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Green Energy and Technology
Nima Tashakor
Novel Highly
Flexible Modular
Power Electronics
for Energy Storage
and Conversion
Systems
Climate change, environmental impact and the limited natural resources urge
scientific research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green Energy
and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientific and technological
approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and sustainable—technolo-
gies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also covers “green” solu-
tions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green Energy and Tech-
nology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical consultants as well as
decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of presentation spans
from instructional to highly technical.
**Indexed in Scopus**.
**Indexed in Ei Compendex**.
Nima Tashakor
Novel Highly Flexible

Modular Power Electronics
for Energy Storage
and Conversion Systems
Foreword by Stefan Götz

Nima Tashakor
Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering
Rheinland-Pfälzische Technische
Universität (RPTU) Kaiserslautern
Kaiserslautern, Germany
Duke University
Durham, USA
ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-36842-4 ISBN 978-3-031-36843-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36843-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2023
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the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
I dedicate this work to my family, which has
supported me all these years, and to my
wonderful wife, who is always in my corner,
even in a circle.
I have no doubt I could not have achieved this
without her help and never-ending support.
‘Mamnoon Elham jan!’
My family has always believed in me,
motivated me, and supported me. ‘Mom’ is
another word for selflessness and kindness for
me. ‘Dad’ is the solution to every problem.
Everybody needs a baby ‘Brother’ as funny
and loyal as mine.
‘Mamnoon Maman, Baba, va Pouya!’
I am also grateful to my in-laws for their
understanding and support, which have
become my second family.
‘Mamnoon Madar, Pedar, Elahe, Alireza, va
Pouriya!’
Foreword
Modular power electronic circuits form a scientifically and industrially promising

field. Such modular circuits control significant amounts of electrical power using a
larger number of small and inexpensive transistors, instead of relying on only a few
large transistors. Modular electronic concepts have received enormous attention in
power electronics in recent years and have been implemented in numerous appli-
cations. The use of a larger number of identical circuit modules for the conversion
and regulation of larger power allows for the exploitation of scale effects and simpli-
fied manufacturing. The challenge is twofold, specifically finding regular circuit
structures, which are flexible but cost-efficient, and managing the many degrees of
freedom provided by the many combinatorial switch states, which complicates the
full exploitation of optimality and requires good enough heuristics. Such circuits and
methods have various applications from grid converter and grid support systems for
managing the challenges of the general electrification and the electronification of the
grids to large drives. In some of these applications, there is no alternative to modular
circuits. Most interestingly, however, the current enormous technological develop-
ment of low-voltage transistors enables dynamically reconfigurable energy storage
systems, such as batteries, double-layer capacitors, and fuel cells. Such dynamically
reconfigurable storage systems break the hard-wired series-parallel configuration
of conventional systems for grid storage and electric vehicle applications apart. As
analysed in this book, the possible dynamic reconfiguration of the series-parallel
structure allows for overcoming several major limitations of conventional storage
systems. However, this rather deep change of conventional battery structures requires
solutions and novel concepts from control to integration and for the entire periphery
of batteries for the exploitation of all of its advantages.
The book provides an examination of various circuit concepts and designs that
underpin the development of both modular power electronic converters and reconfig-
urable energy storage systems. It covers a wide range of topics, including hardware-
safe and self-balancing module types, sensorless operation methods, and advanced
modulation techniques for more conventional power conversion with modular circuits
and capacitors as storage elements in the modules, such as cascaded H bridges and
modular multilevel converters. Previous modular multilevel converters mostly served
vii
viii Foreword
in shielded-off high-voltage grid applications that could not be solved otherwise, e.g.,
due to extreme space or quality requirements as in high-voltage dc converter stations
downtown and converters on small offshore wind-farm platforms without space for
large filters so that the effort of monitoring of every module was acceptable. In many
emerging applications, however, a reduction of the number of sensors and data as
well as of the strong software-dependency of operation turns appealing, while safety
and self-balancing as presented here can be the important missing piece. The book
explores the use of modular electronics to estimate a number of important proper-
ties of individual modules, offering an innovative approach that relies on a limited
number of standard sensors rather than the numerous high-bandwidth, high-quality
sensors often proposed in this field.
On the battery side, the book studies the many gaps and necessary changes that the
fundamental concept of reconfigurable direct or alternating current energy storage
systems entails. One of the key strengths of the book is its focus on integrating periph-
erals, which are often overlooked in other works but are crucial for understanding the
full complexity of these systems. For example, the book offers detailed analyses and
solutions for low-voltage auxiliaries in electric vehicles, demonstrating how recon-
figurable battery systems can be integrated with vehicle electronics and architectures.
Previous work on reconfigurable batteries in cars typically ignored the aspect that
the drive train is not an isolated element in a car but the main energy source for
numerous units and elements in the car. Thus, the drive train strongly determines the
entire architecture. Both reconfigurable dc batteries that can change or stabilize the
supply voltage as well as ac approaches that directly generate multiphase ac output
for motors have to also supply the other units with various power and voltage levels.
A solution that cannot provide these supplies in a compact and cost-efficient way
will likely not have any future.
Kaiserslautern, Germany Stefan Goetz

April 2023
Preface
The latest developments in high-performance low-voltage semiconductors, driven

by the increasing number of consumer electronics, higher penetration of renewable
energies into the modern grids, and electrification of the automotive industry, enable
the formation of highly flexible modular power electronics with high power density
and low cost. Instead of using one central high-power component, which requires
relatively expensive power semiconductors manufactured in small quantities, a high
number of identical modules can exploit the economy-of-scales effect. Additionally,
such modular electronics can increase controllability by offering naturally redundant
states that, if correctly exploited, leads to exponentially higher degrees of freedom
(DoF).
The high number of DoF allows the integration of various functions that conven-
tionally require separate electronic components or are not integrable in the same hard-
ware. A few of these functions or capabilities are better power distribution control,
improved thermal control, better energy balancing, improved efficiency, better fault
tolerance, and even higher reliability or resilience. However, the high number of
DoFs also requires novel flexible control and monitoring approaches that can exploit
these capabilities and trade-off various novel objectives while maintaining the costs
at acceptable levels.
Similar to the benefits of modular power electronics, state-of-the-art energy
storage systems can also benefit from this approach. The current storage systems,
batteries in particular, are large and bulky modules that are hard-wired in a fixed
arrangement. Despite advancements in storage technology, many traditional chal-
lenges such as strict protection and safety requirements, complex monitoring, sub-
optimal balancing routines, lower efficiency, weakest-cell effect, low power density,
and slow charging speed still persist. Although the continuous increase of capacity,
voltage, and power levels in many applications has increased the power and energy
densities, as well as the charging speed, it has introduced newer challenges such as
thermal balancing, and high-voltage variation between full-charge and depletion, or
made some of the previous issues more severe. Nevertheless, further optimizing the
chemistry might not be the answer to all problems.
ix
x Preface
Recent advancements in modular power electronics, on the other hand, have led
to the development of storage-integrated modular electronics. These systems divide
the bulky storage system into multiple modules and integrate them with power elec-
tronics, allowing for dynamic and rapid reconfiguration of the complete structure.
While this concept is very interesting, there are still many challenges and unanswered
questions regarding, modeling, topology, modulation, control, and monitoring. This
book studies these aspects and discusses some of the open questions in this field.
The book first provides a general overview of the main issues, incentives, and
objectives. Then it studies state-of-the-art modular converters and storage systems.
Additionally, it improves the electronics topology of current modular reconfig-
urable storages and converters by integrating parallel connectivity, reducing the
semiconductor count by eliminating irrelevant states, and improving performance
through higher function integration. Three of the main module topologies exten-
sively covered in this book are diode-clamped half-bridge, switch-clamped half-
bride, and the unidirectional full-bridge module which can offer significant advan-
tages, e.g., self-balancing, improved efficiency, and higher reliability, with minimum
added costs. Additionally, the main macrostructures including single-star, double-
star, polygon, and open-polygon macrostructures are introduced, and their advan-
tage and disadvantages are discussed for each application in combination with each
module topology.
Integrating different storage types with electronics can affect the behavior of
the module and consequently impact the overall model of the system. Additionally,
the discrete reconfiguration of modules changes the load pattern of the modules
and affects their equivalent circuit model. Therefore, this book studies the inherent
characteristics of storage modules and the impact of modulations on the modeling
process. Additionally, it develops models of modular reconfigurable storage systems
with different degrees of accuracy for different storage types that help in better
understanding the dynamics of the system under balanced and imbalanced conditions.
The book further establishes novel optimum or near-optimum methods for
exploiting the DoF to achieve higher efficiency, more function integration, better
equilibrium, or output quality, while considering the feasibility and applicability of
these approaches in a real-world application. After a detailed analysis of different
modulation and scheduling techniques, this book describes new methods, enhances
the state-of-the-art, or simplifies the implementation complexities of the modula-
tors and schedulers. One of the modulation strategies presented in this book is
level adjusted phase-shifted carrier modulation which allows for stable sensorless
operation with minimum balancing loss. Furthermore, the concepts of optimal-
conduction and optimal-switching schedulers based on the nearest-level modulation
are comprehensively studied and compared with the state-of-the-art.
The book also presents the concept of interconnected multi-port systems through
integrating novel modulation techniques and the acquired understanding of the
behaviour of dynamically reconfigurable storages. The presented concepts can signif-
icantly reduce the number of energy conversion stages as well as the final footprint
Preface xi
of the system, reduce the number of required controlled semiconductors, and ulti-
mately save costs. Within this context, the concept of open-end polygon for multi-
phase machines is developed and novel control strategies for supplying multiple
phases and loads are presented. Furthermore, novel control strategies to control
multiple interconnected ports from the same reconfigurable structure are introduced
and verified.
The book correspondingly develops more accurate models through analysis of
the inherent differences of the topologies with parallel connectivity compared to the
state-of-the-art. It also presents novel monitoring techniques based on estimators
that can significantly reduce the number of required sensors and the required data
communication bandwidth. Namely, a novel dual-Kalman-filter (dual KF) estimator
is presented that can estimate the equivalent resistance and open-circuit voltage of
every storage with only two sensors at the output of the system. Moreover, the book
describes a more accurate state-space model for the diode-clamped topology that
takes into account the clamping dynamics as well as possible balancing efforts. The
presented compensated model in combination with a state estimator offers significant
potential for simplifying the monitoring subsystem.
Comprehensive simulations allow for studying the behavior of the system in
controlled conditions with minimum noise and nonidealities present, which in all
cases support the provided analysis and discussions. Additionally, each new concept
and novel feature is verified via experiments and measurements from developed lab
prototypes that further confirm the analysis and simulations.
Lastly, the book provides general research directions to extend the concept of
modular reconfigurable converters and storage systems. Selected possible research
directions are the inclusion of other types of energy storage such as fuel cells
and super-capacitors, expanding the developed models for more complex storage
types, and investigation of the further increase of module utilization by integrating
additional functionalities, expanding the monitoring functionalities to include fault
detection and prognosis, investigating the possibility of distributed controllers in
combination with novel control strategies.
Kaiserslautern, Germany Nima Tashakor

