Modelado 1 UK

Process Modelling
Prof. Cesar de Prada

Dpt. Systems Engineering and Automatic Control
University of Valladolid, Spain
prada@autom.uva.es
http://www.isa.cie.uva.es/~prada/
Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 1

Outline
• Motivation
• Models
• Modelling methodology
• First principles models. Examples
• Linearized models
• States space models
• Impulse response models
Motivation
• Models are required to analyse the
behaviour of a system and taking decisions
about its functioning, not by experimenting
all possible options, but in a systematic and
more rational way
Model

Models
• They are approximate representations of the real
world
• Several types of models: Physical, qualitative,
mathematical…
• Different applications: design, training, what
happens if…?, decision making,…
• Abstraction: Only those aspects relevant to the
problem considered are included in the model.
• How can be generated, solved, used, validated…?

What is a mathematical model?
• Set of equations that describe in a sound way
the behaviour of the system we are modelling.
• They are always approximations, not the real
system
• Different models for different types of
processes and aims
• Compromise between easy of use and fidelity
in the representation of the reality
Adequate representation…
Proceso
u time
ym
time Model
time
Continuous and discrete event
processes
q
Continuous processes: Discrete event systems:

Its variables evolve Its variables only change at
continuously over time certain time instants and can
and can have any value have only an integer number
within a given range of values
Continuous / Discrete events
• Continuous processes
– They are described mainly by DAEs or PDEs.
– Main interest: the trajectory of some variables
• Discrete events processes
– They are describe mainly as sequences of
activities.
– Main interest: the statistical behaviour of some
variables

Static and dynamic models
q = kρ h
q
Static model: It relates the
values of the process
h variables at an equilibrium
state
dh Dynamic model: It relates

Aρ = q − kρ h the value of the process
dt
variables over time

Dynamic response
q
time

Static and dynamic models
• Static models
– They describe processes at equilibrium
– They are described by algebraic equations (AE)
– Typical application: Process design
• Dynamic models (in continuous time)
– They describe the time evolution of the process
– They are described by DAE and PDE
– Wide range of applications: control, training,...
Other kind of dynamic systems
u(kT)
y(t)
Computer D/A Process
y(kT)
A/D
 discrete time models

 They relate the process variables at the sampling
instants kT, k = 0, 1, 2, ,….
 Equations in differences: y((k+1)T) = f(y(kT), u(kT))
How to obtain a process model?
Using reasoning Using experimentation and

and laws of nature data from the process
First principles models
• They are obtained from reasoning and the
use of laws of nature: conservation of mass,
energy or momentum as well as others
from the application domain.
• They have a wide range of validity
• They require a deep knowledge of the
process and the applicable laws from
chemistry, physics, biology, etc.

Experimental models: Identification
The model is obtained from the A model structure is
postulated and its
information provided by a set of
coefficients are
experiments. computed using the
data
U
Y
U Y
t Process
t
Model

Modelling methodology:
 Set the aims and range of application of the

model
Fix a set of hypothesis about its behaviour
Formulate the mathematical equations using the
appropriate laws of nature according to the
hypothesis made
Estimate the value of its parameters
Validate the model

Many kinds of models
• Lumped parameters
• Distributed parameters
• Non-linear
• Linear
• In the time domain
• In the frequency domain
• ….
Mass conservation law
Mass accumulation in the system per unit time =
Incoming mass per unit time -
Outgoing mass per unit time -
Mass generated inside the system per unit time -
Mass consumed inside the system per unit time -
dm Fi F0
= Fi − F0 + G − C
dt G m C

Example: Gravity drained tank
q Mass conservation
p0 Accumulation per unit time =
Input flow q - outflow F
h
p1 dm
= qρ − Fρ
dt
F
m = Aρh F = Sv = Sk 1 p1 − p 0
m mass in the tank p1 = p 0 + ρgh F=k h
A tank cross section dh
ρ density, k constant Aρ = qρ − ρk h
dt

