Prof.dr.

Mark Zuidgeest
THE ALIGNMENT OF ROADS – VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The design of the alignment
 Alignment is composed of vertical and horizontal elements.
 Vertical alignment
 Straight highway grades (tangents) and parabolic curves that connect these grades.

 Horizontal alignment
 Straight sections of the roadway (tangents) and the circular curves that connect their
change in direction.

 In both cases road design controls, in particular design speed of

vehicles, play an important role.

2
Source: CSIR Guidelines for human settlement planning and design
Components of the alignment

Vertical
(change in grade)

tangent
Horizontal
(change in direction) tangent

3
Alignment curves

Horizontal Curve Vertical Curve

𝑢𝑢2
𝑅𝑅 = y = y0 + (G1x) + 1/2(rx2)
𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 + 𝑒𝑒)

Determine: curvature (radius and Determine: parabolic function

superelevation runoff) 4
Components of the alignment
tangent
circular curve
Horizontal Alignment

tangent
Plan View

Vertical Alignment tangent tangent

parabolic curve

Profile View / long section

 Coordination of vertical and horizontal alignment is very important

 Proper balancing of the grades of the tangents with curvatures of the horizontal curves
 Wrong: a horizontal curve with a large radius at the expense of a steep or long grade

 The location of horizontal and vertical curves with respect to each other.
5
 Wrong: a sharp horizontal curve placed at or near the top of a vertical curve
Vertical alignment

 Definition:
 Straight sections, known as grades or tangents, connected by vertical
(parabolic) curves.
 Design of vertical alignments:
 Selection of suitable grades for the tangent sections
 Defining the appropriate length of the vertical curve
 Requirements:
1. Design speed, but also:
 Comfort, appearance, drainage

2. Fitting the alignment with

existing topography
3. Limit cut-and-fill
(earthworks) 6
Vertical alignment

 Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent
grade to another so that vehicles may run safe and smoothly as they
traverse the road.

 Vertical curves are classified as crest or sag

Crest Curve
G2<0 G3>0
G1>0 𝛾𝛾
G = tan(𝛾𝛾)

Sag Curve

7
Vertical alignment: stationing
 The distance along a curve/road/route in surveying is often represented
by stationing. Stations are typically expressed in units of 100 meters or
units of 1000 meters, however sometimes – because the American
notation of 100 feet ≅ 30 meters – in units of 30 meters.

 For example a true running distance or stake value 626.57m along the
curve/road/route is expressed as:

 6+26.57 or (6+26.57) in the 100m system

 0+626.57 or (0+626.57) in the 1000m system

 20+26.57 or (20+26.57) in the 30m system, because 20 stations of 30m make 600m plus a
part of one whole station of 26.57m

8
Vertical alignment: stationing in vertical curve design

Example: crest vertical curve (centre line of the road)

offset Y
elevation y

9
 Properties of vertical curves (symmetrical curve)

PVC (Point of Vertical Curve)

G1
Example: sag vertical curve
G2
Tangent at PVC PVT (Point of
Y A Tangent at PVT Vertical Tangent)
PVI (Point of Vertical Intersection)
L/2
L/2
L

• L is the length of the vertical curve in the horizontal plane!

• Change in grade (Algebraic difference): A = G2 - G1 , where G is expressed
as % (positive /, negative \).
• Offset Y (sometimes denoted E), is the External distance from PVI to the
middle of the curve (elevation y) (when designing a symmetrical curve)
10
Symmetrical or equal-tangent vertical curves

 The vast majority of vertical curves are arranged such that half of the
curve length is positioned before PVI and half after, i.e. being
symmetrical with respect to point PVI.
 Hence named equal-tangent vertical curves.

 Alternative: unsymmetrical vertical curve (‘dog-leg’), e.g. in locations with issues of

vertical clearance, e.g. a canal, or in a mountainous area.

11
 Properties of vertical curves

PVC
G1
Sag vertical curve
G2
PVT
A

L/2 PVI
L/2
L
 Characterizing the curve:

 Rate of change of curvature: K = L / |A| (the so-called K-factor)

 K is the horizontal distance needed to make a 1% change in gradient

 Which is a gentler curve - small K or large K?

