani dell’antico Milanese, cioè Novara, Vigevano, la
Lomellina; buone fortificazioni la difenderebbero dagli Austriaci assisi
di là dall’Adige, e la terrebbero sempre aperta alla Francia, che ne
conservava il protettorato, e ne ricevea venticinque milioni all’anno di
tributo, e di qua manderebbe i suoi ordini al paese meridionale,
aspettando che i casi la elevassero a capo d’una federazione italica.
Per togliere la Cisalpina ai disordini della prima sua età, e
concentrarla sotto una mano vigorosa che la proteggesse di fuori
mentre la reggeva dentro, Buonaparte convocò a Lione una
consulta. Quattrocencinquantadue rappresentanti, scelti fra il clero, i
tribunali, le accademie, le amministrazioni dipartimentali, le quaranta
primarie città, la guardia nazionale e l’esercito, e in essi il cardinale
Bellisomi e nove vescovi, nel cuor del dicembre passarono i monti, e
nella seconda città di Francia ebbero suntuosa ospitalità, adunanze
splendide quanto le antiche sessioni reali, lauto trattamento, e fra
altri spettacoli, quel dell’esercito che tornava d’Egitto, misto di
veterani francesi con arabi e mori e mamelucchi.
Divisi in cinque classi (1802) secondo gli antichi dominj,
presedevano ai Lombardi già austriaci il Melzi, ai Veneti il Bargnani,
ai Pontifizj l’Aldini, ai Modenesi il Paradisi, ai Novaresi e Valtellini il
De Bernardi, a tutti in apparenza il Maniscalchi ambasciadore della
Cisalpina, in fatto Talleyrand, il quale senza quasi lasciarli discutere,
fece che accettassero per acclamazione lo statuto da lui modellato
sul francese dell’anno viii. Portava esso tre collegi elettorali
permanenti e a vita, completatisi da se medesimi: uno di trecento
grossi possessori risedeva a Milano; uno di ducento negozianti a
Brescia; uno di altrettanti dotti ed ecclesiastici a Bologna. Essi
sceglierebbero dal proprio grembo una commissione di censura di
ventun membro, che eleggesse tutte le magistrature dello Stato; otto
consultori, che vegliassero sulla costituzione, deliberassero sui
trattati, e nominassero un presidente della repubblica, decennale e
rieleggibile, con cinquecentomila lire, incaricato del potere esecutivo,
e che eleggerebbe un vicepresidente con centomila lire e ministri [64].
Il ministro del tesoro presenterebbe ogni anno il conto, e non
consentirebbe verun pagamento se non per legge o decreto del
Governo. Un consiglio legislativo di dieci membri compilerebbe le
leggi e i regolamenti, e li sosterrebbe davanti al corpo legislativo.
Questo ha settantacinque membri, quindici de’ quali sono nominati
oratori per discutere le leggi prima di votarle.
La giustizia era resa con sapiente progressione, da arbitri, giudici di
prima istanza, tribunali d’appello e revisione, ed uno di cassazione;
oltre le camere di commercio per le cause mercantili: inamovibili i
giudici e il grangiudice. Eguaglianza fra i cittadini; nessun vincolo
all’industria e al commercio se non quelli dalla legge stabiliti;
uniformità di pesi, misure, catasto, istruzione; dichiarati nazionali i
debiti e crediti delle provincie; lo Stato assegna la congrua a vescovi,
capitoli, seminarj, parroci e alle fabbriche delle cattedrali.
Fatti intesi della volontà del primo console, i nostri, dilungandosi dai
sistemi particolari per osservare l’intera popolazione senza
preoccupazione d’abitudini, lasciaronsi bassamente porre in bocca la
confessione della propria inettitudine, dichiarando non conoscere
alcun italiano valevole ad essere presidente della repubblica (1802
26 gennajo), gli uomini che presero parte ne’ cambiamenti o non
aveano sostenuto funzioni pubbliche, sì da poter reggere lo Stato, o
le aveano sostenute fra l’agitazione delle opinioni e sotto estranee
influenze, in modo da non meritarsi la pubblica fiducia: d’altra parte
la recente repubblica non avere truppe sufficienti ad assicurarsi, nè
poter sperare dagli altri Stati la considerazione necessaria per
consolidarsi dentro e fuori: trovare insomma necessario di essere
retta da Napoleone Buonaparte, due nomi che allora per la prima
volta trovansi uniti. E Buonaparte degnava aggradire, e diceva: — La
repubblica Cisalpina, invasa e omai perduta, fu una seconda volta
dal popolo francese resa all’indipendenza. D’allora che non si tentò
per ismembrarvi? ma la Francia vi protesse, e foste novamente
riconosciuti. A Lunéville cresciuto il territorio d’un quinto, esistete con
maggiore forza e maggiore speranza. Dandovi magistrati, non badai
a terre o a fazioni, ma solo ai vostri interessi. Per le eminenti funzioni
di presidente, non trovando persona fra voi abbastanza reputata,
benemerita e spregiudicata, aderisco al voto espressomi, e
conserverò, quanto fia necessario, il gran pensiero de’ vostri affari».