Acknowledgements
I want to thank my colleagues and friends Davood, Axel, Masoud, Max, Akshata,
Alex, Steffen, Pouyan, Mahdi, Jiawei, and many others for creating a friendly and
fun working environment and for their help during my Ph.D.
I extend special thanks to Udo Oppermann, our laboratory technician, for his
help at work and patience with my German language skills. Over the years, I got to
appreciate his calm, supportive attitude toward work.
I cannot think of colleagues and do not mention Stephanie Jung (Steffi for us).
I am grateful for all her support in wading through the German bureaucracy, which
without her I would have been certainly lost, and for her always upbeat presence.
Except for Mondays, who likes Mondays anyways?!
I also want to acknowledge the support of my fellow scholars Jan and Tomas
Kacetl, Jingyang Fang, Farshid Naseri, and Bita Arabsalmanabadi. They have
collaborated with me on parts of this work and helped improve its quality.
As an advisor for multiple bachelor’s and master theses, I got to know and appre-
ciate many students of high caliber. They have certainly contributed to developing
my work to the current level.
Above all, I am genuinely grateful for my advisor and friend Stefan Götz, who
has always supported me throughout my studies and pushed me to achieve higher. It
was indeed a privilege to know him, and I have learned a lot from him; above all, I
learned hard work, dedication, and integrity.
xiii
Contents
1 Introduction to Modular Energy Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Intro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Cascaded Power Electronics Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Modular Reconfigurable Storages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Main Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 Level of Modularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 Modulation Strategy and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.3 Topologies and Circuit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.4 Better Monitoring and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Main Objectives/Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Book Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Selected Types of Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Intro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Possible Types of Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.3 Double-Layer Capacitors, Also Known
as Super-Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Topology, Circuit Analysis, and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Intro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Generic Macro Circuits and Output Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.1 DC Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.2 AC Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.3 Hybrid or Unconventional Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Generic Micro Topologies and Interconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.1 Dual Quadrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3.2 Four Quadrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
xv
xvi Contents
4 Modulation and Scheduling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.1 Intro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1 Low-Frequency Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.2 Pulse-Width-Modulation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3 Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.1 Scheduling/Balancing Strategies Based
on Low-Switching-Rate Modulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.2 Scheduling/Balancing for PWM-Based Modulation
Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.3.3 Sensorless Balancing for Diode-Clamped Topologies . . . . . . 95
4.3.4 Optimum Switching Loss for Topologies with Parallel
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.5 Optimum Conduction Loss Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5 Novel Topologies and/or Techniques for Emerging Applications . . . . . 145
5.1 Modular Reconfigurable Systems in Electromobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1.1 Dynamically Reconfigurable DC Storages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.2 Dynamically Reconfigurable AC Storages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6 Monitoring Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.1 Intro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.2 Terminal Voltage Estimation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.1 Modules Without Parallel Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.2 Modules with Parallel Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.2.3 Simulation and Experimental Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.3 Internal Resistance Estimation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.3.1 Mathematical Model of the MMS Considering
the Internal Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.3.2 Dual KF Estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.3.3 Sequential Estimation Procedure and Relevant
Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.3.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7 Remaining Challenges and Future Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.2 Future Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Appendix A: Detailed Derivation of Non-ideal Gain

for the Auxiliary Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
About the Author
Nima Tashakor was born in 1990 in Shahrekord, Iran. He obtained his B.Sc. degree
in Electrical Power Engineering from Isfahan University in Isfahan, Iran, in 2013. His
undergraduate research focused on harmonic sources in electrical grids and methods
for filtering them.
In 2015, Tashakor earned his M.Sc. degree in Electrical Power Engineering from
Shiraz University in Shiraz, Iran. Graduating Summa Cum Laude, he ranked at the
top of his class in the Institute of Electrical Power and Control Engineering, boasting
a cumulative GPA of 18.73 out of 20. Throughout his master’s program, Tashakor
developed innovative designs for electric vehicle chargers and protective devices
based on power electronics for modern electrical grids. Following his master’s degree,
he served as a research assistant at Shiraz University for three years, collaborating
on multiple industrial research projects. Concurrently, he worked as a development
engineer, focusing on the design and analysis of high-reliability battery packs and
corresponding power electronic devices.
Tashakor pursued his Ph.D. at the Technical University of Kaiserslautern,
Germany, from 2019 to 2022. During this time, he also collaborated with Duke
University, USA, and Aalborg University, Denmark, as a guest researcher. In 2021,
he was awarded the DAAD grant for his collaboration with Aalborg University,
followed by the DAAD prize for outstanding achievements of international students
in 2022. Throughout his doctoral studies, Tashakor published and co-authored more
than 15 peer-reviewed journal articles, contributed over 15 papers to six conferences,
and received the IES-SYPA grant. Additionally, he filed seven patent applications
during his Ph.D. and graduated Summa Cum Laude in 2022.
Tashakor’s research interests encompass power electronics and energy storage
systems. His work primarily involves the development, control, and monitoring of
modular converters and storage systems. Additionally, he explores the application of
machine learning and smart controllers in power electronics applications.
xvii
Acronyms
ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter

CHB Cascaded H-Bridge
CNLM Conventional Nearest Level Modulation
DoD Depth of disCharge
DoF Degree of Freedom
ECM Equivalent Circuit Model
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
EMF Electromotive Force
ESPM Enhanced-Single-Particle Model
ESR Equivalent Series Resistance
EV Electric Vehicle
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System
FB Full-Bridge
FET Field-Effect Transistor
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array
FSEM Fractional Single-Electrode Model
GaN Gallium Nitride
HB Half-Bridge
HFT High-Frequency Transformer
HVDC High-Voltage Direct-Current
IGBT Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
KF Kalman Filter
KMC Kinetic Monte Carlo
KVL Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
LAPSC Level-Adjusted Phase-Shifted Carrier
LSC Level-Shifted Carrier
MESS Modular Energy Storage System
MLC Multilevel Converter
MMC Modular Multilevel Converter
MMS Modular Multilevel Energy Storage
MMSPC Modular Multilevel Series/Parallel Converter
xix
xx Acronyms
MOSFET Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

NLM Nearest Level Modulation
OCV Open-Circuit Voltage
P2D Pseudo-Two-Dimension
P3D Pseudo-Three-Dimension
PDE Partial Differential Equations
PF Power Factor
PI Proportional–Integral
PID Proportional–Integral–Derivative
PSANLM Phase-Shifted Arms Nearest Level Modulation
PSAPSC Phase-Shifted Arms Phase-Shifted Carrier
PSC Phase-Shifted Carrier
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
PU Per Unit
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
RMS Root Mean Square
SC Super-Capacitor
SELV Safety Extra Low Voltage
SHE Selective Harmonic Elimination
SHM Selective Harmonic Mitigation
SiC Silicon Carbide
SIL Safety Integrity Level
SoC State of Charge
SOH State of Health
SPM Single-Particle Model
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
Symbols
Q Electrical charge
Q res Remaining electrical charge
Vm and i m Rated voltage of a module and its current
vt and i t Terminal voltage and current of a module
v p and i p Voltage and current of a reconfigurable storage system
VC Voltage of a capacitor module
Vm Vector of modules’ voltages in the string/arm
NC Number of carriers
N ph Number of phases, legs, or ports
N Number of modules in the whole string
L Number of modules in one specific port (L Nc or N )
τ Time constant
... Ceiling function
Acronyms xxi
... Floor function