12
 A gentler curve has a higher K value (either it is a longer curve, or the algebraic difference is smaller)
Vertical curve length L through design tables
902
𝑆𝑆 = 0.278 × 90 × 2.5 + = 170 [𝑚𝑚]
 Vertical curve length can 254 0.295

easily be found in design

tables.
 Based on design speed
and a value for stopping
sight distance (for
comfort and safety) a rate
of curvature is set:
 L=K*|A|
 where K is the length of
curve [m] needed per %
algebraic difference (A) in
the intersecting grades
 K is constant along a
13
symmetrical curve
Example crest vertical curve based on SSD
 Properties of vertical curves

PVC
G1
Sag vertical curve
G2
PVT
A

L/2 PVI
L/2
L

Characterizing the curve:

 Rate of change of grade: r = (G2 - G1) / L [%/m] where:

 G is the grade [%] (positive /, negative \)

 L is expressed in [m]
14
 r is constant along a symmetrical curve
 Properties of vertical curves

PVC y
G1 0
y Sag vertical curve
Y G2
PVT
A
Point T
PVI

L
x
x0
 Point elevation y [m]:
 y = y0 + (G1x)/100 + 1/200 (rx2) with G in [%], y in [m] running distance, where:

 y0 = elevation at the PVC (meters), x = horizontal distance from PVC [m], r = rate of change of
grade: (G2-G1)/L [%/m]; (which is + for sag, - for crest curves)
15
 y = y0 + (G1x) + 1/2(rx2) with G in [%], y in [m], x in 100 [m] stations.
Properties of vertical curves

 Distance to turning point tp (high/low point) (xtp) from PVC:

Given y = y0 + (G1x)/100 + 1/200 (rx2)

Slope: dy/dx = G1/100 + rx/100

At max/min point, or turning point, dy/dx = 0 = G1 + rx

x=xtp = -(G1/r)

where, r (rate of change of grade) is negative for crest, positive for sag

16
 Properties of vertical curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Position of PVC, and length of curve?

Example: Equal tangent curve
G1 = -1% G2 = +2% L/2 = 2500[m] – 2400[m] = 100[m]
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 [m] PVC = position PVI - L/2
PVT = 2500 [m] PVC = 2400 [m] - 100 [m]
PVI = 2400 [m] PVC = 2300 [m]
L = 200 m 17
 Properties of vertical curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: r - value?
G1 = -1% G2 = +2% r = (G2 - G1)/L
r = (2 - [-1])/200 [m]
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 [m]
r = 0.015 [%/meter]
PVT = 2500 [m]
or alternative notation (ratio):
PVI = 2400 [m] r=0.00015 [m/m]
18
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: Position x of low point?

xtp = -(G1/r) [m]
G1 = -1% G2 = +2%
xtp = -(-0.01 / 0.00015) [m]
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 [m]
or xtp = -(-1 / [0.015] ) [stations]
PVT = 2500 [m]
xtp = 66.67 [m], PVC = 2300 [m]
PVI = 2400 [m] x = xPVC+xtp = (23+66.67) [m]
x = 2367 [m] 19
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Elevation at PVC?
Example:
y0 = Elev. PVC [m]
G1 = -1% G2 = +2%
Elev. PVC = Elev. PVI - g1L/2 [m]
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 [m]
Elev. PVC = 125 [m]-(-0.01 [m/m]x100 [m])
PVT = 2500 [m] Elev. PVC = 126 [m]
PVI = 2400 [m]
20
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: Elevation at low point?

y = y0 + g1x/100 + 1/200 rx2
G1 = -1% G2 = +2%
y = 126 + (-0.01)(66.67 ) + 1/200
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 [m] (0.015)(66.67)2
PVT = 2500 [m] y = 125.67 [m]
PVI = 2400 [m]
21
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI Elevation at position 2350 [m]?

y = y0 + g1x/100 + 1/200 rx2
Example: y = 126 + (-0.01)(50) +
1/200 (0.015)(50)2
G1 = -1% G2 = +2%
y = 125.69 [m]
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 [m]
PVT = 2500 [m] Elevation at position 2450 [m]?
PVI = 2400 [m] y = 126 + (-0.01)(150) + 1/200
(0.015)(150)2
22
y = 126.19 [m]
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: Elevation at PVT?