La repubblica, composta, com’egli diceva, di dieci popoli, cioè
Milanesi, Mantovani, Bolognesi, Novaresi, Valtellini, Romagnuoli,
Veneti, divisi in Bergamaschi, Cremaschi, Bresciani, s’intitolò italiana
(1 febb.), e pensò ad organarsi in modo d’essere, com’egli voleva,
«la prima potenza d’Italia». Restavano sue le artiglierie esistenti
nelle piazze fin al valore di quattro milioni; si doveano preparare armi
e ponti; trentaduemila soldati in tempo di pace, con una riserva che
si porterebbe a sessantamila, coscrivendo dodicimila giovani ogni
anno, oltre due mezze brigate e un reggimento di cavalleria di
Polacchi, ceduti alla nostra dalla repubblica francese; alla tranquillità
vigilavano mille seicento gendarmi, e la guardia nazionale di tutti i
cittadini dai diciotto ai cinquant’anni. La spesa era bilanciata su
novanta milioni di lire milanesi, di cui cinquantadue erano assorbiti
dalla guerra e dal tributo alla Francia. Libera la stampa, sotto la
responsabilità dell’autore e dello stampatore, i quali, avanti
divulgarle, doveano presentare le opere alla revisione, che poteva
sospenderle; soggetti a censura i fogli periodici, le composizioni
teatrali e i libri che si introducevano.
Ai comizj di Lione i preti non aveano potuto ottenere si dichiarasse
unica religione la cattolica, ma solo che si farebbe una legge
organica pel clero, da approvarsi dal papa. Di fatti un concordato
speciale (1803 16 7bre) con questo riconosceva come religione della
repubblica la cattolica; al presidente concessa la nomina de’ vescovi;
libero a questi il comunicare con Roma, il promuover agli Ordini e ai
benefizj i meritevoli, e punire i colpevoli anche col rinchiuderli in
conventi o seminarj: non si sopprimerebbero fondazioni
ecclesiastiche senza approvazione della Sede apostolica; non
sarebbero molestati i compratori di beni ecclesiastici. Tal era quel
concordato: ma come erasi fatto in Francia cogli articoli organici, nel
promulgarlo a Milano si aggiunse che nuove professioni non
potrebbero farsi se non negli Ordini applicati all’educazione o a cura
degl’infermi; e, come all’ordinazione dei preti, volervisi l’assenso del
Governo, e così per dare valore alle bolle e ai brevi della santa
Sede. Di quest’intrusione si dolse invano il pontefice.
Corse allora uno de’ più floridi e quieti tempi per la Lombardia;
lontano il presidente, buono e amato Melzi che ne sosteneva le veci;
distrutto ogni privilegio aristocratico, favorito il sapere; si citavano
ancora i patrj esempj, si ristampavano i nostri classici e i nostri
economisti, come ripigliavasi l’êra cristiana; facili i pagamenti,
prospere l’agricoltura e il commercio, crescente l’esercito, non
febbrili le speranze. La libertà della stampa era sì poco valutata, che
Melzi potè senza difficoltà stabilire la censura preventiva de’ giornali
e de’ libri provenienti di fuori. Gl’interessi materiali eccitavano più
gelosie che non le garanzie della libertà [65]; nè l’iniziativa, nè
l’esame erano liberi, e scarsa capacità mostravano le persone
incaricate del potere. Soprattutto mancava la prima condizione
d’ogni felicità, la fiducia della durata. Da una parte gli accorti
s’avvedeano che questa repubblica era l’embrione d’un regno; tanto
più che, ad ogn’ombra d’opposizione, Buonaparte minacciava dar un
calcio a questo sistema rappresentativo, che pareagli un’organizzata
ostilità: dall’altra il titolo d’italiana inchiudeva una minaccia agli Stati
della penisola. Fra gli stranieri poi i rancori erano stati sopiti non tolti,
e ben presto posero novamente a soqquadro tutt’Europa.
L’Inghilterra, cogliendo gli appigli che troppi offriva il trattato
d’Amiens, ricusa sgomberar Malta, cavilla i patti, e getta in mezzo la
questione italiana, persuasa d’avvilupparvi anche l’Austria.
Questa avea subìto i trattati di Campoformio e Lunéville come una
necessità, e colla fiducia di ripigliare la Cisalpina, donde
padroneggiare la media e la bassa Italia. Unico mezzo a sbarbicarla
sarebbe stato il rendere l’Italia a se stessa: ma Napoleone, che
credeva al potere non alle nazionalità, impose al fratello Giuseppe
che negli accordi di Lunéville non parlasse del papa, del Piemonte,
di Napoli, sicchè lasciava in pendulo gravissime questioni: nè
l’Europa potea soffrire che, con una nominale indipendenza, al
vassallaggio austriaco fosse surrogata la dominazione francese.
