2 EVIDENCES IN FAVOUR OF EVOLUTION Hieve in the doctrine of organic evo- all the organisms (plants and descended form simpler Now-a-days we firmly bel lution. According to this doctrine animals) which are existing today have pre-existing forms. The term evolution means unrolling or unfolding of events and was used by Hebert Spencer for the first time. Charles Darwin described evolution as “descent with modification’. In other words, evolution may be described as derivation of new species of plants and animals from those existed in the past. A host of evidences that evolution has actually taken place have now been accumulated. A short account of these evidences is given helow. I, EVIDENCE FROM TAXONOMY There are about 1,00,000 species of animals and about 2,50,000 species of plants in the world, many species are yet to be de- scribed. Therefore, it is evident that the study of living organisms is not at all possible if we do not categorise or classify them. The credit of modern classification goes to the work of Carolus Linnaeus (a Swedish botanist 1707-1778) who undertook the work of classification of the entire living world. Linnaeus, in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae (1750), introduced the bino- mial nomenclature of each animal with first part as the generic name and the second part as the specific name. Earlier systematicists use superficial character to differenti- ate and classify organisms and the classification suggested was more or less ortificial. In the classification the basic unit is the species, a population of closely similar individuals. Herst defined Evolution18 Evidences in Favour of Evolution ies. as “group of individuals of common descent with certain ema specific characters in common, which are represented in cons ell by constant and characteristic set of chromo- cleus of ct id c set aa carrying homologous specific genes causing infrafertility and inter-sterility. Several species have so many common characters that they can be placed together as a same genus. Therefore, the various species-clusters are named as various genera. The genera also naturally fall into larger groups on the basis of similarities in their fundamental characters. Linnaeus called these groups as orders. Finally these orders were grouped in classes, the diverse members of which share only the very fundamental characteris- tics. Linnaeus grouped these classes into two kingdoms-Plantae and Animalia. E. Haeckel introduced the term phylum to describe the related classes. However, various other workers before Haeckel, used various terms such as sub-kingdom, circle and types in be- tween the class and kingdom. Etymologically the term phylum stands for a line of descent and is more appropriate to the new studies of evolution. Similarly Haeckel also introduced the term family asa category intermediate between genus and order. Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species. The generic name is written with a capital letter, the specific and sub-specific name without capital letter. For example, Homo sapiens. The above taxonomic categories represent degrees of blood relationship. For instance, all chordates have common ancestors but now only most fundamental characters are found to be common. the degree of similarity or closeness will become higher as we Teach the lower scale of taxonomic categories.Evidences in Favour of Evolution 19 The above stated facts cannot be explained br special creation. Had the species been created pefilparts at one another, the question of grouping them would not fave arisen. The ready explanation of grouping of plants and animals lied only in the concept of organic evolution which suggests an evolutionary tree or geological tree (since each taxonomic group includes the members of a common origin, all its members can be shown as off shoots, of a common trunk in the form of a tree called evolutionary tree where the species, genera and families etc. are comparable to the leaves, branches and large branches, all ultimately sprourting out from common stock. II. EVIDENCES FROM COMPARATIVE ANATOMY Study of functional anatomy is called tectology. The compara- tive anatomy provides us good evidences for evolution. All the homologous organs in animals and plants are formed on the same basic plan, though they may be modified variously. This relationship in the organisms in their anatomy shows that they have evolved from common ancestor and modifications are sec- ondary development, according to their needs. Some of the interesting examples are as given below : A. Homology and Analogy When we make a general survey of the animals