G1 = -1% G2 = +2% y = y0 + g1x/100 + 1/200 rx2
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 [m] y = 126 + (-0.01)(200) +
1/200 (0.015)(200)2
PVT = 2500 [m]
or 125+0.02*200/2
PVI = 2400 [m] y = 127 [m]
23
Earthworks: cut-and-fill

cut

fill

25
Earthworks: mass diagram

haul out
haul in

26
 Sight distance

 Sight distance S is the length of roadway ahead that is visible to the

roadway user.
 If sight distance requirements are satisfied then safety and comfort will
usually not be a problem, hence sight distance is an important criterion.
1. Stopping sight distance (remember)

2. Passing sight distance (next slide)

3. Decision sight distance (allow for executing an avoidance manoeuvre)

4. Intersection sight distance (allow for overseeing traffic on an intersection)

27
Source: SA Arrive Alive Source: CSIR Guidelines for human settlement planning and design
Passing sight distance
Ua
Remember: Stopping sight distance (SSD)

 Stopping sight distance is the distance necessary for a vehicle traveling at

the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path.

 Criterion: provision of minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) or sight

distance (S): 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = S = 𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢2 𝑢𝑢2
𝑟𝑟 = 0.278𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 +
𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺 𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺
2g ± 254 ±
g 100 9.81 100

 u= initial speed, tr=perception/reaction time in seconds, g=gravitational

constant, a=deceleration rate, G=grade (+) for uphill, (-) for downhill in [%]

Problem: line of
sight shorter
than S!
29
h1 = height of driver’s eyes h2 = height of object
Length of crest vertical curve versus SSD

Line of sight S≥SSD, i.e. Smin=SSD. Two possibilities:

1. S (Smin or SSD) is greater than the length of the vertical curve (S>L)

2. S (Smin or SSD) is less than the length of the vertical curve (S<L)

30
Minimum length of crest vertical curve for the required S

Assuming a typical vehicle/object combination:

2
200 h1+ h2 658
1. Lmin = 2S − A
or Lmin ≅ 2S −
A
for S>L

AS2 AS2
2. Lmin = 200 h1+ h2 2 or Lmin ≅
658
for S<L

h1 = height of driver’s eyes h2 = height of object

31
Length of sag vertical curve
Requirements incorporated in setting the minimum L:
1. SSD provided by inclined angle of headlight beam during darkness
2. Comfort while driving on the curve
3. General appearance of the curve
4. Adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve

32
Minimum length of sag vertical curve for the required SSD

Assuming a design vehicle:

200 𝐻𝐻+𝑆𝑆 tan 𝛽𝛽 (120+3.5𝑆𝑆)

1. 𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2𝑆𝑆 − 𝐴𝐴
or 𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≅ 2𝑆𝑆 −
𝐴𝐴
for S>L

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2
2. 𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 200 𝐻𝐻+𝑆𝑆 tan 𝛽𝛽
or 𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≅
(120+3.5𝑆𝑆)
for S<L

𝑆𝑆2
i.e. for S<L the horizontal distance, in m, required for a 1% change in slope 𝐾𝐾 =
(120 + 3.5𝑆𝑆)

H = headlight height above the ground, 𝛽𝛽 the angle of upward inclined headlight beam

𝛽𝛽

=H 33
Design controls for Sag vertical curves based on SSD

𝑈𝑈 2
𝑆𝑆 = 0.278𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡 + [𝑚𝑚]
𝑎𝑎
254
𝑔𝑔 ± 𝐺𝐺

𝑆𝑆2
𝐾𝐾 =
(120 + 3.5𝑆𝑆)

𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾 × 𝐴𝐴

34
Minimum length of sag vertical curve based on comfort,
appearance and drainage

 Avoid too high gravitational and centrifugal forces when travelling on a

sag curve (to avoid radial acceleration greater than 0.3m/s2):

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2
𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
395

 Appearance:
𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 30𝐴𝐴

 Drainage:
 A minimum slope of 0.35% be provided within 15m of the lowest point
of the curve.

35
 Example 1a: Minimum length of a crest vertical curve
 Calculate SSD for the design conditions in the crest curve:
𝑢𝑢2 962
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 0.278𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 + = 0.278 ∗ 96 ∗ 2.5 + = 180.96m
𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺 3.41
254
9.81 + 100
254
9.81 ± 0.03

 Minimum length of the vertical curve

AS2 3 − −2 180.96 2
Lmin (180.96) ≅ = = 248.84 𝑚𝑚
658 658

Example:
G1 = +3% G2 = -2%
design speed 96km/h
S<L
perception-reaction time 2.5s
deceleration rate 3.41m/s2 36
 Example 1b: Maximum safe speed on a crest vertical curve