Example: Gravity drained tank
q
Mass conservation
Accumulation per unit time =

h Input flow q - outflow F
dm
= qρ − Fρ
dt
u
F m = Aρh F = uk h
dh
A = q − uk h V = Ah
m mass in the tank dt
A tank cross section Algebraic
ρ density, k constant Non-linear differencial
equation
u valve opening equation
States space models
d x( t )
= f ( x ( t ), u ( t ), v( t ), t )
dt
y( t ) = g( x , u ( t ), v( t ), t )
v Disturbances
u y Observed
x
Manipulated responses
variables
x states
Model simulation
Integrating (numerically)
q
the model, one can obtain
the time evolution of the
liquid volume as a function
h of q
dh 1 uk
F = q− h V = Ah
dt A A
Euler integration 1 u ( t )k 
formula h ( t + ∆t ) = h ( t ) +  q ( t ) − h ( t )  ∆t
A A 

Causality
dh Computational
q A = q−F
dt causality: the order in
F=k h which the variables
are computed
h q h F
F
Physical causality: The intended use of the
causes and effects model (what happens if…,
q h F control,.., may impose the
computational causality
Hypothesis
ci
q q
c h h
F F
Perfect mix No mix
d Vc h Ah V
= qc i − Fc c( t ) = c i ( t − ) = c i ( t − ) = ci (t − )
dt v Av F

Formulation
ci
Concentration q d (Vc) 
= qc i − Fc
ci dt  Vc
 c =
dV  V
= q−F
dt 
Volume V h
c dc dV
V +c = qc i − Fc
dt dt
F dc
V + c(q − F) = qc i − Fc
dt
Perfect mix dc
V = q (c i − c)
dt
ρ constant

Numerical errors
q1 q2
h1 h2
F1
F2
dh dh Laws +
A1 1 = q 1 − F1 A 2 2 = q 2 + F1 − F2
dt dt constraints
F1 = k 1 h 1 − h 2 h 1 < h 2 ? F2 = k 2 h 2
F1 = k 1 sgn( h 1 − h 2 ) h 1 − h 2 0 ≤ h i ≤ h max qi ≥ 0

Isothermal chemical reactor
Reaction: A B
FT
AT Row material
A
Reactor
Products
A, B

Mathematical model
Hypothesis:
Product A
• perfect mix in the reactor CAi , Ti
F
•Temperature T constant
•Volume V constant
d cA − E RT A⇒B
V = Fc Ai − Fc A − Vke cA
dt CA CB T
d cB − E RT
V = − Fc B + Vke cA
dt
Mass balances of products A and B

Pressure in a container
pf
a F
dm
= Fi − F = Fi − aC v p − pf
2 2
Fi
dt p
ρ
m = Vρ p = RT isothemal tank
M
VM d p
= Fi − aC v p2 − pf2 Low pressure
RT d t container
Constant
Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA
composition 29
Energy conservation law
Ti d(mH) V2
q = qρH i − qρH +
dt R
si H = c e T m = Ahρ
dT V2
Ah = q (Ti − T ) +
V R T dt ρc e R
Non-linear differential equation

T temperature, V voltage
Hypothesis:
m mass of liquid in the tank
H enthalpy, ce specific heat T uniform distribution
A tank cross section Perfect thermal isolation
ρ density, R resistance Constant density
Conservation of momentum
d (mv) d (Iω)
= ∑ Fi = ∑ Ti
dt dt
d2x d 2θ
m 2 = ∑ Fi I 2 = ∑ Ti
dt dt
F Reference
m system
x

Suspended mass
d2x
m 2 = ∑ Fi
dt
d2x
m 2 = −kx + mg + F
-kx dt
0 m dx
=v
dt
x mg dv k 1
= − x+g+ F
F dt m m

Coupled Vehicles
K spring coef. r
2
d y dy dx f viscous
M 2
= F − K ( y − x − L ) − f ( − ) friction coef.
dt dt dt
d2x dy dx No sliding
m 2 = K ( y − x − L) + f ( − ) friction
dt dt dt
No air
resistance
f F
m M
k
x y