or plants for structural evidences of evolution, we come across two types of characters, firstly those which are of common origin are known as homology and secondly, the adaptive features which are of unlike origin but are of similar functions, such are called analogy. Those organs which are fundamentally unlike i.e. they have different origins but have the same function are called analogous organs. But the organs which are fundamentally the same in structure and have the same origin, irrespective of how greatly they may be modified to perform widely different functions, are called homologous organs.20 Evidences in Favour of Evolution rmerus, radius compels BIRD BAT WHALE OX Fig. 21. Homology of Vertebrate fore-limbs. Following examples illustrate homology : f vertebrates 1g of bat, fore-limb of man and th different and perform dif- 1. Homology in limb structure o! The fore-limbs of a mole, win; terrestrial horse which look so muc! ferent functions are homologous structures because develop- all of them possess a pentadactyle plan. This structural divergence or modification froma fundamental plan of structure can be explained only on the basis of adaptation to different enviromental conditions. Thus biologists are convinced that ani- mals have inherited homologous structures from an ancestor which they shared in common in the remote past. mentally 2. Homology in eye structure of vertebrates The eyes of different vertebrates, though may differ in their muscles and lenses and required by different degrees of accom- modation, but they are all homologous. The eyes of vertebrate from cyclostomes to mammals, are constructed of similar parts like sclerotic, choroid, retina and lens. 3, Homology in brain structure _The brain of vertebrates ranging from fishes to mammals consists of similar series of parts, viz. olfactory lobes, cerebralEvidences in Favour of Evolution 2 aw phallanges(tingers) en 1 D lerged MAN boc SHEEP HORSE fingernait Fig. 2.2. Fore-limbs of few mammals showing serial homology. hemispheres, optic lobes, cerebellum and medulla oblongata and other less prominent structures. As we progress through the series from fishes to mammals some lobes become more promi- nent than other like cerebral hemispheres which are smaller in fishes but highly developed in mammals. Itis due to adaptations and evolutionary changes. cerebellum medulla 07 se bint (o oblongata~ };{ amphabian ae (Pigeon) mammal (cat) fish (perchy 08 Fig. 23: Brains of vertebrates (Dorsal VIEW 2 ES tT22 Evidences in Favour of Evolution Categories of homology : These are three c: i mology : ategorics of ho. (i) Phylogenetic homology : It is existed betwee i 7 . n diff cies (e.g- pentadectyle limbs of terrestrial sees Spe- (ii) Sexual homology : It is existed between the sexes of sam c species. : (iii) Serial homology : It is existed between the orga 5 individual occupying different levels of the body joan arthropods and chordates). In the crustacean all segments fe body carry paired jointed appendages, each consists of a basal protopodite and the distal endopodite and exopodite. The append- ages of the various parts of the body are variously modified depending upon the us¢ for which one is meant. This can be explained using the example of prawn. v wv OK oer" ong en - endopodite, ep-epiodite, g-gill ite, ex-exopodite, cray fish showing serial homology: pr-protopod: Fig. 24. Different appendages ina ples illustrate analogy : st similar appearance is different. Following exam| and The analogous organs have almo: perform the same function but their origin i Ie is that of “wings'- Wings are Iso found in the 1. The most suitable examp! vat, birds and found in bat (mamma!) and birds and they are @ case of insects. The purpose of these wing: i insects) is flight. The wings in ca: origin, structure and function anmologous organs. But ar structure though it per considered as analogoy In P, Favoyy of Evolution 4 Msect’s Wing is not si OTMs the same 3 ilar in Ori; f pa BN ang US Organ, UNction, Therefore, it i 2. The other example is f . Umished the ¢ flappers of aauatic mammals tike whey ae othe fishes ana ture have similar appearance and function but th SC struc. found distinctly different and therefo, cir structure have very simple skeley re, are a 7 ton while the fla nalogous, actyle limb. 3. The stings of hone 'ybee and Scorp tion and similar in their ion Perform similar func. structure. But their Origin is different, in tor while in Scorpion it is analogous. B. Vestigial Organs Among animals and Plants are met with reduced and func- other allied forms are functional and of large size. Such organs which