 Calculate SSD using the formula for Lmin:

AS2 −4.4 − 4.4 S2
Lmin ≅ = = 82m → 𝑆𝑆 = 78.30m
658 658
 Maximum safe speed (uphill):
𝑢𝑢2 km
78.30 = 0.278 ∗ 2.5 ∗ 𝑢𝑢 + → 𝑢𝑢2 + 53.6𝑢𝑢 − 6038 = 0 → 𝑢𝑢 = 55.39[ ]
3.41 h
254 − 0.044
9.81

Example:
G1 = 4.4%,G2 = -4.4%, L=82m
S<L
perception-reaction time 2.5s
deceleration rate 3.41m/s2 37
37
 Example 2: Minimum length of a sag vertical curve
 Calculate SSD for the design conditions in the sag curve:
642
𝑆𝑆 = 0.278 ∗ 64 ∗ 2.5 + = 98.35m
3.41
254
9.81 − 0.05
 Calculate Lmin for headlight sight distance criterion and check S>L
120+3.5𝑆𝑆 120+3.5∗98.35
𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≅ 2𝑆𝑆 − = 2 ∗ 98.35 − =130.2m, i.e. S<L!
𝐴𝐴 2−−5

7∗98.352
instead use: 𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≅ 120+3.5∗98.35
= 145.63m for S<L
• Comfort criterion:
Example: 𝐴𝐴𝑢𝑢2 2 − −5 ∗ 642
𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 72.60𝑚𝑚
G1 = -5%,G2 = 2% 395 395
design speed = 64 km/h • General appearance criterion:
perception-reaction time 2.5s 𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 30𝐴𝐴 = 30 ∗ 2 − −5 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐m
deceleration rate 3.41m/s2 38
Design procedure for crest and sag vertical curves
 Step 1: determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight distance
requirements and other criteria (for sag curves (comfort, appearance, drainage)).
 Step 2: determine from the layout plans the stake value and elevation of the point
where the grades intersect (PVI)
 Step 3: Compute the elevations of the beginning of the vertical curve (PVC) and
the end of the vertical curve (PVT)
 Step 4: Check curve length criterion
 Step 5: Compute the offsets, Y, as the distance between the tangent and the
curve, using station distances or meters.
 Step 6: Compute elevations y on the curve for each stake value as elevation of the
tangent. For crest curves the offset is (-) and for sag curves the offset is (+)
 Step 7: Compute the location and elevation of the highest (crest) or lowest (sag)
point on the curve.

39
Example 3: design of a sag vertical curve
 Increase the height of a section of road under a railway bridge from 3.65 [m] to 4.25
[m] to allow passage of trucks from a nearby industrial facility.

+ 2%

3.65m

- 3%
existing
1. Entering grade (Tangent 1)

2. Point of vertical curve

3. Point of vertical tangent

4. Exiting grade (Tangent 2)

 Grade of minus 3% leads into the curve, a grade of plus 2% follows

 Length of existing curve: L=670 [m]; Level of railway bridge: 49 [m] (MAMSL)
 Bridge entrance xentry= 45 [m] downstream from PVI point; y(PVI) = 41 [m] (MAMSL)
40
 Example 3: sag vertical curve - existing

+ 2%

3.65m

- 3%

Assume: equal tangent sag vertical curve

Sketch:
Tangent Curve (L=670 [m]) Tangent
L/2 L/2
G1=-3% clearance 3.65 [m]
PVC 45[m] G2=2%

PVT
Elevation at PVI = 41 [m]
41
 Example 3: sag vertical curve - new

Tangent New curve length ? Tangent

L/2 Clearance L/2
G1=-3% needed 4.25 [m]

PVC G2=2%
45[m]
PVT
Elevation at PVI = 41 [m]

 Entry tangent will be longer, curve in the new design will be shorter, exit
42
tangent will be longer
 Example 3: sag vertical curve - new
Tangent New curve length ? Tangent
L/2 x L/2
clearance 4.25 [m]
G1=-3%
PVC G2=2%
45m
PVT

Elevation at PVI = 41 [m]

 Equal-tangent vertical curve (symmetric):

 x=L/2+distance to bridge=L/2+45m

 elevation at PVC = 41m - (-3/100)*(L/2) = 41 + (3/200)*L

 elevation at PVT = 41m + (2/100)*L/2) = 41 + (2/200)*L

 elevation at x = 49m – 4.25 = 44.75m

43
 Example 3: sag vertical curve - new
Tangent New curve length ? Tangent
x=
G1=-3%
clearance 4.25m
Elev. PVC= G2=2%
45m
Elev. PVT=

Elevation PVI = 41m

 Fit a parabolic equation

𝐺𝐺2−𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺1𝑥𝑥
 y= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 → 𝑥𝑥2 + + elevation at 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
200𝐿𝐿 100
2−−3 𝐿𝐿 2 3 𝐿𝐿 3
 44.75 = + 45 − + 45 + 41 + 𝐿𝐿 →
200𝐿𝐿 2 100 2 200
1 2 10125
𝐿𝐿 − 3.975𝐿𝐿 + = 0 -> Solving for L gives L1= 13m and L2= 623 m
160 200
 Vertical curve length reduced by 670-623 = 47 meters
 Elevation PVC = 41+3/200*623 =50.44 meters,
44
 Elevation PVT=41+2/200*623=47.23
 Example 3: sag vertical curve - new
Tangent New curve length: 623m Tangent
x=356.5m
G1=-3%
clearance 4.25m
Elev. PVC=50.44 G2=2%
45m
Elev. PVT=47.23m

Elevation PVI = 41m

 Fit a parabolic equation

𝐺𝐺2−𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺1𝑥𝑥
 y= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 → 𝑥𝑥2 + + elevation at 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
200𝐿𝐿 100
2−−3 𝐿𝐿 2 3 𝐿𝐿 3
 44.75 = + 45 − + 45 + 41 + 𝐿𝐿 →
200𝐿𝐿 2 100 2 200
1 2 10125
𝐿𝐿 − 3.975𝐿𝐿 + = 0 -> Solving for L gives L1= 13m and L2= 623 m
160 200
 Vertical curve length reduced by 670-623 = 47 meters
 Elevation PVC = 41+3/200*623 =50.44 meters,
45
 Elevation PVT=41+2/200*623=47.23
Example 4: design of crest vertical curve using K
 A crest vertical curve joining a +3 percent and a -4 percent grade is to be
designed for a design speed of 120km/h. If the tangents intersect at stake
value 1368 [m] at an elevation of 76.2 [m] (MAMSL) determine stake
value and elevations of PVC and PVT, and intermediate points on the
curve at 30 meters intervals.
 Sketch the vertical curve
Elevation PVI = 76.2m

G2=-4%
G1=+3%

46
PVI = 1368 [m]
 Example 4: design of crest vertical curve – stake values
 For a design speed of 120km/h on a crest curve: K=95
1. L=K*A, A=|G2-G1|=|-4-3|=7[%] -> L=95*7=665 [m]
2. Stake value PVC = 1368-L/2=1368-665/2=1035 [m]
3. Stake value PVT= 1368+665/2=1368+665/2=1700 [m]

Elevation PVI = 76.2m

G2=-4%
G1=+3%

PVC=1035 [m] PVI = 1368 [m] PVT=1700 [m] 47

 Example 4: design of crest vertical curve - elevation
 Elevation at PVC = 76.2-(0.03*665/2)=66.25 [m]
 Elevation at PVT=76.2-(0.04*665/2)=62.9 [m]

Elevation PVI = 76.2 [m]

Elevation PVC=66.25 [m] Elevation PVT=62.9 [m]

G2=-4%
G1=+3%

PVC=1035 [m] PVI = 1368 [m] PVT=1700 [m]

48
Example 4: design of crest vertical curve - XLS
𝐺𝐺2 − 𝐺𝐺1 2 𝐺𝐺1𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + + elevation 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
200𝐿𝐿 100
100

90

80

70
Elevation (meters)

60

50
y
Tangent elevation 1
40
Tangent elevation 2
30

20

10

0
1035
1065
1095
1125
1155
1185
1215
1245
1275
1305
1335
1365
1395
1425
1455
1485
1515
1545
1575
1605
1635
1665
1695
1700

Stake value
49
Further reading

 Chapter 15

51
Further reading
 Chapter 3
 Fred L. Mannering & Scott S.
Washburn (2012). Principles of
Highway Engineering and Traffic
Analysis, 5th edition.

52
Further reading
 “The Red Book” - Chapter 7
 Guidelines for Human Settlement
Planning and Design – Volume,
CSIR South Africa.

53