Alessandro di Russia, succeduto all’assassinato suo padre, ricusava
ravvicinarsi alla Francia se non ripristinasse il re di Sardegna e
assicurasse quello di Napoli: anche la Prussia chiedeva che Francia
sgombrasse il Napoletano, distaccasse Parma e Piacenza, le Jonie
e Malta si dessero in compenso al re di Sardegna. Austria, col
pretesto di un cordone contro la febbre gialla sviluppatasi a Livorno,
ingrossò sulla frontiera dell’Adige; e viepiù quando Buonaparte
scrisse in persona a Francesco II (31 xbre) voler ridurre la repubblica
italiana a monarchia, distinta dalla Francia. La fede mentita all’Italia
metteva dunque la Francia in guerra coll’Europa, e subito Inghilterra
empì d’armi il Mediterraneo: di rimpatto Buonaparte allestì a
Boulogne un famoso campo per tentare uno sbarco in Inghilterra;
deriso dai più come una sublime follìa, lodato da altri perchè valse di
palestra a’ suoi soldati. A quel campo la repubblica italiana mandò
un corpo sotto il general Pino, e decretò quattro milioni per costruire
due fregate e dodici scialuppe.
Ma non di guerra soltanto erano i divisamenti di Buonaparte, che
credette venuto tempo alle lunghe speranze. Col prestigio della
gloria egli avea fatto credere ancora al rinnegato entusiasmo; coi
comporti in Italia avea mostrato di saper ridestare il passato e le
relazioni consuete fra popoli civili: onde parve l’unico capace di
rimettere Francia nella grande comunanza delle nazioni, senza
sagrificare la libertà e l’orgoglio, come avrebbero fatto i Borboni.
Francia sfiduciata delle libertà promesse da filosofi, da avvocati, da
giornalisti, da legislatori, implorava il despotismo, e nol vedea che
sotto la forma d’un soldato: uscendo dall’oppressione sanguinaria o
ladra di tiranni abjetti e persino vili, meno male pareale la tirannide
della gloria e del genio: cessato di credere alle idee, credea a un
uomo. E Buonaparte racconciava all’obbedienza l’epoca più
indisciplinata; e indotta la ragione a confessare la propria
insufficienza, al ricostruire adoprò gli uomini ch’eransi mostrati più
attivi a demolire. In paese stanco ed abbagliato dalla sua gloria,
pochi ostacoli ebbe ad afferrare la dittatura. Interrogata colla
ciurmeria de’ registri, la nazione prorogò il console per dieci anni:
interrogata se il volesse a vita, disse sì; la costituzione fu modificata
alla monarchica: ma poichè il nome di re facea mal suono a quelli
che, in annuale funzione, giuravano odio sempiterno ai re, fra le
reminiscenze d’Augusto e di Carlo Magno egli ripescò il titolo
d’imperatore dei Francesi (1804 18 maggio).
Al potere nuovo facevano di mestieri tutte le forme che gli
conciliassero rispetto. Dopo che i registri, aperti in tutti i Comuni, gli
diedero la sanzione popolare, Napoleone volle anche quella della
religione, e domandò che Pio VII venisse a coronarlo. Gran
disparere in Roma. Piaceva che un eroe soffogasse nelle proprie
braccia quella repubblica sovvertitrice degli altari e della società, e
che una nuova dinastia all’Europa e alla civiltà assicurasse ordine e
conservazione. Qual trionfo per la Chiesa di vedere questo figlio
della rivoluzione invocare dal pontefice il sacro crisma, e credere
legittimazione della temporale quella potestà pontifizia che dianzi
trascinavasi nel fango! Anche nei possessi il papa potrebbe
altrimenti che ingrandirsene?
Ma gli zelanti, alla cui testa erano il sapiente Antonelli, il severo Litta,
il dotto Di Pietro, l’abile Pacca, avvezzi a credere la nave di Pietro
insommergibile fra le transitorie tempeste, aveano tenuto il
concordato come una dura necessità. — E chi è (rifletteano) questo
Buonaparte? Un soldato di ventura, che a Tolentino strappò alla
Chiesa le più belle provincie e tesori artistici; che tiene il contado
Venesino e i feudi in Piemonte, roba della Chiesa: che colla spada
suggellò il concordato, e pur subito lo eludeva cogli articoli organici;
che stipulò la spogliazione de’ principi ecclesiastici di Germania; che
in Egitto proclamava la tolleranza fino dell’islam. Or domanda la
mano del papa, ma a qual fine: unicamente per sorreggere la
personale ambizione, contentata la quale, si torcerà contro quelli che
adesso accarezza. Che cosa risponderà il papa ai rimproveri degli
Austriaci, da tanto tempo investiti del sacro romano impero? che
cosa ad altri re che lo domandassero a coronarli? E i Borboni, a cui
la violenza non tolse d’essere i cristianissimi, i primogeniti della
Chiesa, con qual occhio vedrebbero il santo padre cingere colla
corona di san Luigi uno, le cui mani stillano ancora del sangue
dell’assassinato duca d’Enghien?