are functionless and atrophied are called vestigial organs. The occurrence of vestigeal organs suggest that these organs were well developed and functional in the ancestors but have become atrophied due to alterandte develop- ment in the organism and change of environment. Following are few examples of such organs : i ix i : The vermiform appendix in ee aera The appendix attaches to a man is the common example. pp oe short section of the large intestine called t ee nei sine latter located at the point where the large ey cs ea ith the small intestine. The caecum is a rs aan ns blindly except for the small ee ean ix. ix is a small sl u dix. Appendix is asi raminals SP ee emo However, 7 ee the gppet . . . n coarse diet ri a ix in man showS mat ‘anctional “The presence of appendix L in - 01 7 thatat ee time he was purely herbiv24 Evidences in Favour of Evolution bat wing Fig. 25. Comparison of Vertebrate Wings, ileum appendix ileum ‘f : Caccum caccum. Fig. 2.6. Appendix vermiform ‘A=Orang utam, B=Man,Evidences in Favour of Evolution 25 coil hind limbs and pelvic gi », vestigi® pelvic girdle of python gnakes which enerally are mere ee i a related sm internally have the structure of full formed li le of the of several bones 1.e. ilium, femer, tibia, claw ete. limb, made Fig. 27. Vestigial hind-limbs of Python tive covering, the nictitating membrane is found in eep the eyes moistened. This les, In human beings a func- 3. A protec! birds on the surface of eye toke membrane is also found in repti tionless trade of this membrane called semilunar fold or plica semilurnaris is present in the inner angle of the eye. This shows relationship of reptiles, birds and mammals. 4, Majority of mammals have well developed tails but it is absent in man. It is represented by a caudal vertebrae even now. nictitating ea in the eyes of Various animals. Fig. 28, Nictitating membran Bzowl, ‘BeHorse, -Man-26 Evidences in Favour of Evolution of whales a coat of hair is generally - which was present in their vanished fore-bears, The sent imbs were also present as well-developed bug Clicg the time of birth all the hairs are shed and only a few present in the form of bristles near the lips. The on are traces of hind limbs disappear and a few bones are oe puried deep in the flesh of the animal as in python, und Kiwi does not fly and has reduced wings due to its dig . The ear muscles of the external ear in man is another organs. These muscles were use iil ample of vestigial many mammals who move the external ear freely to detect sounds efficiently. But in man, these structures still persj although these have no real utility. st 5, Inthe embry° Ble helicis minor tragicus Ow at ris posteri . auricularis Posterior trigicus anterior Fig. 29. Human ear showing vestigial ear muscles 8. Parwiculs crnosis. A large number of mammals are able to « — i xin by means of subcutaneous muscles, as in a fe fe feat c., which protects himself against the suck- dates e retain the remnant of such a muscle in the oN Picheneas es so that we draw up the eyebrows. er estgil mammary glands in male might suggest nO} Wee ae re males also suckled the young ones. . It appears as third pair of molars are vestigialaoa 2claws tank appendages Fig. 2.11. Peripatus ism or reversion - ; ” ao has been observed that some individuals are born with some such abnormal features which are supposed to have been present in their ancestors, but have lost during the course of evolution. The sudden. reappearance of characters are called atavism. Examples are additional nipples in thoracic region, presence of short tail in newly born, presence of thick body hairs ete. Thus the study of comparative anatomy reveals that all the animals in fact are related either closely or distantly to each other. They have diverged from their ancestral groups during the geological years in much the same way as the larger branches and twings of a tree diverge from its main trunk. Il. EVIDENCES FROM EMBRYOLOGY Embryology is the study of development of animals from egg to adult. Sexual reproduction in multicellular animals results into the formation of zygote, each of which develops into a new offspring by embryonic development. According to Darwin, the study of embryology, which furnishes evidence from evolution, is second to none in importance. Ernst Haeckel brought this intoEvi , a ‘vidences in Favour of Evolution 29 through his Bi 7 - ot ae is Biogenetic Law which st ¢ a ine i ey" Orton fates that “Onto- eco ee y is the development of adulth i : aioe lapel roaghofaiae We while phylogeny is the at particular species passed sen e i i a ‘at embryonic se, evolution. Haeckel