Cj Capacitance of the jth module or its corresponding carrier
rj Internal resistance of the jth module
Lj Inductance corresponding to the jth interconnection
U/L Upper or Lower arms/strings
ϕ Phase-shift of a carrier or reference signal in rad
θ Phase difference of corresponding carriers from multiple phases in
rad
AB Matrix product of A and B matrices
A.B Element-wise product of A and B matrices
mx Amplitude of the xth modulation index or reference signal in an ac
system
m (k)
j , m j (t) Instantaneous modulation reference of the jth module at sample k or
time t
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Generic topology of a dual-arm MMC topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Fig. 1.2 Generic topology of conventional HB and FB modules . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.3 Overview of different control levels in an MMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 1.4 Intuitive representation of an MMS as well as hard-wired
energy storage system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 2.1 Equivalent circuit model of a capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 2.2 Comparison of energy density versus the specific energy
of different types of battery (with permission from [6, 7]) . . . . . . 20
Fig. 2.3 RC ECMs: a zero-Order ECM b first-Order ECM
c second-Order ECM d N th-Order ECM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 2.4 Randles’ battery model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 2.5 Bidirectional second-order ECM with self-discharge . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 2.6 Battery model capable of runtime prediction, presented
by [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 2.7 Nonlinear battery model presented by [32] for SoC
estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 2.8 Comparison of various battery models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 2.9 Three RC branch proposed by [43] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 2.10 The extension of the three-branch model proposed by [41] . . . . . 33
Fig. 3.1 The single-string dc structure of modular reconfigurable
storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 3.2 The single-string dc structure of modular reconfigurable
storage with parallel functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 3.3 Profile of modulation indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 3.4 Profiles of the dc-link voltage and the inductor current.
i.e., the main state variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 3.5 Voltage profile of the first RC network of Module 2 . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 3.6 Voltage profile of the second RC network of Module 3 . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 3.7 Macro structure of single-arm topology, also known
as single-star in three-phase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
xxiii
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 3.8 Macro structure of dual-arm topology, also known

as double-star in three-phase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 3.9 Macro structure of polygon topology, also known
as the delta in three-phase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fig. 3.10 Macro structure of cascaded-arms or open-end polygon
topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fig. 3.11 Single-phase topology of an MMC without parallel
connection between modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 3.12 Dual-arm single-phase structure with the possibility
of parallel connection among modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 3.13 Conventional single-phase single-arm structure
of a modular reconfigurable storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig. 3.14 Single-phase single-arm structure of modular
reconfigurable storage with parallel connectivity
among modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig. 3.15 Conventional three-phase delta-structure of modular
reconfigurable storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 3.16 Three-phase delta-structure of modular reconfigurable
storage with parallel connectivity among modules . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Fig. 3.17 Generic ac structure based on open-end polygon topology
with a single connection among modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 3.18 Generic ac structure based on open-end polygon topology
with multiple connections among modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 3.19 Dual-quadrant modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 3.20 Different operating modes of a half-bridge module . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Fig. 3.21 Possible operation modes of a unidirectional full-bridge
module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 3.22 Semi-controlled bypass mode in a unidirectional FB
with parallel connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 3.23 A unit of N p paralleled modules. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
with permission, from [19, 30] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 3.24 Equivalent circuit of a unit with N p paralleled modules.
© 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [19, 30] . . . . . . 60
Fig. 3.25 Operation modes of a switch-clamped module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig. 3.26 Generic circuit of a switch-clamped module
with low-current clamping branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 3.27 Operation modes of a switch-clamped module if S( j+1)2 is
on. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [15] . . . . . . 64
Fig. 3.28 Equivalent electrical circuit of the modules when S( j+1)2 is
on. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [15] . . . . . . 65
Fig. 3.29 Representative voltage and current waveforms
of a balancing operation in a switch-clamped half-bridge
module. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [15] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
List of Figures xxv
Fig. 3.30 Operation modes of a switch-clamped module if S( j+1)2 is

off. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [15] . . . . . . 66
Fig. 3.31 Simplest topology for a diode-clamped module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 3.32 Possible modes of operation for the diode-clamped
modules. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [12, 37] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 3.33 Equivalent electrical circuits during the balancing operation . . . . 71
Fig. 3.34 Intuitive balancing process for balancing of two modules
through the clamping branch. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 3.35 Different operating modes of full-bridge module . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig. 3.36 Different operating modes of the dual full-bridge module . . . . . . 76
Fig. 3.37 Different operating modes of each interconnection
with dual full-bridge modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 4.1 Resulted phase voltage waveforms for CNLM
and PSANLM techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig. 4.2 Intuitive representation of carriers in conventional PSC
modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Fig. 4.4 Generic shape of output in case of a symmetric PSC
modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Fig. 4.5 Comparison of the resulted voltages using NLM methods
and PSC modulation with similar switching rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 4.6 Integrated balancing loop for PWM-based modulation
strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fig. 4.7 Integrated weighted balancing strategy for PWM-based
modulation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fig. 4.8 Intuitive representation of the level-adjusted carriers
in a dual-arm structure. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 4.9 Effect of level-adjustment on the module pulses. © 2021
IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [24, 25] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Fig. 4.10 Output voltages for different scenarios using LAPSC
modulation. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [24] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 4.11 Module voltages with balanced parameters and zero
level-adjustment (x = 0). © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
with permission, from [24] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 4.12 Module voltages with balanced parameters and minimum
level-adjustment (x = 0.002). © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 4.13 Module voltages with mismatches between the modules’
capacitors and level-adjustment x = 0 → 0.02 at t = 5s.
© 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [24] . . . . . . . . . 106
xxvi List of Figures
Fig. 4.14 Module voltages with different capacitance

and self-discharge rates, and level-adjustment
x = 0 → 0.02 at t = 7s. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 4.15 The profile of power loss for the LAPSC modulation
versus x . © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [24] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 4.16 Measured waveforms of the phase current and phase
voltage with the clamping circuit during standard
operation, x = 2% and m x = 0.95. © 2021 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [24] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Fig. 4.17 Measured waveforms of the phase current and phase
voltage with the clamping circuit during standard
operation, x = 2% and m x = 0.75. © 2021 IEEE.
Fig. 4.18 Measured phase voltage and current with LAPSC
modulation and mismatched modules a m = 0.95,
unity PF; b m = 0.75, unity PF; c m = 0.95, PF = 0.93;
d m = 0.95, with PF and load variation. © 2021 IEEE.
Fig. 4.19 Measured voltage profiles of the modules in both
arms a initially imbalanced modules; b m = 0.75, unity
PF. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [24] . . . . . . 110
Fig. 4.20 The voltage and current waveforms of the clamping branch
as well as the modules during the charge equalization.
Fig. 4.21 The intuitive representation of the scheduler for four
modules with parallel connectivity [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig. 4.22 The flowchart of the halving-doubling scheduler
with optimal switching in combination with NLM
and other modulation methods [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 4.23 Structure of a dual-arm single-phase dual-arm structure
with unidirectional half-bridge modules. © 2021 IEEE.
Fig. 4.24 Output voltages based on the optimum switching scheduler
in combination with NLM techniques. © 2021 IEEE.
Fig. 4.25 Dynamics of capacitor voltages and balancing currents
using PSC modulation with an initial voltage imbalance
of 0.8 pu. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
using CNLM modulation with an initial voltage imbalance
of 0.8 pu. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
List of Figures xxvii

using PSANLM modulation with an initial voltage
imbalance of 0.8 pu. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 4.28 Voltage envelope and peak current amplitude for a system
with 20% spread in the modules’ parameters. © 2021
IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fig. 4.29 Laboratory testbench for evaluating the halving-doubling
scheduler. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fig. 4.30 Measured phase and module voltages with PSC, CNLM,
and PSANLM methods. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 4.31 THDV for different loads and switching rates. © 2021
Fig. 4.32 Power losses for various switching schemes at varying
operating points. © 2021 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Fig. 4.33 THDv verses losses for various loads. © 2021 IEEE.
Fig. 4.34 Output voltages as well as their corresponding THD
values: a Waveforms of the output voltage for various
modulation schemes, b THD waveforms using a moving
window. © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [13] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Fig. 4.35 Modules’ voltages and currents: a Maximum voltage
imbalance among modules for each scheme; b Mean
absolute value if the capacitor currents averaged
over a moving window. © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 4.36 Comparison of power loss for various schemes
with modulation index amplitude ranging from 0.5 and 1
when modules are balanced, and unity PF. © 2022 IEEE.
Fig. 4.37 Comparison of conduction losses for various schemes
Fig. 4.38 Comparison of switching losses for various schemes
xxviii List of Figures