Pio VII aveva attinto nel chiostro virtù semplici e rassegnate, e
l’abitudine di elevare gli occhi al cielo, più che scrutare le cose della
terra. Il recuperare una tale preponderanza sulla Francia, il restituire
alla tiara lo splendore offuscato, e al patrimonio le tre Legazioni
pareangli interesse della religione; e riprometteasi ottenerlo a Parigi
ne’ colloquj col nuovo Cesare, da cui farebbe cassare gli articoli
organici, e ripristinare gli Ordini religiosi. Volle che venti de’ più
creduti cardinali in tutta secretezza e coscienza gli esponessero il
loro sentimento sul quesito «Sua santità deve, può andare a
consacrare e coronare l’imperatore de’ Francesi?» Cinque dissero
un no riciso; gli altri furono pel sì, ma con diverse condizioni, o di
cassare gli articoli organici, o di attendere che il nuovo imperatore se
ne fosse mostrato degno come Carlo Magno, o che venisse egli
stesso di qua dell’Alpi, come aveano usato gli antichi fino a
Clemente VII; o che almeno assicurasse gli atti riverenziali dovuti al
sacro suo carattere, specialmente il bacio del piede: viepiù
s’insisteva contro il giuramento che l’imperatore farebbe d’attenersi
al concordato, di far rispettare la libertà de’ culti.
Pio VII fece dal cardinale Caprara sottomettere tali riserve a
Napoleone; questi le repudiò tutte, e Pio VII si rassegnò, sempre
confidando ottenere in persona quel ch’eragli fallito per intromissione
de’ ministri; tollerò che l’imperadore si mostrasse aridissimo nella
lettera d’invito, e voless’esserne unto sì, non coronato; e di
sessantadue anni si pose in viaggio. Tutti gli ordini dello Stato
vennero a fargli riverenza, come tutti dianzi avevano rinnegato e
papa e Cristo; e Pio li guadagnava colla dolcezza. Dando un giorno
la benedizione al popolo inginocchiato, vide un giovane tenersi ritto e
col cappello in testa: — Giovinotto, se non credete all’efficacia della
benedizione del pontefice, credete almeno che quella d’un vecchio
non porta sventura».
Nella solennità (2 xbre), allestita collo sfarzo teatrale che illude e
cattiva, Napoleone si pose da sè la corona; poi incoronò Giuseppina
sua donna, che il giorno innanzi avea avuto la benedizione nuziale. I
sinceri repubblicanti, che l’aveano proclamato un Camillo, un
Washington redivivo, non sapeano darsene pace; i non sinceri
s’affrettarono a divenire ciambellani, ministri, uffiziali, cavalieri, tutto
quel ch’egli volle, anche più di quel che volle. Napoleone evitò di
trovarsi testa testa con Pio VII, alle cui preghiere dolci e ragionate
non potrebbe opporre le escandescenze; sicchè al papa non restò
che avventurare le sue domande alle solite lungagne degli uffizj, e le
esortazioni al magnanimo perchè imitasse anche in ciò Carlo
Magno, il quale spontaneo restituì alla santa Sede quanto le armi
sue aveano ritolto ai Longobardi.
Napoleone fece rispondere che avea giurato non alterare i confini
della Francia; neppur poteva cincischiare la repubblica italiana, in lui
confidatasi; prometteva però trovare congiunture d’estendere e
consolidare il dominio del santo padre, e intanto presterebbegli
mano soccorrevole per uscire dal caos dove l’hanno trascinato le
presenti vicende, e assicurargli il pacifico godimento de’ beni
rimastigli; e così darebbe all’universo una prova della sua
venerazione al pontefice, della protezione alla capitale della
cristianità, del desiderio costante di vedere la nostra religione non
inferiore a nessuna nella pompa delle cerimonie e in quel decoro che
alle nazioni può ispirare venerazione. Il papa si dovette contentare di
vedersi reso il cadavere del suo predecessore, e la statua della
Madonna di Loreto, spogliata è vero delle gemme.
Carlo Magno era anche re d’Italia, nè questo titolo dovea mancare a
Napoleone, il quale anzi nella nostra patria avea fatto il passo
d’esperimento verso l’impero [66]. Ad assistere alla sua coronazione
invitò dunque il vicepresidente Melzi e la consulta di Stato; e chiesti
di liberamente significare come in pratica riuscisse la costituzione
avuta a Lione, liberamente risposero essere quella evidentemente
provvisoria nè compatibile coi tempi, nè gl’Italiani ancora maturi per
la repubblica; e lo scongiuravano a dare loro un re, foss’egli quello,
erigesse il paese in regno con uno statuto. Rispose: — Ho sempre
pensato a creare indipendente e libera la nazione italiana, ma
capisco la separazione tornerebbe pericolosa or che la perfida
Albione rinnova le minaccie; verrò dunque a Milano a cingermi la
corona di ferro per ritemprarla e rinvigorirla, e perchè l’Italia più non
si spezzi fra le tempeste che la minacceranno: ma affretterò il
momento di deporla s’una testa più giovane».