in his theo: ed that embryoni Ty belie i corresponded to ancestral adults, thus Providing evid F idence the possible line of organic @ . ugh is wrong in the eyes of en The idea of Haeckel 5 embi i ; ;mulated ea in embryology and cae ce yet, it has neral resemblance between embryonic devel tention on the jutionary process. ‘opment and evo- sta} for In formulating his recapitulation observations on Von Baer's pecans fe tion. These Von' Baer's principles can be stated as f tl eG General characters appear in development before cal roe ters. ii) After the more general characters, the Tess ail char acters and finally the special characters would appest ci ‘an animal during development only progressively departs from the development of other animals. (iv) Young stages of an animal are like the young of embryonic stages of lower animals but not like the adults. ‘A comparative study of the ontogeny of varied forms of animals reveals their phylogenetic relationship and, thus, con- firms evolution. In the animal kingdom there are a number of interesting examples which provides evidences for common ancestory and evolution. (i) The zygotes from which the development: of all metazoans starts are single-celled and can be compared to the simple proto- zoan. This indicates origin of metazoans from protozoa! tors. n ances- (ii) The zygote soon becomes multicellular forming a blatula and later gastrula. The blastula coe be compa : Ja-like animal colonial protozoan or to some hypothetical plastul . which has been postulated to be the ancestor of all metazoan.30 Evidences in Favour of Evolution enterate like, but it soon , the embryo is coelentera' , Upon gastrulation, grade of construction resembling to the oe els or to the Namertina. This indicates a mono- play! phylatic origin. (iii) In the later stages the fundamental chordate. characters are developed viz. dorsal nerve cord, notohord and pharyngeal jll-slits. The tadpole larva of amphibians is like fishes in struc- Fas and habit. Its gills are like that of fishes and tail helps in swimming. Tadpole become frog after metamorphosis. It is con- cluded that the frog has evolved from some fish-like ancestor. (iv) The early stages of development of the embryos of fishes, salamander, tortoise, chick, rabbit and man show a peculiar similarly. Each sequence begins with a single fertilized egg (zygote). To facilitate the comparison, the structure of different stages of dif- ferent animals is drawn about the same size, although they yary in their size measurements. In the third stage as shown in figure all of the embryos look very much alike. They all have similar segmentally arranged somites and similar gill arches and gill clefts. In the next stage in the figure, the limb primordia are forming on all of them in a similar way and they all have embryonic tails. The embryos of tortoise, chick, rabbit and man are indistinguishable upto the fourth stage while those of fish and salamander are beginning to assume recognizable forms. At this stage, gills have formed from the tissue lining the gill clefts of both the fish and-salamander. However in the last stage of figure, each embryo has developed features that indicate fairly clearly its definitive nature. It may be asked as to why do the embryos of all vertebrates develop in the Same way or as to why embryonic gill clefts develop in tortoise, chicken, rabbit and man where they degenerate and are never functional. These facts can only be explained on the basis of doctrine of organic evolution. All these animals have developed from a common ancestor and they possess a common heredity for the manifestation of these characters,tion al _ In adult hagfi: or vertebrates ur fish th er erg and ‘amphibians it is resin ot ed characteristic of to in fishes is presen 's birds and mammals the Metanoe” ‘Ph. kidney 15 Pre re in rept while” p pis present. sro ms : evolved type es of the development of hi spe above 9 examp! 7 * cart a; Thea! vw that during # ontogenctic stages recapit nd the tive forms definitely takes ation Place, es can be given. Evol! 32 Evidences in Favour of: Evol ros—™ he S imi h exampl tain cases embryological evidences is the only soy rel ationships- For examples Sacculina. It can be Ce of n only after seeing its larva. Another example °calleg gsesses all the chordate characters bet t the cate larva whic s adult is most unchordate like. Iv. EVIDENCE FROM COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLO AND BIQCHEMISTRY GY Many modern biologists are of the opinion that evoluti enon. Now it has ‘been fully ie basically @ biological phenom: that any morphological characteristic is always an outcor me of some developmental processes which are all essenti; logical and chemical. Haldane (1937) stated, “our final eee evolution will see it Jargely as a biochemical process” s i + For this purpose, physiological processes and chemical co: iti d tissues of different animals ea . com- various cells an ology and biochemistry have given some of th e pared. Physi following, most important and dependable evidence to s Upport the idea of evolution. 