Single dimension crane
x F Location of mass M: x
M
Location of mass m: x + L sen θ
Two degrees of freedom: x, θ
θ L
Viscous friction
m No sliding friction
mg
Model the position of mass m and cart M with

respect to the reference system
Conservation of momentum of
M x F the cart and mass m in the
horizontal direction x
θ L
d2x d 2 ( x + Lsenθ) dx
M 2 +m = F−f
dt dt 2 dt
m
d 2θ  d θ
2
d2x dx
(M + m) 2 + mL cos θ 2 − mLsenθ  = F − f
mg dt dt  dt  dt
Another equation is needed for θ

Conservation of angular
M x F momentum with respect to a
set of axis associated to the cart
Movements described in this set
θ L of axis present an acceleration -
d2x d2x/dt2 in the horizontal direction
m 2 θ
m
dt x with respect to a set of fix axis
θ
d 2θ d2x
mg (I + mL ) 2 = − mgsenθL − m 2 cos θL
2
dt dt
d 2θ  dθ
2
d2x dx
(M + m) 2 + mL cos θ 2 − mLsenθ  = F − f
dt dt  dt  dt
Liquid flow in a pipe
d mv
Momentum = A∆p 0 − A∆p v − AfLρv 2 − Ahρg
conservation dt
law 1
∆p v = 2 2 ρq 2 m = ALρ q = Av
a Cv
Non-linear L d q ∆p 0 1 fL
differential = − ( 2 2 + 2 )q 2 − gh
A dt ρ a Cv A
equation
a q h
∆pv
∆p0
Control valve (linear)
Spring d2x dx
m 2= (p − p 0 )A + ∆p vS − kx − k v
x dt dt
Diafragm
x ∆p v
Aire q = Cv
L ρ
Aire
p x position of stem from
abre
Friction
equilibrium position
L range of stem
Líquid displacement
p air pressure
RC circuit
R I2
Infinite
I1 impedance
V E
C I2 =0
I1-I2
1 1 d V d I1 1
V = I1 R + ∫ (I1 − I 2 )dt V = I1 R + ∫ I1dt = R + I1
C C dt dt C
1 1 dE 1
E = ∫ (I1 − I 2 )dt E = ∫ I1dt = I1
C C dt C
d I1 1 1 dV
=− I1 +
dt RC R dt
dE 1
= I1
dt C
Circuits
R1 L I2
I1
V C E
R2
I1-I2
d I1 1
dt C ∫
V = I1 R 1 + L + (I1 − I 2 )dt + (I1 − I 2 )R 2
1
E=
C ∫ (I1 − I 2 )dt + (I1 − I 2 )R 2

DC Motor
R L T external torque
V I k2ω e.m.f.
ω dω
J = k 1I − fω − T
dt
Independent T dθ
=ω
excitation dt
dI
V = RI + L + k 2 ω
dt

Distributed parameters processes
Ti F
∆x
Distributed parameters process
Ts
T(x,t) Ti-1 Ti Ti+1 F
x ∆x
The pipe is divided into small volumes of width ∆x

where T can be assumed to be constant
Energy balance on every volume
Limit when ∆x → 0

Distributed parameters process
Ts
r
T(x,t) Ti-1 Ti Ti+1 F
∆x
Energy balance d πr 2 ∆xρc e Ti
= Fρc e Ti −1 − Fρc e Ti + 2πr∆xU(Ts − Ti )
dt
Partial d Ti F (Ti −1 − Ti ) 2 U(Ts − Ti )
= 2 +
differential dt πr ∆x rρc e
equations d Ti F (T − Ti ) 2 U(Ts − Ti )
lim = 2 lim i −1 + lim
∆x → 0 d t πr ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x → 0 rρc e
∂ T( x, t ) F ∂T ( x , t ) 2 U(Ts − T ( x , t ))
=− 2 +
∂t πr ∂x rρc e
• Described by sets of algebraic and differential
equations, often non-linear.
• They can be used for a wide range of aims
• They have a wide range of validity within the one
fix by the associated hypothesis
• They require a certain modelling background
• They may be difficult to operate with
• Quite often they are solved by simulation
Simulation: EcosimPro
• Facilitate the description of the model, and provides the
methods to solve it
• Modelling / Simulation languages
• What happens if…?
• Based on object oriented software technologies
• Advanced numerical methods and functionalities
• ESA: European Space Agency
• C++ code generator with a development and execution
environment
• Library / Component / Partition / Experiment
• Open system