E venne (1805); e gl’Italiani, con quell’entusiasmo che spesso non è
se non l’esternazione della speranza, e che con quella svanisce,
affaccendaronsi a preparare archi di trionfo con quelli che prima
erano alberi della libertà [67]. Napoleone fissò tutto, sin le divise
teatrali dei magistrati e de’ cortigiani; nel duomo di Milano (1805 16
maggio), con una pompa che più non fu superata, venne unto
dall’arcivescovo Caprara; e ponendosi di propria mano la corona
ferrea esclamò: — Dio me l’ha data, guaj a chi la tocca». Il qual
motto perpetuò sulle insegne d’un nuovo ordine cavalleresco.
Secondo lo statuto, giurò mantenere l’integrità del regno, la religione
dello Stato, l’eguaglianza dei diritti, la libertà politica e civile,
l’irrevocabilità delle vendite de’ beni nazionali; non levar imposizioni
o por tasse che in virtù di legge; governare solo per l’interesse, la
felicità e la gloria del popolo italiano, e non dare impieghi a forestieri.
Eppure destinò vicerè Eugenio Beauharnais, figlio di sua moglie e da
lui adottato, uom mediocre, buon soldato, attivo e intelligente,
sommessissimo all’imperatore, ignaro e non curante del farsi amare
dai popoli, il cui bene perorava. Aprì in persona il corpo legislativo (7
giugno) lodando sè, di quanto avea fatto, e nominò guardasigilli il
Melzi, che poi col pingue assegno e col titolo di duca di Lodi ridusse
alla nullità.
Insieme cogli applausi del popolo, qui ricevette gli omaggi dei re.
Corsini e Fossombroni, deputati dell’Etruria, lo chiarirono come il lor
piccolo paese dopo il 96 avesse consunto in spese straordinarie
cenventi milioni, trovandosi sempre gravato da una guarnigione
francese; Verdier comandante a Livorno erasi prese le casse regie;
le reclute côrse colà sbarcate permetteansi ogni prepotenza.
Napoleone diede parole; ma con un fare soldatesco che trascendeva
le convenienze, soggiungeva: — La regina d’Etruria è troppo
giovane, e il ministro troppo vecchio per governare a dovere».
Insultò l’ambasciadore di Napoli e la sua regina; a quel della
repubblica Ligure disse: — M’era accorto ch’era impossibile i Liguri
facessero cosa degna del loro padri»; a quello di Lucca: — Sarete
meglio governati da un principe francese». Insomma nè re egli
risparmiava nè popoli; e sebbene avesse rassicurato e il senato di
Francia e i principi nostrali che non dilaterebbe i confini, trovava
necessarie Genova, Lucca, Livorno, onde impedire gli sbarchi de’
perfidi Inglesi.
A Genova, multata da’ Tedeschi che se n’andavano e da’ Francesi
che vi venivano, afflitta in conseguenza dell’assedio da un’epidemia,
per cui l’ordinaria mortalità di tremila settecento crebbe a dodicimila
cinquecento, fu dai Francesi trattata come vinta, pur affidata
dell’indipendenza; ma riformasse la propria costituzione sul modello
consueto. Buonaparte nel 1802 la approvò eleggendo doge
Girolamo Durazzo, ma aveva detto: — Genova è destinata a formare
marinarj; ha seimila uomini sulle squadre, ed io n’ho bisogno», e la
volle. I patrizj, spinti dal Saliceti che dimostrava impossibile
sostenere l’immenso lor debito [68], gliel’offersero, si aprirono
gl’ingannevoli registri, dove pochissimi ebbero coraggio di votare per
l’antico stato, e il doge Girolamo Durazzo andò a Milano a supplicare
Napoleone «accordasse ai Genovesi il bene di divenire suoi sudditi».
Metteva alcune condizioni a cui non si badò. L’arcitesoriere Lebrun
mandato a sistemarli, era uomo moderato e prudente; ma quando
egli palesò lo scontento de’ Genovesi e le loro ragioni, Napoleone
rispose: — Ho riunito Genova per avere de’ marinarj. Chi può
governare popoli senza scontentarli in sulle prime? In fatto di
Governo, giustizia vuol dire forza: sarei io così barbogio d’avere
paura del popolo di Genova? La sola risposta che vi fo è Marinari,
marinari» [69].