1. Protoplasm Chemistry Th i i e protoplasm is considered as “the physical basis of life’ A biochemical stud: ly of the livin; i gests tha ig matter in the - Bests lhat provoplasm from variety of sources ete feral Go ae consists of substances like pro- during evolui , fats, water etc. This has See ti the most fundamental mie pay of ste duced the vari Ba while variations in essential fl no" ariability according to the need: e = pepe s of varied forms:Evidey ‘ . MeeS in Favour ofp prom 0S0e Chemistry VOlution 3B 2.1 ¢ protoplasm, ai ‘ Like Pyel is found in we eetkab i cnemical evr oe ind in the chemistry. ¢3Mllarity at chrom SS Organism bagi or Chr some 4g (DNA , ane and i 7 acids ( f Proteins (hig Ce inane substances °o"4 Protamine) mi a almost identi Temai ; all chro! an lentical fagh 20 arranged ; ; fn the composition of chromosomes S819". 7” Nged in origi of most living beings, Bain sugpests a BS mmon 3, Enzymes ‘A large number of enzymes (bio-ca . tall animals. For example Trypsin, a protein split Bee all the ent Nae i mammals and ence! ale pa me. Similarly amylase is found § called an ancient enzy) TOM sponges to mammals. 4, Hormones There are a number of hormones whi organic evolution. For example thyroid ho vertebrates and this hormone from one cl; substituted for that in another class of organism: ment of human thyroid deficiency, beef thyroid hes jer ie Seat fully used. Also in case thyroid gland of frog is surgically = moved at a young stage, frog will not metamorphose, but if it is again fed with thyroid tissue from mammals, the metamorphosis can be easily brought about. ch throw light on the Tmone is common in all lass of organisms can be Another example is that of M.S.H. or melanophore stimulating hormone of amphibians. This hormone is found in mammals also, but has no known effect there. If the hormone, extracted from. mammalian pituitary glands, is supplied to amphibians, itis as effective as the amphibian hormone itself. It suggests that this enzyme in mammals does not have any known function and is only found as a vestigial of the amphibian ancestory. 5. Excretion i In most of the aquatic animals, the nitrogenous meee ammonia, in terrestrial forms it is urea, but in insects, rept . “and birds, it is the semi solid uric acid. This is due Soe the supply and intake of water. Ammonia being toxic Evolutionices in Favour of Evolution 34 Eviden ; << forms which have ample supp} nated soon in aquatic js converted into harmless aly of Wy hat of embryo of birds, jy, "Me mple is # n ve days the nitrogenous waste, . "ds, Sate,” th while in other f next few days (till 9; th day) wh ean interesting CXME ate embryo for the first fa e the form of am" rr and finally ue acid. nmonia, fo! Jobin ; 6. Haemob Jobin, a respiratory pigment, when treated wit crystals call haemin crystals Bh. Th weelc id jpitates in jal acetic aci precip haemin Sha e, size an structure of these crystals is similar in an per They are different from those of he ler mber of a species. species The degree of differences agrees with the classification animals. - 7. Blood Plasma . composition of blood plasma of diff, The similarity in the ent animals is very characteristic. Plasma contains proteins in th solute form. Besides, it also contains salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. \ 8. Comparative Serology If small amount of blood serum from an animal is injected into the blood of guinea pig or any other animal, antibodies against the antigens of the injected blood will be produced. These anti- gens will be destroyed now by antibodies thus produced in the blood stream as well as ina test tube. The strength of precipitate depends upon the concentration of antigen. The precipitate is the precipitint and the test is precipitation test. Dr. George H.F. Nuttal employed the precipitation method for finding out the interrela- tionship among different animals. Some blood of man is taken a allowed to clot. The clot is removed and the remaining yet fad is left called serum. It is now injected ina small ara ve ae The proteins of this serum act as antigens in See Due to it antibodies are formed in the blood 0 ‘After the last injection Fes ump and destroy the human blood. enon n of heavy dose, the rabbit is al lowed to live ys and then its blood is drained d allowed to clot, its clots is removed ales eveyone led anti-human serum. If th and the left serum is collected calle -If the serum of man is mixed with this antsEvidences in Favour of Evolution = 3/7 ation is also found in echinoderms and on morphological grounds echinoderms have been considered close to the ancestor of chor- dates. 