EcosimPro

Graphical environment

Simulation

Model Linearization
• To facilitate the analysis and computations, we use
a linear approximation of the non-linear equations
• Easier to operate, but with a limited validity range
dh d∆h
A =q−k h A = β∆q − α∆h
dt dt

Linearization of a function f
Taylor series expansion in an operating point u0, y0,
z0, ….
f ( u , y, z ) = 0 f (u 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) = 0
∂f ∂f ∂f
f ( u , y, z ) = f ( u 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) + (u − u 0 ) + (y − y0 ) + (z − z 0 ) + ...
∂u 0 ∂y 0 ∂z 0
∂f ∂f ∂f
∆u + ∆y + ∆z = 0 ∆u = u − u 0 ∆y = y − y 0 ∆z = z − z 0
∂u 0 ∂y 0 ∂z 0
Linear equation in the new variables ∆u, ∆y, ∆z

Linearized model of the tank
dh
q A −q+k h = 0
dt
f (h , h , q ) = 0 h 0 , h 0 , q 0
∂f   ∂f ∂f
(h − h 0 ) + (h − h 0 ) + (q − q 0 ) = 0
h ∂h 0 ∂h 0 ∂q 0
∂f ∂f k ∂f
=A = = −1
∂h 0
 ∂h 0 2 h 0 ∂q 0
F
d∆h k
Deviation Variables A + ∆h − ∆q = 0
dt 2 h 0
∆h = h - h0
∆q = q - q0 Linear differential equation

Simulation / Validation
5.0 8
4.8
7
4.6
6
4.4 h h
h_l h_l
4.2 5
4.0 4
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
TIME TIME
Responses of the non-linear and linearized models for 2 step changes in q

5.5 7.0
5.4
6.5
5.3
6.0
5.2
q q
5.1 5.5
5.0 5.0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
TIME TIME

q d∆h k
A + ∆h − ∆q = 0
dt 2 h 0
A 2 h 0 d∆h 2 h0
+ ∆h = ∆q
h k dt k
d∆h
τ + ∆h = K∆q
F dt
A2 h 0 2 h0
Deviation Variables τ= K=
k k
∆h = h - h0
The value of the model coefficients depends
∆q = q - q0
on the linearization point
Linearized models
Variables u and y represent u ( t ) = U( t ) − U 0 ( t )
changes above and below
y( t ) = Y( t ) − Y0 ( t )
the operation point U0 , Y0
U
U0 Y
U Y Y0
t Process
t
The range of validity is constrained to a certain extent around
the linearization point
Liquid flow in a pipe
Non-linear L d q ∆p 0 1 fL
= − ( 2 2 + 2 )q 2 − gh
differential A dt ρ a Cv A
equation
 , q, ∆p 0 , a ) = 0
f (q
∂f ∂f
 −q
(q 0) + (q − q 0 ) +
∂q
0 ∂q 0
∂f ∂f
+ ( ∆p 0 − ( ∆p 0 ) 0 ) + (a − a 0 ) = 0
∂∆p 0 0 ∂a 0
a h
q
∆pv
∆p0
Linearized model of the flow
d q A ∆p 0 1 fL
= [ − ( 2 2 + 2 )q 2 − gh ]
dt L ρ a Cv A
d ∆q A ∆ (∆p 0 )  1 fL   2 
= [ − ( 2 2 + 2 )2q  ∆q +  3 2 q 2  ∆a ]
dt L ρ  a Cv A 0  a C v 0
1 d ∆q
+ ∆q =
A 1 fL  dt
 ( 2 2
+ 2
) 2 q 
 L a C v A 0
1  2 
= [∆ (∆p 0 ) +  3 2 ρq 2  ∆a ]
 1 fL  a Cv 0
ρ
 2 2
( + 2
) 2 q 
 a Cv A 0
d ∆q
τ + ∆q = K1∆ (∆p 0 ) + K 2 ∆a
dt

Changes in the operating point
d ∆q
τ + ∆q = K1∆ ( ∆p 0 ) + K 2 ∆a
dt
 
1 
 q 

τ= K2 =  2 2 
A 1 fL   a (β a 2 C 2 + 1 + fLa Cv 
 (β + + ) 2q   )
 0
v
 L a 2 2
C v A 2
0 A2
q
τ increases in operating points
corresponding to large openings
K2 decreases in operating points
corresponding to large openings
t
dT V2
Ah = q (Ti − T ) + si Ti y h = cte.
dt ρc e R
f (T , T, q, V) = 0
∂f   ∂f ∂f ∂f
(T − T0 ) + (T − T0 ) + (q − q 0 ) + (V − V0 ) = 0
∂T 0
 ∂T 0 ∂q 0 ∂V 0
Ti d∆T 2V0
q Ah = −q 0 ∆T + (Ti0 − T0 )∆q + ∆V
dt ρc e R
Ah d∆T (T − T ) 2V0
+ ∆T = i 0 0 ∆q + ∆V
q 0 dt q0 ρc e Rq 0
V R T d∆T
τ + ∆T = K1∆q + K 2 ∆V
dt
Similarities
a q h
∆pv
∆p0
Ti d ∆q
q τ + ∆q = K1∆ ( ∆p 0 ) + K 2 ∆a
dt
d∆T
τ + ∆T = K1∆q + K 2 ∆V
dt
V R T

Linearized model of the reactor
d cA − E RT
V = Fc Ai − Fc A − Vke cA CAi Product A
dt
d cB − E RT F
dt
Two equations
A⇒B
f1 (c A , c A , F, c Ai ) = 0 CA CB T
f 2 (c B , c B , c A , F) = 0
F

Linearized model (1)
d cA − E RT
V = Fc Ai − Fc A − Vke cA Operating point:
dt F0 , c A 0 , c B0 , c Ai 0
Taylor series expansion.....
d∆c A −E
V = −(F0 + Vke RT0 )∆c A + (c Ai 0 − c A 0 )∆F + F0 ∆c Ai
dt
d∆c A F0 −E (c − c ) F
= −( + ke RT0 )∆c A + Ai 0 A 0 ∆F + 0 ∆c Ai
dt V V V
d∆c A
= a11∆c A + b11∆F + d11∆c Ai
dt
Value computed at the operating point
Linearization point
dc A −E
If the linearization point V = Fc Ai − Fc A − Vke RT c A = 0
dt
corresponds to an
dc −E
equilibrium point: V B = −Fc B + Vke RT c A = 0
dt
If cAi0 = 8 y cA0 = 0.8 ⇒ cB0 = 7.2
If F0 = 26.66 and V = 80 ⇒ ke-E/RT = 2.999
d∆c A −E
V = −(F0 + Vke RT0 )∆c A + (c Ai 0 − c A 0 )∆F + F0 ∆c Ai
dt
d∆c A F0 −E (c − c ) F
= −( + ke RT0 )∆c A + Ai 0 A 0 ∆F + 0 ∆c Ai = −3.332∆c A + 0.09∆F + 0.333∆c Ai
dt V V V
Linearized model (2)
d cB − E RT
dt
Using the Taylor series expansion…
d∆c B −E F0 c B0
= ke RT0
∆c A − ∆c B − ∆F = 2.999∆c A − 0.333∆c B − 0.09∆F
dt V V
d∆c B
= a 21∆c A + a 22 ∆c B + b 21∆F
dt
d∆c A
= a11∆c A + b11∆F + d11∆c Ai
dt

Linear states space model
d∆c A
= a11∆c A + b11∆F + b12 ∆c Ai
dt
d∆c B
= a 21∆c A + a 22 ∆c B + b 21∆F
dt
 d ∆c A 
 d t   a 11 0  ∆c A   b11 b12   ∆F 
  =     +    
 d ∆c B  a 21 a 22   ∆c B   b 21 0  ∆c Ai 
 d t 
∆c A 
∆c B = (0 1)
dx
= Ax + Bu