Lucca, sovvertita nel 1800, dagli avvicendati conquistatori spogliata
di denaro e d’armi, nel 1801 fu ordinata in repubblica democratica
dal Saliceti, al quale in più volte quel tesoro sborsò brevi manu
618,750 lire [70]. Così pagavasi la libertà. Divenuto imperatore
Buonaparte, que’ cittadini furono tratti a domandargli una nuova
costituzione, e col mezzo de’ soliti registri presso le parrocchie, il
corpo degli anziani e il popolo chiesero signore (23 giugno)
Pasquale Baciocchi ed Elisa cognato e sorella di Napoleone, ai quali
parea poco il già attribuito principato di Piombino; avrebbero la lista
civile di quattrocentomila franchi; un consiglio di Stato, un senato di
trentasei membri: faceasi l’unica riserva di restare esenti dalla
coscrizione, ma tutti i cittadini sarebbero sistemati militarmente. E
così quest’aristocrazia di jeri trangugiavasene un’altra di
seicentotrentanove anni. A Lucca furono annesse per
l’amministrazione la Lunigiana ed anche Massa e Carrara, feudo
ducale dell’Impero; caricavansi due milioni di lire al piccolo
principato; il quale però, per ordine di Napoleone abolendo i quindici
conventi d’uomini e diciassette di donne, i capitoli, le confraternite, i
luoghi pii e fino i semplici benefizj laici, acquistava un patrimonio di
venti milioni. Con questi la vivace ed ingegnosa Elisa, oltre
tesoreggiare per sè, dotava spedali, soccorreva a poveri e invalidi,
aprì strade, incoraggiò artisti e studiosi e l’Accademia, che cominciò
l’importantissirna pubblicazione dei documenti della storia patria;
provvide d’acque la città, riformò le leggi penali e la procedura [71].
Nella pace coi Borboni di Spagna, Buonaparte avea stipulato che il
duca di Parma divenisse re d’Etruria: ma egli non accettò il baratto; e
quando morì nel 1802, Francia fece occupare il ducato, serbandolo
come un allettativo sia al papa che chiedeva un compenso alle
rapitegli Legazioni, sia alla Casa di Sardegna, sia all’Etruria che,
incorporando questo paese, sarebbe divenuta la seconda potenza
d’Italia. La rottura colla Russia avendo poi dispensato dai riguardi, fu
aggregato alla vigesimottava divisione militare della Francia, poi
ridotto a dipartimento del Taro. La repubblica Etrusca convertita in
regno, fu investita a Lodovico infante di Spagna, figlio del duca di
Parma, il quale ne trovava sconfitte le finanze, esorbitanti le
imposizioni, interrotto il commercio perchè gl’Inglesi minacciavano
da Porto Ferrajo; abbandonata l’agricoltura, soldati da costare un
milione al mese, eppure necessaria ancora la guarnigione francese;
nel 1801 l’entrata portava dodici milioni contro la spesa di sedici, e la
Corte fu sin ridotta a far coniare i proprj argenti. La vera regnante era
Luigia figlia del re di Spagna, tanto più quando, al morto padre,
succedette Carlo Lodovico (1803 27 maggio) di quattro anni. Ai
liberali costei metteva i brividi ripristinando le fraterie, le libertà
clericali, di coscienza, di corrispondenza col papa, l’indipendenza de’
vescovi coll’ispezione sui libri e sui luoghi pii; la deploravono
santocchia e raggirata, e le apponevano di avere «spezzato il suo
scettro, e buttatone la metà nel Tevere».
L’isola d’Elba rimase alla Francia, spogliandone la famiglia
Buoncompagni, i cui avi n’aveano compro il dominio nel 1634 per un
milione e cinquantamila fiorini, e che allora ne ritraeva
ducensettantatremila l’anno.
Vittorio Emanuele, succeduto re di Piemonte (1802 4 giugno), si
tenne in Sardegna, e avendo gl’Inglesi offertagli guarnigione e’ la
ricusò per non dare appicco di querela a Napoleone. Eppure questi
non cessava di lamentarsi perchè ricoverasse navi britanniche, e
servisse al contrabbando. Secondo gli accordi di Tilsitt colla Russia,
avrebbe dovuto riavere gli Stati di terraferma o un compenso, e
Napoleone glielo esibì sulle coste d’Africa; poi guastatosi colla
Russia, neppure a questa celia badò, e tenne il Piemonte come
ventisettesima divisione militare sotto l’amministrazione di Jourdan,
distribuito ne’ dipartimenti di Po, Marengo, Sesia, Dora, Stura.
Concessa amnistia ai fautori degli antichi re; soppressi gli Ordini
religiosi; coscritti quattromila giovani; assettata la taglia fondiaria a
nove milioni di franchi, e la personale a un milione e ducentomila;
soppresse sei abadie e nove vescovadi, restando solo quelli di
Saluzzo, Acqui, Asti, Alessandria, Vercelli, Ivrea, Mondovì e Cuneo,
colla periferia stessa de’ dipartimenti, e suffraganei all’arcivescovo di
Torino, non più a quelli di Genova e Milano.