10. Cytochrome ‘Cc It is a respiratory enzyme present in the mitochodria. It is made up of 104-112 amino acid monomers. The sequence of amino acid in its molecules has been determined by Dickerson (1972) and other workers in diverse forms such as man, rabbit, fishes, snakes etc. Variations found in the sequences are in agree- ment with accepted phylogenetic relationship. V. EVIDENCES FROM PALAENTOLOGY The study of past life with the help of fossils (Latin : fosilium; something dug up) is known as science of palaentology. The geo- logical record is written in the language of fossils which may be the actual remains of the animal burried underground or may be their casts, moulds or impression in the rocks or earth’s crust. There are records of fossils which animals and plants left in the rocks. These fossils found at various places. in different geologi- cal periods, provide evidence for the evolution of different groups of plants and animals. Rocks A rock is formed by the aggregation of minerals. The rocks are found in abundance beneath the earth surface inthe form of beds at various depths. Sometimes it may be found exposed on the slopes of mountains, along the stream banks etc. The rock may be formed by single mineral (rock salt) or may be composed by more than one minerals like a granite—which is formed by felspar, quartz and mica. The nature of Rocks The rocks, according to their origin, are of three types, igne- ous, stratified or sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rock were formed when the molten earth cooled down and solidified. They are the oldest rocks and contain no fossils. The fossils are found only in the stratified rocks, which have been formed by slow deposition irywater of sand, clay, mud or lime formed by the38 Evidences in Favour of Evolution eous rocks as a result of the action of heat, cold uring the process of this type of rock forma. tion at the beds of great seas countless marine animals and plants after death, have been sinking to the bottom becoming embed- ded in the sediments. Some land plants and animals also, after death were carried by rivers to Jakes or ocean, and got embedded nged to fossils. The metamorphic in sediments. They were cha rocks are formed from the above two groups by changing their texture and composition. This change is caused by weight, pres- sure, heat and movement. The common examples are anthracite coal from soft coal, quartzite from sandlime, marble from lime- stone and slate from clay. weathering of ign wind and rains. D' The process of rock formation is as old as the earth. The age of rock may be calculated by different methods. The deepest bed is the last in case of sedimentary rocks and most superficial one is the recent. But this does not tell us the age of earth in years. The age of fossil is determined by following way : changes to lead by a long process of d occur together in the \dimentary rock, it may The element uranium transformation. When uranium and lea form of small nodule in a fragment of se be assumed that rate at which uranium changes to lead is inde- the conditions under which it occurred. It has been f uranium yield one gm. of piece or rock containing m the following for- pendent of calculated that 7,400,000,000 gms. o! Jead per year. In this way the age of a uranium and lead can be determined fro mula: wt. of lead Age of the rock = ~~ X 7,400 million years wt. of uranium of earth has been calculated to be By this method the age f life is about 3,000,000,000 years and rocks bearing first sign of 2,000,000,000 years. Fossilization Usually the animals and plants, after their death are de- stroyed and decomposed by bacteria, fungi and predators. Be- sides this there are also the cases where the dead bodies of plantsEvidences in Favour of Evolution 39 and animals are not destroyed but are preserved as fossils. These fossils are of various types : (i) Petrified fossils In this type of fossils, as a result of petrification the organic matter a dead animal or plant is replaced particle by mineral matter. In petrification, quartz, limestone or iron pyrites are used. (ii) Dead and preserved bodies The actual dead and