when modules are imbalanced, and unity PF. © 2022
with modulation index amplitude ranging from
0.5 and 1 when modules are balanced, and inductive
PF ≈ 0.87. © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [13] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 4.41 Experimental measurements according to the presented
scheduler with unity PF, a waveforms of the modules’
voltages, b waveforms of the phase voltage and current.
Fig. 4.42 Experimental measurements using PSC modulation
with unity PF, a waveforms of the modules’ voltages,
b waveforms of the phase voltage and current. © 2022
Fig. 4.43 Experimental measurements using the presented scheduler
for inductive loads with PF ≈ 0.87, a waveforms
of the modules’ voltages, b waveforms of the phase voltage
and current. © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [13] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 4.44 Experimental measurements using PSC modulation
for inductive loads with PF ≈ 0.87, a waveforms
of the modules’ voltages, b waveforms of the phase voltage
and current. © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [13] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 4.45 Spectrum of the harmonics in the resulted voltage
according to the PSC modulation and presented
scheduler with NLM modulation, a ForPSC modulation,
b For the presented scheduler. © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.1 Conventional electrical circuit of an EV
where the hardwired batteries directly supply
the inverter (modified based on [12]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 5.2 Conventional electrical circuit of an EV with a hardwired
storage and regulated dc-link (modified based on [12]) . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 5.3 Electrical circuit of an EV with modular reconfigurable
batteries and separate auxiliary (modified based on [12]) . . . . . . 150
Fig. 5.4 Electrical circuit of an EV with modular reconfigurable
batteries and separate unidirectional auxiliary (modified
based on [12]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig. 5.5 Electrical circuit of the envisioned EV with modular
reconfigurable batteries and integrated auxiliary output
(modified based on [12]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
List of Figures xxix
Fig. 5.6 The electrical circuit of the EV with integrated auxiliary

output [56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig. 5.7 Electrical circuit of the envisioned EV with modular
reconfigurable batteries with the integrated auxiliary
output in series to the dc-link capacitor (modified based
on [12]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Fig. 5.8 The electrical circuit of the EV with integrated auxiliary
output and reduced number of switch-sets. © 2023 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [69, 70] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
from [69, 70] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 5.10 Graphic illustration of the carriers in conventional PSC
modulation and the effective equivalent carrier waveform.
Fig. 5.11 Graphical representation of the increased effective
switching frequency due to the PSC modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 5.12 Circuit diagram of the integrated auxiliary unit. © 2023
Fig. 5.13 Intuitive representation of Vin with different D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fig. 5.14 Equivalent circuit diagram of the integrated auxiliary
unit from the primary side. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.15 Developed controller with symmetric PSC modulation
and reduced number of switch-sets in discharge mode.
and reduced number of switch-sets in charge mode . . . . . . . . . . . 164
and reduced number of switch-sets in idle mode [69, 70] . . . . . . 164
Fig. 5.18 Generic curve of the terminal voltage of the battery
versus its SoC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 5.19 Gain variations of the auxiliary power unit with respect to D . . . 166
Fig. 5.20 Voltage and current waveforms of both ports
for the simulated system. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.21 The pulsating voltage of the modular reconfigurable
battery. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [69, 70] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 5.22 The control signals as well as the outputs’ deviations
from reference values. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.23 Balancing performance of the integrated auxiliary
when both ports are actively discharging the modules
(P1 = 25 kW, P2 = 3 kW) [69, 70] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
xxx List of Figures
Fig. 5.24 Voltage and current profiles of the reconfigurable-battery

ports during charge. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.25 Laboratory testbench for the dual-port setup with symmetric
PSC. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from
[69, 70] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fig. 5.26 Measured voltage and currents at the semi-controlled
main port during discharge. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.27 Measured voltage and currents at the auxiliaries. © 2023
Fig. 5.28 Voltage deviations from the reference values. © 2023
Fig. 5.29 The measured voltages at the primary and secondary
terminals of the HFT. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.30 Generic structure of a string with interconnected ports.
Fig. 5.31 ECM of a generic string of modular reconfigurable storage
elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 5.32 The electrical circuit of a non-isolated port. © 2023 IEEE.
Fig. 5.33 The ECM of a non-isolated port from the secondary
side of the transformer. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.34 The ac and dc components of the resulted voltage using
symmetric PSC modulation. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.35 Intuitive representation of carriers in case of an asymmetric
PSC modulation. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [71, 72] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 5.36 Generic voltage shape of a string with an asymmetric PSC
from [71, 72] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 5.37 Normalized output voltages with respect to m. © 2023
Fig. 5.38 Proposed control strategy for the dual-port system
with symmetric PSC. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.39 Generic controller for multiple non-isolated and isolated
ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Fig. 5.40 Possible gain profiles with asymmetric PSC
with nine-module string. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
List of Figures xxxi
Fig. 5.41 The developed control strategy for a dual-port system

with asymmetric PSC modulation. © 2023 IEEE.
Fig. 5.42 Voltage and current profiles of the high-power non-isolated
port supplying the inverters. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.43 Voltage and current profiles of the low-power isolated
port with symmetric PSC. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.44 Voltage and current profiles of the high-power non-isolated
port with asymmetric PSC. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.45 Voltage and current profiles of the low-power isolated
port with asymmetric PSC. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.46 Modulation index for modules only supplying the main load
(i.e., Load1 ). © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [71, 72] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. 5.47 Modulation index for the shared modules between the two
ports. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from
[71, 72] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. 5.48 Picture of the testbench. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.49 Measured voltage and current profiles of the high-power
non-isolated port with asymmetric PSC. © 2023 IEEE.
Fig. 5.50 Measured voltage and current profiles of the low-power
isolated port with asymmetric PSC. © 2023 IEEE.
Fig. 5.51 Measured voltage and current profiles of the two outputs
with load variations in auxiliaries. © 2023 IEEE.
Fig. 5.52 Measured voltage and current profiles of the two
outputs with load variations in auxiliaries based
on asymmetric PSC modulation. © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 5.53 Intuitive representation of a multi-port system with a main
load and multiple secondary loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fig. 5.54 Intuitive representation of a string with multiple decoupled
ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. 5.55 Phase-shift distribution with zero phase difference
between corresponding carriers of different ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 5.56 Optimal phase-shift distribution in a three-port system
with three modules in each port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
xxxii List of Figures
Fig. 5.57 Illustration of aligning the pulse edges with zero equivalent
voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 5.58 The shape of the triangular carrier and its modulation index . . . . 200
Fig. 5.59 Example of controlling the phase difference
between the first carriers of every port to generate
additional outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Fig. 5.60 Macro structure of the additional dc output
in the single-string multi-phase system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Fig. 5.61 Extended macro structure of multi-phase ac smart
battery with multiple integrated auxiliary outputs
for electromobility applications (modified from [12]) . . . . . . . . . 203
Fig. 6.1 Estimation results of the capacitor voltages in the simulated
balanced system © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Fig. 6.2 Maximum error in the simulated balanced system using
conventional and developed estimators © 2023 IEEE.
balanced system without any balancing effort © 2023
Fig. 6.4 Maximum error in the simulated imbalanced system
using conventional and developed estimators without any
balancing effort © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
balanced system wit with x = 0.02 © 2023 IEEE.
Fig. 6.6 Maximum error in the simulated imbalanced system
using conventional and developed estimators
with x = 0.02 © 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Fig. 6.7 Profile of maximum error with x = 0 for low-frequency
© 2023 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from modulation
[56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Fig. 6.8 Profile of the average error with respect to the sampling
frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Fig. 6.9 Picture of the diode-clamped MMC prototype © 2023
Fig. 6.10 Measured and estimated arm voltage, as well as the error
of the arm voltage estimation for a = 0 © 2023 IEEE.
Fig. 6.11 Measured capacitor voltages and estimation results as well
as the maximum estimation error for a = 0 [56] . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Fig. 6.12 Measured capacitor voltages and estimation results as well
as the maximum estimation error for a = 0.02 [56] . . . . . . . . . 224
List of Figures xxxiii
Fig. 6.13 The estimation profiles of the OCV and internal resistance
of batteries for Scenario 1 © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with
permission, from [17] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Fig. 6.14 The difference between estimations and true values for
Scenario 1 © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [17] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 6.15 The diagram of the estimated parameters compared
to true values for Simulation 2 © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 6.16 Errors between the estimation and true values in Scenario
2 © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [17] . . . . . . . . 238
Fig. 6.17 The estimated OCVs, estimated resistances, and profile
of the modulation index for Simulation 3 © 2022 IEEE.
Fig. 6.18 Picture of the developed testbench © 2022 IEEE.
Fig. 6.19 Estimated and measured voltages and resistances of all
seven modules for Scenario 1 © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 6.20 Estimated and measured output voltage of the pack
for Scenario 1 © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [17] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 6.21 Estimation errors for Scenario 1 of the experiments
Fig. 6.22 The estimated and measured voltages and resistances of all
seven modules for Scenario 2 © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted,
Fig. 6.23 Estimation errors for the second experimental scenario
Fig. A.1 The equivalent non-ideal circuit of the auxiliary port based
on D values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Comparison of battery chemistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Table 2.2 Comparison of Li-ion battery chemistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 3.1 Operation modes of the clamping branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 4.1 Cost comparison of developed sensorless balancing
method with the conventional sensor-based method.
Table 4.2 Simulation and experiment parameters used to study
the sensorless balancing performance using LAPSC
modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 4.3 Mismatches in the modules’ parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Table 4.4 THD values of the output voltage for different scenarios . . . . . . 105
Table 4.5 Parameters of the simulated systems and the laboratory
prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Table 4.6 Comparison of various modulation schemes with various
scheduling strategies for 250 load. © 2021 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Table 4.7 Comparison of various modulation schemes with various
scheduling strategies for 25 load. © 2021 IEEE.
Table 4.8 Parameters of the simulation system as well as the lab
prototype © 2022 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission,
from [13] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 5.1 Simulation parameters of the dual-port setup [69, 70] . . . . . . . . . 166
Table 5.2 Parameters of the dual-port prototype with five modules . . . . . . 171
Table 5.3 Parameters of the simulation and experimental setups
with nine modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Table 6.1 KF for estimating the module voltages of the MMC
Table 6.2 Parameters for simulation and experimental systems
xxxv
xxxvi List of Tables
Table 6.3 Dual KF for estimating the modules’ voltages

and resistances of MMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 6.4 KF estimator for internal resistance of the modules . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 6.5 KF estimator for open-circuit voltages of the modules . . . . . . . . 230
Table 6.6 Estimator for open-circuit voltages when modules are
at equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Table 6.7 Parameters of the simulation (Scenarios 1 and 3)
and experimental (Scenario 2) setups © 2022 IEEE.
Chapter 1
Introduction to Modular Energy Storage
Systems
This chapter introduces the concept of modular power electronic systems and pro-
vides a short history of their development and their main advantages over conven-
tional systems from the hardware and software standpoint. The chapter also high-
lights the unique capabilities and potentials for modular power electronics, and in
particular, modular reconfigurable storage systems.
Additionally, it clarifies the main challenges in developing, controlling, and mon-
itoring modular energy storage and conversion systems that currently hinder their
expansion. Lastly, the outline of the book is presented.
General concepts, potentials, and discussions of the advantages and disadvantages
of the presented reconfigurable storage systems are developed in collaboration with
Mr. Tomas Kacetl, Dr. Jingyang Fang, and Mr. Jan Kacetl. Furthermore, multiple
bachelor and master theses are developed from this chapter in collaboration with
students as their (co)advisor [1–10].
1.1 Intro
Environmental and economic incentives create considerable pressure to improve

energy storage systems. Energy storage systems, particularly batteries, have consid-
erably improved over the last decade. However, colossal shortcomings still need to
be addressed, particularly for broad acceptance in electromobility and grid-storage
applications. In such applications, large high-capacity and -power storages are neces-
sary that are also cost-efficient, performant, and reliable. Nevertheless, the available
technology fails to address all the critical challenges, and optimizing the storage
chemistry might prove insufficient, as many issues originate from all the additional
requirements of such applications, multiple peripheral subsystems, and lack of flex-
ibility in conventional rigid energy storage systems.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

N. Tashakor, Novel Highly Flexible Modular Power Electronics for Energy Storage
and Conversion Systems, Green Energy and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36843-1_1
2 1 Introduction to Modular Energy Storage Systems
Modular energy storage systems (MMSs) are not a new concept [11]. This work
defines MMS as a structure with an arbitrary number of relatively similar mod-
ules stacked together. Such structures often have none or minimal reconfigurability
through controlled mechanical switches or limited electrical circuitries [12]. How-
ever, modular reconfigurable storage systems, as we know them, became popular
through the emergence of cascaded electronic structures.
The goal of cascaded electronics is to offer flexible and extendable circuits. The
clear advantages of cascaded electronics alongside the falling price of power elec-
tronics components and ever-increasing demand for larger, more flexible, and more
performant energy storages have increased the interest in modular multilevel or recon-
figurable energy storages [13].
1.2 Cascaded Power Electronics Structures
Modular or cascaded yet fully reconfigurable electronic structures are fascinating

concepts that are yet to be fully realized. Multilevel converters (MLC) were the first
step toward modular electronics, initially developed to improve the output quality and
reduce the filter size. However, they needed more flexibility for broader adoption [14].
Among various alternatives and solutions, modular multilevel converters (MMC) are
considered the next step toward modularity, especially in high-voltage applications
[15]. Nevertheless, they are still relatively limited in topology and performance, as
they only scale vertically (i.e., can be only series or bypassed) in a modular structure
and require complicated control and monitoring.
Lesnicar and Marquardt initially proposed MMC topology for the first time as a
more flexible and extendable MLC solution in 2003 [16]. The first commercial use
of MMCs was seven years later in San Francisco’s Trans Bay project [17]. Since
introduction, MMCs have evolved, but the core limitations have persisted [18, 19].
The conventional topology of the MMC is a dual-arm structure with half-bridge (HB)
modules with the output phase connected in the middle. Figure 1.1 shows the generic
structure of an MMC and Fig. 1.2 depicts the two well-known module topologies for
such a structure.
Conventional MMC topologies consisting of half-bridge modules have mnumber
of deficiencies, including the need for constant voltage balancing [20, 21], complex
control [22], costly monitoring system [23], and eventually challenging modulation
strategies [24], which counterbalance their advantages. Additionally, it is challenging
to attain higher safety integrity levels (SIL) in the software due to the high level of
complexity [25, 26]. Therefore, a wide area of research focuses in addressing each
of these obstacles through hardware [27–30] and/or software [22, 31, 32].
Cascaded H-Bridges (CHBs) with full-bridge (FB) modules are another alterna-
tive for a general modular electronics solution. However, similar to the conventional
MMCs, CHBs are limited to only vertical scalability, limited performance versus
cost, poor treatment of the modules, low efficiency, and complicated balancing con-
trollers [33, 34]. Therefore, both MMC and CHB are a limited subset of a generic
1.2 Cascaded Power Electronics Structures 3
Module
Other phases
Module can be added
ac or dc
Arm
Module
ac or dc ac or dc
Module
ac or dc
Arm
Module
Module
Fig. 1.1 Generic topology of a dual-arm MMC topology
Fig. 1.2 Generic topology

of conventional HB and FB
modules
modular reconfigurable structure, not a mature solution. Nevertheless, concentrated

research attempts to improve or rectify the shortcomings of existing modular elec-
tronics through novel hardware or software. Chapter 3 investigates the possible arm
and module topologies and the shortcomings of these structures in detail.
There are topologies with additional features on the hardware side, which can
potentially solve some abovementioned shortcomings [35–38]. Compared to con-
ventional circuits, these topologies provide benefits and capabilities such as
• Capable of autonomous charge balancing and capability of stable sensorless oper-

ation [21, 36, 38];
• Obtaining higher efficiency during operation due to reduced equivalent impedance
[39–42];
• Reducing the stress on the batteries [33, 43]
• Offering bidirectional operation of the modules [39];
• Reducing communication requirements [44–46];
• Achieving higher granulation of the output voltage with nonidentical module volt-
ages [47–50];
• Optimize the necessary capacitance or voltage levels [51, 52];
• Offer better fault tolerance [53].
Although effective, the available solutions do not consider the complete system with
interactions among different subsystems and neglect many practical restrictions,
including cost and weight, which prevent the realization of the full potential of
modular, reconfigurable structures. Furthermore, the efforts should focus on higher
functional integration and avoid additional complex structures.
The endeavors on software-based solutions mainly focus on analyzing the system
more accurately, optimizing the higher-level controllers to improve such structures’
performance or stability, and developing more efficient balancing or modulation
techniques. Some of the available advancements in these fields include
• Improving harmonic content through novel modulation methods [54–57];
• Increasing the generated voltage levels [58];
• Reducing the common-mode or differential-mode noises [59, 60];
• Enhancing the monitoring estimation routines using available information [61]
• Minimizing the constraints on the capacitance of the modules or reducing the
voltage ripple on the modules [51, 62].
• Improving the reliability and reducing the susceptibility of these systems to cyber
attacks [63, 64].
However, due to the inherent limitations of conventional topologies, the improvement
obtained through purely software-based solutions is suboptimal. Additionally, many
such solutions come at the cost of higher complexity, higher computations, and
additional or higher bandwidth measurements. In effect, not considering the complete
system replaces one issue with another outside the optimization criteria, such as
reducing the hardware stress, increasing integration or creating additional functions,
and minimizing the monitoring system complexity or cost.
The envisioned control diagram of a generic modular, reconfigurable electronics
consists of four main stages. However, they are combinable in specific topologies or
applications, and further control objectives can increase these stages [65]. The high-
est level of control usually determines the necessary voltage or current levels for each
phase depending on the objectives, such as controlling the rate and direction of energy
transfer. The next level determines the arm voltages or current references to control
and balance the energy transfer between phases and arms. At the module level, to
1.3 Modular Reconfigurable Storages 5
The mapping of the connections

The phases‘ reference
bypass,... connections
The arms‘ reference
voltage and current
voltage and current
Numbers of serial,
through the arm

Module
Phase Arm Scheduler/ Switching
Controller/
Controller Controller Balancer Signals
Modulator
Fig. 1.3 Overview of different control levels in an MMC
determine the control (gate) signals for the respective modules, the modulator deter-
mines the module states depending on the modulation strategy, and concurrently the
scheduler or balancer selects the priority by which the modules should be connected
or removed from the arm. This work will also present that further optimization of
efficiency or output quality is possible in this stage. The modulation and scheduler
routines can be combined in some topologies or controllers [21]. Figure 1.3 depicts
the hierarchy of different control levels.
1.3 Modular Reconfigurable Storages
Despite renewable energy generation expansion, growth of the electromobility sector,

environmental incentives, and intensified research on the battery or super-capacitor
(SC) technologies, many of the traditional challenges persist [66]. Today, the rigid
series and parallel connection of literally hundreds of cells power an electric vehicle
(EV) [67, 68]. In addition to the improved capacity, a trend in increasing the voltage
levels of the storage systems has grown the share of series connections with the same
energy capacity [69]. The advantages behind higher-voltage storage (i.e., 800 V),
among which batteries are the most common one, include lower weight, better effi-
ciency, and increased power rating with similar current levels [70]. However, storage
systems with higher rated voltage and more series connections can also challenge
protection or safety requirements, increase the complexity of monitoring and bal-
ancing subsystems, reduce efficiency, increase system impedance, and reduce usable
capacity.
An energy storage module is not a new concept, and the available technology in
most modern large storages uses some form of a fixed module to form large packs
[12, 71]. However, with the ever-decreasing cost of power electronics, interest in
reconfigurable storage systems in high-power, medium- or low-voltage applications
has significantly grown [72, 73].
Fixed Energy Storage Modular Reconfigurable Energy Storage
+ +
Protection/
balancer/
Sensors/...
+
+
Energy
Protection/
Converter
balancer/ Output 1
or Output 1
Sensors/...
Adaptor
Individual
+ Output 2
Energy +
Protection/ Converter
Output 2
balancer/ or
Sensors/... Adaptor
Fig. 1.4 Intuitive representation of an MMS as well as hard-wired energy storage system
One major trend is merging the energy storage system with modular electronics,
resulting in fully controlled modular, reconfigurable storage, also known as mod-
ular multilevel energy storage. These systems break the conventionally hard-wired
and rigid storage systems into multiple smaller modules and integrate them with
electronic circuits to obtain a modular system capable of fast and dynamic recon-
figuration [68, 74]. Figure 1.4 provides an intuitive representation of a hard-wired
energy storage system and a modular, reconfigurable one. The integration allows flex-
ible and yet dynamic connectivity of multiple strings into various dc, single-phase,
and multi-phase structures [68, 75].
The possibility of dynamic reconfiguration allows for modulating each module
individually to act as an independent yet coherent energy conversion unit. The bulky
and rigid storage system is distributed among different modules, enabling lower
voltage/power electronics to improve the response speed and the effective switching
frequency [76].
The energy storage of each module can range from relatively small capacities,
such as typical capacitors that act as an intermediary device for energy conversion,
or high energy/power density components, such as double-layer (super) capacitors
(SCs) and batteries, which offer a significant amount of energy [74, 77–79].
1.3 Modular Reconfigurable Storages 7
The modular reconfigurable energy storages generally should benefit from similar
advantages to other modular electronics (e.g., MMCs) [76, 80, 81], such as
• better balancing with more control over the charge/discharge of the modules as
well as the possibility of energy exchange among modules [68, 73];
• better tolerance to faults in a single storage, as the system can continue to operate
after bypassing the faulty modules;
• better controllability over individual storage modules [41, 82];
• faster output regulation due to better output voltage quality and increased effective
frequency of the system [49];
• better efficiency due to the possibility of load sharing among different modules
resulting in reduced effective impedance of the system [43];
• improved usable energy capacity resulting from the possibility of high-efficiency
energy exchange among modules and the possibility of loading each module sep-
arately [76].
Similar to advantages, such systems share some shortcomings, too, including
complex control and monitoring systems, challenging protection requirements, and
more complex structures resulting in increased cost and volume.
On the other hand, despite the similarities, an MMS is not only an energy con-
verter with minimum storage capability. The difference in the application and the
inherent behavior of larger storage elements (i.e., simple capacitors as opposed to
large batteries or SC) brings new challenges and opportunities. For example, while
the voltage of the capacitor is an accurate measure of its energy, this is not the case in
other types of energy storage [83, 84]. Hence, more complex models and monitoring
and estimation routines will be necessary to represent the nonlinear behavior of the
larger energy storages in a modular, reconfigurable storage.
Another significant difference between various types of energy storage in modu-
lar, reconfigurable storage is dynamics. Although all systems benefit from relatively
fast output dynamics, they differ quite significantly in the dynamics of their modules.
The capacitors (dis)charge pretty rapidly. Therefore, the bandwidth of the balancing
and monitoring routines is highly critical in their performance [68]. However, larger
storages, such as batteries, have significantly slower dynamics where they can bear
imbalanced loads/charges for a limited duration. Therefore, the speed of the moni-
toring routine is of lower priority [85]. On the other hand, the monitoring routines
are computationally more demanding and considerably more demanding due to the
more complex modeling.
Lastly, considering the available degrees of freedom in such systems, they have yet
to fully achieve their potential in many applications, such as EVs and grid-storages.
Moreover, many aspects are still not thoroughly investigated.
1.4 Main Challenges
Despite many advantages or potentials of modular reconfigurable storages, signifi-

cant aspects must be addressed or studied rigorously for broader acceptance. These
aspects include the cost-versus-gain of different topologies or structures, the level of
control complexity, monitoring or protection, and interactions of different subsys-
tems.
1.4.1 Level of Modularity
The advantages of a dynamically reconfigurable energy storage system include bet-

ter quantization of the output voltage, improved effective switching frequency, and
usable capacity. However, these benefits are at the cost of the increasing number of
components, particularly switches, higher peripheral electronics such as gate drivers,
possibly higher weight and volume due to packaging, and limitations on the controller
side. Therefore, some trade-offs in the modules’ rating and quantity are necessary.
However, there are no universal solutions, as the cost and gains are highly affected
by outside factors such as the application requirement (e.g., power, weight, volume,
capacity gain, output quality), the component costs and availability, and lastly, man-
ufacturing processes.
1.4.2 Modulation Strategy and Control
The modulation scheme(s) of the semiconductors can immensely impact(s) the over-
all performance of the system, including efficiency, current ripple, and output quality
[21, 44, 57, 86]. Chapter 5 will show that it is possible to gain additional capabilities
or enhance the previous ones by using novel modulation methods and topologies.
Other aspects of the modulation strategy that must be considered are computation
efficiency, feasibility for the lower-end controllers, and interaction with other con-
trol routines such as balancing/scheduler and protection routines. Few modulation
methods can inherently combine multiple control routines to reduce the computa-
tion demand or complexity, which are studied and enhanced in Chap. 4 [87]. Some
modulation techniques can be easily extended to higher number of modules, whereas
some methods are more limited in this aspect [88].
Although most modulation techniques are easily understood, developing a math-
ematical model for them can be challenging, depending on the technique. Such
models are exciting in designing controllers or estimators. Therefore, an accurate
mathematical model of the system that considers the impact of modulation strategies
is essential.
1.5 Main Objectives/Incentives 9
1.4.3 Topologies and Circuit Analysis
Various macro and micro structures are available in the literature [66, 89]. Different
macro structures are available for providing DC, single-phase, and multi-phase out-
puts with specific features [73]. It is possible to place only one connection between
every two adjacent modules (e.g., in case of half-bridge or bidirectional full-bridge)
allowing for merely bypass and series connections in the string or there can be more
than one point of connection (e.g., diode-clamped [27, 90, 91], FET-clamped [92],
or topologies with higher number of switches [36]). Moreover, the topology of the
modules and string will impact the system’s performance and control. This work
will introduce modules and control methods capable of additional states that scale
not only vertically but also horizontally by creating parallel paths, which can have
huge impact on the performance of the modules and the overall system. The added
states can also simplify the control by allowing for sensorless or open-loop operation
and concurrently increasing the available DoFs. However, the parallel connectivity
among modules can make developing a model of the system challenging and neces-
sitate novel monitoring techniques.
1.4.4 Better Monitoring and Protection
The higher number of modules and controllable components in MMSs necessitates

additional monitoring routines. Sensors and high-bandwidth isolated communica-
tion interfaces would replace the simple passive or active balancing circuits with
minimum communication to the central controller. In conventional topologies, there
are only current sensors at the output terminal of the storage and not at every module.
However, as the performance of a modular, reconfigurable storage depends highly
on accurate information about the states of the modules (e.g., temperature, load,
charge, age), a higher number of sensors, additional data communication, and more
performant controllers are essential. An alternative is to simplify the monitoring sys-
tem by developing fast and dynamic estimators or observers based on the developed
model of such systems. Additionally, it is possible to detect and compensate for the
measurement noise and bias of critical sensors using estimators [76, 93].
1.5 Main Objectives/Incentives
This book exploits and develops modular power electronics integrated energy stor-
ages that offer dynamic reconfiguration with various advantages and added capabil-
ities. However, the improvements should not be at the cost of increasingly higher
complexity or cost.
A comprehensive review of the literature on possible modular topologies and

storage types helps to select more relevant topologies and develop suitable models
that account for the particular traits of MMSs. As the suitability of a topology depends
on the application and requirement, the book presents multiple new topologies on a
case-by-case basis with significant advantages over conventional technologies.
Developing and improving the available control strategies is another goal of this
work that focuses on simplifying the modulation strategy, improving the output qual-
ity, increasing the efficiency, simplifying the hardware, and reducing costs. However,
proposing higher-level controls for such systems during their interactions with the
grid/load is not the focus of this work.
The last goal is to develop feasible state estimation and parameter identification
methods based on the specific behavior and applications to simplify the monitoring
system, improve accuracy, and minimize costs. The focus of this goal is simplifying
the footprint using the available information to the fullest and reducing the sensors
while avoiding needlessly computationally demanding algorithms
1.6 Book Outline
The outline of this book is as follows. Chapter 2 provides a general overview of

different energy storage types, the study of specific requirements, critical features,
and modeling approaches with a specific focus on batteries and capacitors.
Chapter 3 studies novel topologies and structures of modular power electronics
and develops accurate models of each system for both control and estimation pur-
poses. Additionally, this chapter investigates various advantages and disadvantages
of each topology and thoroughly investigates the potential for further improvements
and optimization.
Chapter 4 studies conventional modulation techniques, develops novel modula-
tions, or optimizes the available ones for better performance, including more straight-
forward implementation, higher efficiency/balancing, and enhanced capabilities.
Leveraging the gained knowledge and understanding of the behavior of various
MMS and other modular power electronics in general, Chap. 5 proposes new topolo-
gies for emerging applications with a specific focus on electromobility.
Chapter 6 develops new estimation methods and optimizes the already available
ones using the developed models in Chap. 3. The critical goals of the developed
techniques are sensor reduction, accuracy improvement, and computation efficiency.
Finally, Chap. 7 concludes this work with some remarks about the main con-
clusions and results, a summary of the scientific and technical achievements, and
possible future research directions.
References 11
References
1. Berg, P. (2020). Novel controller to reduce high frequent components of battery currents in a
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of the inductive
sciences, from the earliest to the present time
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
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you are located before using this eBook.
Title: History of the inductive sciences, from the earliest to the present time
Author: William Whewell
Release date: August 5, 2022 [eBook #68693]
Language: English
Original publication: United States: D. Appleton and Company, 1875
Credits: Ed Brandon
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF

THE INDUCTIVE SCIENCES, FROM THE EARLIEST TO THE
PRESENT TIME ***
HISTORY
OF THE
I N D U C T I V E S C I E N C E S.
VOLUME I.
HISTORY
OF THE
I N D U C T I V E S C I E N C E S,
FROM
THE EARLIEST TO THE PRESENT TIME.

B Y W I L L I A M W H E W E L L , D . D.,
MASTER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
THE THIRD EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOLUME I.
NEW YORK:
D . A P P L E T O N A N D C O M P A N Y,
549 & 551 BROADWAY.
1875.
TO SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL,
K.G.H.
My dear Herschel,
It is with no common pleasure that I take up my pen to dedicate

these volumes to you. They are the result of trains of thought which
have often been the subject of our conversation, and of which the
origin goes back to the period of our early companionship at the
University. And if I had ever wavered in my purpose of combining
such reflections and researches into a whole, I should have derived
a renewed impulse and increased animation from your delightful
Discourse on a kindred subject. For I could not have read it without
finding this portion of philosophy invested with a fresh charm; and
though I might be well aware that I could not aspire to that large
share of popularity which your work so justly gained, I should still
have reflected, that something was due to the subject itself, and
should have hoped that my own aim was so far similar to yours, that
the present work might have a chance of exciting an interest in some
of your readers. That it will interest you, I do not at all hesitate to
believe.
If you were now in England I should stop here: but when a friend is
removed for years to a far distant land, we seem to acquire a right to
speak openly of his good qualities. I cannot, therefore, prevail upon
myself to lay down my pen without alluding to the affectionate
admiration of your moral and social, as well as intellectual
excellencies, which springs up in the hearts of your friends,
whenever you are thought of. They are much delighted to look upon
the halo of deserved fame which plays round your head but still
more, to recollect, 6 as one of them said, that your head is far from
being the best part about you.
May your sojourn in the southern hemisphere be as happy and

successful as its object is noble and worthy of you; and may your
return home be speedy and prosperous, as soon as your purpose is
attained.
Ever, my dear Herschel, yours,
W. Whewell.
March 22, 1837.
P.S. So I wrote nearly ten years ago, when you were at the Cape
of Good Hope, employed in your great task of making a complete
standard survey of the nebulæ and double stars visible to man. Now
that you are, as I trust, in a few weeks about to put the crowning
stone upon your edifice by the publication of your “Observations in
the Southern Hemisphere,” I cannot refrain from congratulating you
upon having had your life ennobled by the conception and happy
execution of so great a design, and once more offering you my
wishes that you may long enjoy the glory you have so well won.
W. W.
Trinity College, Nov. 22, 1846.
PREFACE
TO THE THIRD EDITION.
I N the Prefaces to the previous Editions of this work, several

remarks were made which it is not necessary now to repeat to the
same extent. That a History of the Sciences, executed as this is, has
some value in the eyes of the Public, is sufficiently proved by the
circulation which it has obtained. I am still able to say that I have
seen no objection urged against the plan of the work, and scarcely
any against the details. The attempt to throw the history of each
science into Epochs at which some great and cardinal discovery
was made, and to arrange the subordinate events of each history as
belonging to the Preludes and the Sequels of such Epochs,
appears to be assented to, as conveniently and fairly exhibiting the
progress of scientific truth. Such a view being assumed, as it was a
constant light and guide to the writer in his task, so will it also, I think,
make the view of the reader far more clear and comprehensive than
it could otherwise be. With regard to the manner in which this plan
has been carried into effect with reference to particular writers and
their researches, as I have said, I have seen scarcely any objection
made. I was aware, as I stated at the outset, of the difficulty and
delicacy of the office which I had undertaken; but I had various
considerations to encourage me to go through it; and I had a trust,
which I 8 have as yet seen nothing to disturb, that I should be able to
speak impartially of the great scientific men of all ages, even of our
own.
I have already said, in the Introduction, that the work aimed at
being, not merely a narration of the facts in the history of Science,
but a basis for the Philosophy of Science. It seemed to me that our
study of the modes of discovering truth ought to be based upon a
survey of the truths which have been discovered. This maxim, so
stated, seems sufficiently self-evident; yet it has, even up to the
present time, been very rarely acted on. Those who discourse
concerning the nature of Truth and the mode of its discovery, still,
commonly, make for themselves examples of truths, which for the
most part are utterly frivolous and unsubstantial (as in most Treatises
on Logic); or else they dig up, over and over, the narrow and special
field of mathematical truth, which certainly cannot, of itself, exemplify
the general mode by which man has attained to the vast body of
certain truth which he now possesses.
Yet it must not be denied that the Ideas which form the basis of
Mathematical Truth are concerned in the formation of Scientific Truth
in general; and discussions concerning these Ideas are by no means
necessarily barren of advantage. But it must be borne in mind that,
besides these Ideas, there are also others, which no less lie at the
root of Scientific Truth; and concerning which there have been, at
various periods, discussions which have had an important bearing
on the progress of Scientific Truth;—such as discussions concerning
the nature and necessary attributes of Matter, of Force, of Atoms, of
Mediums, of Kinds, of Organization. The controversies which have
taken place concerning these have an important place in the history
of Natural Science in 9 its most extended sense. Yet it appeared
convenient to carry on the history of Science, so far as it depends on
Observation, in a line separate from these discussions concerning
Ideas. The account of these discussions and the consequent
controversies, therefore, though it be thoroughly historical, and, as
appears to me, a very curious and interesting history, is reserved for
the other work, the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. Such a
history has, in truth, its natural place in the Philosophy of Science;
for the Philosophy of Science at the present day must contain the
result and summing up of all the truth which has been disentangled
from error and confusion during these past controversies.
I have made a few Additions to the present Edition; partly, with a

view of bringing up the history, at least of some of the Sciences, to
the present time,—so far as those larger features of the History of
Science are concerned, with which alone I have here to deal,—and
partly also, especially in the First Volume, in order to rectify and
enlarge some of the earlier portions of the history. Several works
which have recently appeared suggested reconsideration of various
points; and I hoped that my readers might be interested in the
reflections so suggested.
I will add a few sentences from the Preface to the First Edition.
“As will easily be supposed, I have borrowed largely from other

writers, both of the histories of special sciences and of philosophy in
general. 1 I have done this without 10 scruple, since the novelty of my
work was intended to consist, not in its superiority as a collection of
facts, but in the point of view in which the facts were placed. I have,
however, in all cases, given references to my authorities, and there
are very few instances in which I have not verified the references of
previous historians, and studied the original authors. According to
the plan which I have pursued, the history of each science forms a
whole in itself, divided into distinct but connected members, by the
Epochs of its successive advances. If I have satisfied the competent
judges in each science by my selection of such epochs, the scheme
of the work must be of permanent value, however imperfect may be
the execution of any of its portions.
1 Among these, I may mention as works to which I have peculiar
obligations, Tennemann’s Geschichte der Philosophie;
Degerando’s Histoire Comparée des Systèmes de Philosophie;
Montucla’s Histoire des Mathématiques, with Delalande’s
continuation of it; Delambre’s Astronomie Ancienne, Astronomie
du Moyen Age, Astronomie Moderne, and Astronomie du Dix-
huitième Siècle; Bailly’s Histoire d’Astronomie Ancienne, and
Histoire d’Astronomie Moderne; Voiron’s Histoire d’Astronomie
(published as a continuation of Bailly), Fischer’s Geschichte der
Physik, Gmelin’s Geschichte der Chemie, Thomson’s History of
Chemistry, Sprengel’s History of Medicine, his History of Botany,
and in all branches of Natural History and Physiology, Cuvier’s
works; in their historical, as in all other portions, most admirable
and instructive.
“With all these grounds of hope, it is still impossible not to see that
such an undertaking is, in no small degree, arduous, and its event
obscure. But all who venture upon such tasks must gather trust and
encouragement from reflections like those by which their great
forerunner prepared himself for his endeavors;—by recollecting that
they are aiming to advance the best interests and privileges of man;
and that they may expect all the best and wisest of men to join them
in their aspirations and to aid them in their labors.
“‘Concerning ourselves we speak not; but as touching the matter

which we have in hand, this we ask;—that men deem it not to be the
setting up of an Opinion, but the performing of a Work; and that they
receive this as a certainty—that we are not laying the foundations of
any sect or doctrine, but of the profit and dignity of mankind:—
Furthermore, 11 that being well disposed to what shall advantage
themselves, and putting off factions and prejudices, they take
common counsel with us, to the end that being by these our aids and
appliances freed and defended from wanderings and impediments,
they may lend their hands also to the labors which remain to be
performed:—And yet, further, that they be of good hope; neither
feign and imagine to themselves this our Reform as something of
infinite dimension and beyond the grasp of mortal man, when, in
truth, it is, of infinite error, the end and true limit; and is by no means
unmindful of the condition of mortality and humanity, not confiding
that such a thing can be carried to its perfect close in the space of
one single day, but assigning it as a task to a succession of
generations.’—Bacon—Instauratio Magna, Præf. ad fin.
“‘If there be any man who has it at heart, not merely to take his
stand on what has already been discovered, but to profit by that, and
to go on to something beyond;—not to conquer an adversary by
disputing, but to conquer nature by working;—not to opine probably
and prettily, but to know certainly and demonstrably;—let such, as
being true sons of nature (if they will consent to do so), join
themselves to us; so that, leaving the porch of nature which endless
multitudes have so long trod, we may at last open a way to the inner
courts. And that we may mark the two ways, that old one, and our
new one, by familiar names, we have been wont to call the one the
Anticipation of the Mind, the other, the Interpretation of Nature.’—
Inst. Mag. Præf. ad Part. ii.
CONTENTS
OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
―――⎯◆−◆−◆―――⎯
Page
~Preface to the Third Edition. 7~
~Index of Proper Names. 23~
~Index of Technical Terms. 33~
Introduction. 41
BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE GREEK SCHOOL PHILOSOPHY, WITH REFERENCE TO

PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
Chapter I.—Prelude to the Greek School Philosophy.

Sect. 1. First Attempts of the Speculative Faculty in Physical Inquiries. 55
Sect. 2. Primitive Mistake in Greek Physical Philosophy. 60
Chapter II.—The Greek School Philosophy.

Sect. 1. The General Foundation of the Greek School Philosophy. 63
Sect. 2. The Aristotelian Physical Philosophy. 67
Sect. 3. Technical Forms of the Greek Schools. 73
1. Technical Forms of the Aristotelian Philosophy. 73
2. Technical Forms of the Platonists. 75
3. Technical Forms of the Pythagoreans. 77
4. Technical Forms of the Atomists and Others. 78
Chapter III.—Failure of the Physical Philosophy of the Greek

Schools.
Sect. 1. Result of the Greek School Philosophy. 80
Sect. 2. Cause of the Failure of the Greek Physical Philosophy. 83
14
BOOK II.
HISTORY OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN ANCIENT GREECE.

Introduction. 95
Chapter I.—Earliest Stages of Mechanics and Hydrostatics.

Sect. 1. Mechanics. 96
Sect. 2. Hydrostatics. 98
Chapter II.—Earliest Stages of Optics. 100
Chapter III.—Earliest Stages of Harmonics. 105
BOOK III.
HISTORY OF GREEK ASTRONOMY.

Introduction. 111
Chapter I.—Earliest Stages of Astronomy.

Sect. 1. Formation of the Notion of a Year. 112
Sect. 2. Fixation of the Civil Year. 113
Sect. 3. Correction of the Civil Year (Julian Calendar). 117
Sect. 4. Attempts at the Fixation of the Month. 118
Sect. 5. Invention of Lunisolar Years. 120
Sect. 6. The Constellations. 124
Sect. 7. The Planets. 126
Sect. 8. The Circles of the Sphere. 128
Sect. 9. The Globular Form of the Earth. 132
Sect. 10. The Phases of the Moon. 134
Sect. 11. Eclipses. 135
Sect. 12. Sequel to the Early Stages of Astronomy. 136
Chapter II.—Prelude to the Inductive Epoch of Hipparchus. 138
15
Chapter III.—Inductive Epoch of Hipparchus.
Sect. 1. Establishment of the Theory of Epicycles and Eccentrics. 145
Sect. 2. Estimate of the Value of the Theory of Eccentrics and
Epicycles. 151
Sect. 3. Discovery of the Precession of the Equinoxes. 155
Chapter IV.—Sequel to the Inductive Epoch of Hipparchus.

Sect. 1. Researches which verified the Theory. 157
Sect. 2. Researches which did not verify the Theory. 159
Sect. 3. Methods of Observation of the Greek Astronomers. 161
Sect. 4. Period from Hipparchus to Ptolemy. 166
Sect. 5. Measures of the Earth. 169
Sect. 6. Ptolemy’s Discovery of Evection. 170
Sect. 7. Conclusion of the History of Greek Astronomy. 175
Sect. 8. Arabian Astronomy. 176
B O O K I V.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

Introduction. 185
Chapter I.—On the Indistinctness of Ideas of the Middle Ages.

1. Collections of Opinions. 187
2. Indistinctness of Ideas in Mechanics. 188
3. Indistinctness of Ideas shown in Architecture. 191
4. Indistinctness of Ideas in Astronomy. 192
5. Indistinctness of Ideas shown by Skeptics. 192
6. Neglect of Physical Reasoning in Christendom. 195
7. Question of Antipodes. 195
8. Intellectual Condition of the Religious Orders. 197
9. Popular Opinions. 199
Chapter II.—The Commentatorial Spirit of the Middle Ages. 201

1. Natural Bias to Authority. 202
2. Character of Commentators. 204

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Novel Highly Flexible Modular Power

Electronics for Energy Storage and

Novel Highly Flexible Modular Power Electronics for

Energy Storage and Conversion Systems Alon Kuperman

Power Electronics for Electric Vehicles and Energy

Electrode Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion

Advanced Power Electronics Converters for Future

Mesoporous Materials for Advanced Energy Storage and

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage

Exergy Analysis for Energy Conversion Systems 1st

Novel Highly Flexible

Foreword by Stefan Götz

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

Modular power electronic circuits form a scientifically and industrially promising

Kaiserslautern, Germany Stefan Goetz

The latest developments in high-performance low-voltage semiconductors, driven

Kaiserslautern, Germany Nima Tashakor

1 Introduction to Modular Energy Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

4 Modulation and Scheduling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Appendix A: Detailed Derivation of Non-ideal Gain

ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter

MOSFET Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

... Floor function

Fig. 1.1 Generic topology of a dual-arm MMC topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Fig. 3.8 Macro structure of dual-arm topology, also known

Fig. 3.30 Operation modes of a switch-clamped module if S( j+1)2 is

Fig. 4.14 Module voltages with different capacitance

Fig. 4.27 Dynamics of capacitor voltages and balancing currents

Fig. 4.39 Comparison of power loss for various schemes

Fig. 5.6 The electrical circuit of the EV with integrated auxiliary

Fig. 5.24 Voltage and current profiles of the reconfigurable-battery

Fig. 5.41 The developed control strategy for a dual-port system

Table 2.1 Comparison of battery chemistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Table 6.3 Dual KF for estimating the modules’ voltages

Environmental and economic incentives create considerable pressure to improve

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

1.2 Cascaded Power Electronics Structures

Modular or cascaded yet fully reconfigurable electronic structures are fascinating

Fig. 1.1 Generic topology of a dual-arm MMC topology

Fig. 1.2 Generic topology

modular reconfigurable structure, not a mature solution. Nevertheless, concentrated

• Capable of autonomous charge balancing and capability of stable sensorless oper-

The mapping of the connections

voltage and current

through the arm

Fig. 1.3 Overview of different control levels in an MMC

1.3 Modular Reconfigurable Storages

Despite renewable energy generation expansion, growth of the electromobility sector,

Fixed Energy Storage Modular Reconfigurable Energy Storage

1.4 Main Challenges

Despite many advantages or potentials of modular reconfigurable storages, signifi-

1.4.1 Level of Modularity

The advantages of a dynamically reconfigurable energy storage system include bet-

1.4.2 Modulation Strategy and Control

1.4.3 Topologies and Circuit Analysis

1.4.4 Better Monitoring and Protection

The higher number of modules and controllable components in MMSs necessitates

1.5 Main Objectives/Incentives

... Floor function