 ∆c B 
dt
y = Cx

Isothermal chemical reactor
 d ∆c A 
 d t   − 0.33 0  ∆c A   0.09 0.333   ∆F 
 =   +   
 d ∆c B   3 − 0 .33 ∆
 B  
c − 0. 09 0 ∆
  Ai 
c
 d t  Product A
CAi
F
∆c A 
∆c B = (0 1) 
∆
 B
c Isothermal
reactor
A⇒B
CA CB T
F
State space models
d∆h k 1
q =− ∆h + ∆q
dt 2A h 0 A
d∆h
= α∆h + β ∆q
h dt
∆h = 1.∆h
d ∆q
a q τ + ∆q = K 1 ∆(∆p 0 ) + K 2 ∆a
h dt
∆p0 d ∆q − 1 K K 2  ∆(∆p 0 )
= ∆q +  1 
dx dt τ  τ τ   ∆a 
= Ax + Bu
dt ∆q = 1∆q
y = Cx
Linear states space models
x state variables: If its value is
dx
= Ax + Bu known at an initial time instant,
dt as well as the values of the
y = Cx + Du input u(t) along time, then the
value of the outputs y(t) is
determined along time
t
Analytical
solution: x(t ) = e A( t −t0 ) x(t 0 ) + ∫ e A(t − τ ) Bu (τ)dτ
t0

Many equivalent representations
dx
= Ax + Bu u y
dt
y = Cx
z = Px x = P -1z = [PAP -1 ] z + [PB]u

dz
dz dt
= PA (P -1z) + PBu
dt y = [CP -1 ] z
y = CP -1z There exist many equivalent
formulations of the model from the
input /output point of view
Eigenvalues
= [PAP ] z + [PB]u
dx dz
= Ax + Bu -1
dt dt
y = Cx y = [CP -1
]z
A − λI = 0 PAP −1 − λI = 0
PAP −1 − λPP −1 = 0
Equivalent
representations P(A − λI)P −1 = 0
have the same P A − λI P −1 = 0
eigenvalues A − λI = 0

Impulse response model
t
y( t ) = Ce At x (0) + ∫ Ce A ( t −τ ) Bu( τ)dτ
0
if u is a unit impulse and the initial state is zero :

t
y(t) = ∫ Ce A ( t −τ )
Bδ( τ)dτ = Ce B = g( t )
At Impulse response
0 t
δ(t) g(t)
y( t ) = ∫ g ( t − τ)u (τ)dτ
0
∞
y( t ) = ∫ g( t − τ) u( τ)dτ
0
Impulse response model
t
y( t ) = ∫ g ( t − τ)u (τ)dτ t−τ=σ dτ = − dσ
τ = 0 ⇒ σ = t
0
∞

y ( t ) = ∫ g ( t − τ ) u ( τ ) dτ τ = t ⇒ σ = 0
0 t
y ( t ) = ∫ g ( σ ) u ( t − σ ) dσ
0
δ(t) g(t)
∞
y ( t ) = ∫ g ( σ ) u ( t − σ ) dσ
0

Modelado 1 UK

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Process Modelling

Prof. Cesar de Prada

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 1

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 3

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 4

Continuous processes: Discrete event systems:

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 8

dh Dynamic model: It relates

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 9

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 10

 discrete time models

Using reasoning Using experimentation and

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 14

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 15

 Set the aims and range of application of the

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 16

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Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 19

Accumulation per unit time =

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Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 28

Non-linear differential equation

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 31

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Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 33

Model the position of mass m and cart M with

Another equation is needed for θ

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 35

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Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 41

T(x,t) Ti-1 Ti Ti+1 F

The pipe is divided into small volumes of width ∆x

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 43

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Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 47

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Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 50

Linear equation in the new variables ∆u, ∆y, ∆z

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 52

Responses of the non-linear and linearized models for 2 step changes in q

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 53

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Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 68

z = Px x = P -1z = [PAP -1 ] z + [PB]u

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 70

if u is a unit impulse and the initial state is zero :

Prof. Cesar de Prada, ISA, UVA 72

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