preserved bodies, or parts of bodies, of animals and plant, with the original tissues intact ; and enclosed either in ice or in amber or else mummified in various ways, form one class of fossils. From the arctic ice, almost fresh bodies of mammoths, dead thousands of years ago, have been recov- ered. Several species of ants and insects have been preserved in amber especially found on the shallow coats of the Baltic sea. Several mollusc-shells, teeth of sharks, bones of animals have been found in well preserved condition. (iii) Casts and impressions Sometimes an animals or plant that has laid in mud or clay + long enough to have left its impression ; the mud hardens about the body and forms a mold ; the organic matter disintegrates and the mold is filled with hard mineral matter ; and the matrix may then be removed so as to leave the perfect cast. (iv) Trails and footprints Fossils are also found in the form of trails and footprints. Animals when they move from one place to another leave im- pressions, which are preserved when sand and mud become stone. Such fossils have been found of organisms such as worms, molluscs, arthropods and vertebrates. (v) Cropolites These are the structures, which represent fossil casting or excreta. (vi) Gastroliths These are present in the body cavity of certain reptiles. These’ 42. Evidences in Favour of Evolution sthad been complete no further proof of organicevolution, woyyg have been required. teness of the geological record is due to various incompl The incom which are listed below. reasons, some of which jer time plants and animals were soft and usuay, ‘ tne eared, Most of them, after the death, were destroyer by micro-organisms, predators, etc. In some cases some part fossilised and some not, as in the case of plants where Pood is preserved and flowers, leaves etc. are destroyed. In this way we find that most plants and animals are Poorly ssilised. 2. eee examples of the cracking of rocks have been found, ‘The cracking may be caused by tension. Many such rocks containing fossils have been destroyed in the world’s his- tory. 3. Fowl formation generally takes place at the bottom of sea, Many land animals and plants could find no chance to reach the sea. 4. Sometimes the superficial rocks are flown away with the moving glaciers due to which the deeper strata are exposed and these exposed strata are eroded by wind and water de- stroying the fossils preserved there. This incompleteness of fossils record does not give a complete picture of progres- sive evolution. 5. Fossils lying at great depths have been destroyed by pres- sure of the overlying rock layers and heat. Evolution of horse This history of horse dates back to about 60 million years in the eocene period, involving about 20 genera. The horse phylo- geny starts with Hyracotherium (including Eohippus) a member of Equidae. This animal was a little less than a foot high, the teeth were 44 and the check teeth were only moderately specialised for srinding. ue front foot had four toes and a splint and hind foot ree toes and two splints. The line of a descent haps Passed from Hyracotherium through Mesohippus, ‘Miokppus, Park pus, Merychippus and Pliohippus to E i ts the modern horse and its allies.” tees size a with welEviden sin Favour of Evolution 43 he above transition, changes were brought ee to that of horse, ‘The teeth became size of coarse siliceous BrASses. These changes were Associated gi ae pation of jaws. The limbs Were clongated and the toes with ¢ at one metacarpels and Melatarsals were fused. The neck wore les much longer and mobile, bbecal about from the Specialised for yy Hipparion Hypohippus Eohippus Fig. 2.16. Evolution of horse. (ON VI. EVIDENCES EROM GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTI ie imals and hical distribution or biography of animal and pans ogee give a clear understanding of te a be al ea Nee ieee of organisms tudy of the horiz ; aan aoe atial distribution of the earth’ s “epee ren time. The distribution of animals is governs oy requied type Sud as environment, temperature, availa il a eaquied type and amount of food, salinity, enemies, topog:44 Evidences in Favour of Evolution i imilari d differences of faui the basiS of similarity an ces auna and in aiterent regions, the world has been divided into follows six piogeographical regions. g (a) Nearctic—North ‘America down to the Mexican Plateay, (b) Palearctic—Asia North of the Himalayas, Europe and it rica, North of Sahara Desert. ' 2 (©) Neotropical—Central South of America. (d) Oriental—Asia, South of Himalayas. South of Himalayas. (e) Ethiopian—Africa, () ‘Australian—Australia and