Il Governo del Piemonte e del Genovesato fu più tardi (1808) eretto
in gran dignità dell’impero, a favore del principe Borghese, cognato
dell’imperatore; il quale così traeva la Francia dai limiti naturali, e
stabiliva un altro dominio forestiero in quell’Italia che dai forestieri
egli avea promesso riscattare [72]. E già col professarsi successore di
Carlo Magno, palesava aspirare a un predominio; e coll’occupare
nuovi Stati anche dopo la coronazione, parve gettare il guanto. Tutti
dunque i dominanti ne protestavano; Pitt, ministro inglese, ottenuti
settantacinque milioni per sostenere la sicurezza delle Potenze
europee, e collegatosi colla Russia propone (1805 aprile) che
Napoleone sgombri il nord della Germania, l’Italia, l’isola d’Elba;
Olanda, Svizzera, Napoli sieno lasciate indipendenti; ripristinato il re
di Sardegna, al quale si aggiungerebbero Genova ed eventualmente
il Lionese e il Delfinato; restituite Firenze e Modena ai prischi dinasti,
e all’Austria la Lombardia, cresciuta col Veneto [73].
Patti simili appena si possono imporre dopo irreparabili sconfitte:
pure fu il programma a cui si attese in dieci anni di guerra. Alla quale
tutta Europa sorgeva, avendo per tesoriere l’Inghilterra, per
retroguardo la Russia; e non più per estinguere la libertà in un paese
che se l’era conquistata, bensì proclamando l’indipendenza dei
popoli contro un’ambizione che la pericolava. Era insomma la
Rivoluzione che proclamava i proprj trionfi per bocca dell’esercito
coalizzato contro di lei.
L’Austria mise in essere trecenventimila guerrieri; e ricevendo
dall’Inghilterra settantacinque milioni per quell’anno, si assunse
l’impresa d’Italia, mandò sull’Adige cenventimila uomini coll’arciduca
Carlo, altri trentacinquemila coll’arciduca Giovanni in Tirolo, per
connetterlo coll’esercito di Germania, a cui gl’imperadori Francesco
e Alessandro farebbero una terribile retroguardia in Moravia e
Gallizia; Russi e Inglesi doveano sbarcare a Malta e Corfù, e uniti co’
Napoletani, opprimere i trentamila Francesi che presidiavano Terra
d’Otranto, e spingersi in su per l’Italia fino a congiungersi cogli
arciduchi. Napoleone sentì che «gli bisognava un altro Marengo, e
subito»; e con uno di quei colpi arditi che solo l’esito giustifica, gira
alle spalle di Mack (1805 8 7bre), famoso per le rotte napoletane, lo
chiude in Ulma, e fa prigionieri trentatremila Austriaci senza stilla di
sangue. Obbrobrio, che fu chiamato tradimento, e il generale
condannato ai lavori in una fortezza.
Il principe Carlo, udita la turpe capitolazione, per proteggere Vienna
abbandona l’Italia; onde Massena, che con trentamila uomini
occupava Verona, cresciuto di coraggio, lo attacca a Caldiero (19
9bre); per tre giorni combattendo con grande strage, e inseguendolo
fin oltre le Alpi, non solo toglie all’Austria tutte le terre italiche eccetto
Venezia, ma occupa Trieste, Gorizia, Gradisca, Villac, e quivi si
congiunge con Ney; i Francesi sono a Vienna, e Napoleone ad
Austerlitz (2 xbre) riporta una vittoria, dove restarono quarantamila
Russi e Austriaci feriti o morti, nove generali e ottocento uffiziali
prigionieri, e a Presburgo obbliga Francesco II alla pace (26 xbre).
Separare l’Italia dalla Francia, ed escluderne l’Austria rimettendo
repubblica Venezia, togliendole il Tirolo e la Svevia, in modo che
fosse discostata dal regno d’Italia, dalla Svizzera e dalla Germania
meridionale, pareva a Talleyrand l’unico modo di spegnere le guerre,
da secoli alimentate per le pretensioni de’ Tedeschi sul bel paese;
l’Austria, padroneggiando tutto il corso del Danubio e parte delle
coste del mar Nero, diverrà vicina e perciò emula della Russia,
quanto allontanata dalla Francia, e perciò sua alleata. Napoleone
non volle nè guadagnarsi il vinto nè distruggerlo, fedele al sistema
suo d’indebolire i territorj, col quale non fece che creare malcontenti,
e condannare se stesso a combattere sempre coloro che non
sempre potrebbe vincere; laonde le sue paci furono quasi tappe
dell’esercito. Dall’Austria fece dunque cedere al regno d’Italia
Venezia colla Dalmazia e l’Albania, alla Baviera il Tirolo, e pagare
cenquaranta milioni per le spese. Tali scambj di dominio scioglievano
i legami tra popoli e re, ed irritavano oltraggiando le nazionalità.
Al cadere della Repubblica veneta, il procuratore Francesco Pésaro,
che n’era stato uno de’ più devoti, vi venne pienipotente dell’Austria,
sicchè gli uni stupivano che l’imperatore ad un patrizio concedesse
piena autorità nel proprio paese; gli altri esecravano il Pésaro d’aver
accettato di comandare a quelli che testè erano suoi pari, e di
rappresentare la straniera dominazione nel paese di cui avea difeso
la libertà; altri invece il glorificavano d’essersi così messo in grado
d’alleviare i mali della patria: ma dopo pochi giorni egli morì. Altri
patrizj non tardarono a conciliarsi coll’Austria e servirla; e Zusto,
Contarini, Erizzo, Gradenigo, Almorò Tiepolo, Giustinian, Quirini
Stampalia accettando alti impieghi, diminuirono il ribrezzo del
dominio forestiero. La guerra dell’800 avea conturbato la terraferma;
e i patimenti, gli esigli, il mal cibo vi svilupparono il tifo, del quale
molti morirono, fra cui il friulano medico Capretti che l’avea studiato
e curato.
Ora Venezia acquistava un terzo padrone in otto anni; riceveva la
costituzione di Lione (1806 3 febb.) e le altre forme del regno italico;
ed Eugenio vicerè andava ad accogliervi il giuramento e le feste. Vi
venne poi Napoleone stesso (1807 29 9bre), e vi godette lo
spettacolo ond’era più ghiotto, di una vistosa forza marittima; emanò
molti ordini per la salute e il prosperamento di quella città, riconobbe
cento milioni che la Repubblica doveva alla zecca e al banco, un
quarto pagandone con beni demaniali, il resto iscrivendo sul Monte
Napoleone; fece ingrandire il porto, che volea rendere atto a
bastimenti grossi, incaricando Lessau d’una via diretta per trarre
dall’arsenale in mare vascelli da 80; munì le lagune coi forti di
Marghera e e Bróndolo; assegnò centomila lire annue a riparare i
porti e i canali. Allora venne aperto un giardino pubblico, abbattendo
edifizj ricchi di pitture e di sepolcri; si eresse un palazzo regio:
Antonio Selva, scolaro del Temanza, ridusse la Carità ad accademia
di belle arti, a cui fu preposto Leopoldo Cicognara ferrarese.
Malgrado di ciò, e sebbene decorata del titolo di seconda città del
regno e portofranco, Venezia si vide tolto ogni commercio, perito sin
il traffico delle conterie, e i beni nazionali non trovando compratori
che lo Stato o forestieri.
Solo Padova aveva accolto l’imperatore col silenzio, che è la lezione
dei re; ed egli, che non era uomo da inghiottirsela, maturava il
castigo, quando la città spedì il Cesarotti a placarlo: accolto con
amorevolezza, fatto sedere a tavola fra l’imperatore e il vicerè,
blandito con decorazioni e pensioni, il perdono lo ripagò colla
Pronea. Ma Vittorio Barzoni di Lonato già prima nel Solitario delle
Alpi avea posto a dialogare un entusiasto della rivoluzione e un
Veneto, una volta assalì il Villetard con una pistola: fu fatto passare
per pazzo; ora non perdonando a Napoleone il tradimento di
Venezia, lo descrisse sotto il personaggio di Flaminio ne’ Romani in
Grecia, e collocatosi a Malta, perseverò nell’infervorare gli odj contro
di esso [74].
Restava ancora il regno d’Etruria; e la regina Luigia, repugnante da
Napoleone e come borbonica e come devota, lasciava che merci
coloniali e manifatture inglesi, coperte dalla bandiera americana,
affluissero a Livorno, donde si propagavano ai mercati di Roma, di
Napoli, dell’alta Italia, anzi sin alla fiera di Lipsia. Napoleone non
volle soffrire questa disobbedienza, e ordinò al generale Miollis di
marciare sopra Firenze, indi a Livorno, e sorprendervi le merci
inglesi; poi col trattato di Fontainebleau (1807 30 agosto) assegnava
le provincie settentrionali del Portogallo in cambio dell’Etruria, la
quale veniva riunita alla Francia, e divisa nei dipartimenti dell’Arno,
del Mediterraneo, dell’Ombrone.
La pia donna neppure udienza potè avere da Napoleone a Bajona;
fu lasciata prendere e ammobigliare una casa a Passy; poi quando
montava in carrozza per condurvisi, un uffiziale la impedisce; le
vengono assegnate quattrocentomila lire, ma le si stentano, e le
sono usate cento soperchierie. Domanda di passare a Parma suo
dominio, e n’ottiene promessa, poi invece la fermarono a Nizza.
Dopo spossessati i reali di Spagna, mandò a Londra alcuno per far
valere le proprie ragioni: ma il duca di Rovigo ministro di polizia
arrestò Francesco Sassi della Tosa e Ghifenti di Livorno, e come
colpevoli di tale incarico, li fece condannare a morte, eseguita sul
Ghifenti; la regina come rea d’aver tentato fuggire, venne chiusa nel
convento de’ santi Domenico e Sisto a Roma colla figliuola; Miollis le