associated islands. Most of these biogeographical regions are separated from one another through barriers of sea, deserts, mountains, etc. and these barriers are quite ancient in time. The physical condition: of one region may be similar to that of the other, and one aati expect that the plants and animals of one region should have n difficulty in inhabiting the other region. Yet these different te. gions have little in common so far as their fauna and flora are concerned. Thus, elephants are found in tropics, but in India a Africa alone, and not in other parts of the earth between the sam latitude. Conditions at the two poles are almost identical b Fl their fauna are strikingly different : penguins in South Pole fr Polar bears ae North Pole. Climatic conditions of British Toles mi ean e that of New Zealand, but the fauna of two are Fig. 2.17. Geographical Regions.Evidences i Ces in Favour of Evolution 45 are restricted to Australi , a ‘alia a ve ception of North American Opn South America ee , dogs, mice ut peo! rn ats - Pind Plover + universal distribuie? oes of me jo fp of alos istribution, The feo. Sets are ples? ant, antelopes and gorilla) is ‘una of West of le] 7 entirely gi Seto san ney a tha ces als0 do not ape bution. The fauna of Wore tails), cae i 1 gore) Is entirely different s of Africa et tapi, sloths an monkeys with Prehensile a that of is 160 do not determine determine distribution eB s). Dis. tan sd Japan separated by long distances possess simile ine the jslands of Bali and Lombock Separated by onl a fauna # les distance contain entirely different faunas, Yaseaot e above facts cannot be explained b aR y the theor i ation ; Dut the explanation lies in the doctine of Con evolution. The dissimilarities in the fauna and flora of Tegion: raving jdentical environmental conditions, can be interpreted a under + , Each species has originated only once. They originate in al habitats at all times. Each species tends to expand from its centre of origin and this migration is blocked by physical or climatic barriers. New species can arise only in isolation and hence related species tend to found in adjacent areas. Due to geological changes or action of enemies in the course of time, extension took place in large areas. This resulted in Discontinuous distribution. VII. EVIDENCES FROM CYTOLOGY Animals are made up of the aggregates of cells. The funda- mental structure of a cell is similar throughout the animals king- dom. It consists of nucleus, cytoplasm and the surrounding cell membrane. Process of cell division (mitosis and meiosis) are also the same throughout the animal kingdom. The only explanation is that all the animals had a common origin.46 Evidences in Favour of Evolution val. EVIDENCES FROM GENETICS f evidence for evolution is drawn from Genet. eredity and variations. Hereditary variations dea of organic evolution is based will Tear only through the application of certain basic principles of genet. ics. There are mainly two sources of hereditary variations namely, recombination and mutation. While recombinations after hybridi. zation will yield new combinations, mutations will create new genetic material which never existed earlier. The final line ics, the science of h on which the whole i zation and mutations are available which Examples of hybridi: Man has tried to cross show that evolution has taken place. different species of animals to give rise hybrid. Besides artificial hybrids, there are some naturally occurring hybrids in plants. & i Equus? 1g. 2.18 Mule, an offspring of mare and jacka: ssEvi ; ‘vidences in Favour of Evolution 47> Amule is the offspri ; spring of a jacka: ; een se una erflies, moths, crickets, fi s in animals are pe Hybridization is uncommon metres cea aa toads and in the basic number of chromosome can oct rds. Changes and reunion of chromosomes. cur due to breakage Different kind: i variation in pe angen caraaree ey a pres A . a i and point mutations (see chapter of eatation) cede ‘aie ent kinds of variations in plant and animals are consequently result in speciation. Plant breeders have employed induced pol- yploidy methods in producing numerous economically impor- tant varieties of plants. Geneticists have produced many new strains of micro-organisms, plants and animals (Drosophila) by artificially inducing point mutations in them. Mutations form the raw materials for evolution. Experimen- tal data with induced mutations proves beyond any doubt “descent with modification”. The cross breeding in animals and plants has frequently resulted in the production of sudden and unpredict- able new types from older parent types: