metals
Article
Analysis of the Influence of Contact Stress on the Fatigue of
AD180 High-Carbon Semi-Steel Roll
Yaxing Liu 1,2,3,4 , Lixin Liu 1,2,3 , Qian Cheng 1,2,3 , Haipeng Hou 1,2,3 , Zehua Zhang 1,2,3 and Zhongkai Ren 1,2,3, *
Citation: Liu, Y.; Liu, L.; Cheng, Q.;
Hou, H.; Zhang, Z.; Ren, Z. Analysis
of the Influence of Contact Stress on
the Fatigue of AD180 High-Carbon
Semi-Steel Roll. Metals 2024, 14, 548.
https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050548
Academic Editor: Alireza
Akhavan-Safar
Received: 10 April 2024
Revised: 30 April 2024
Accepted: 2 May 2024
Published: 6 May 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Metals 2024, 14, 548. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050548
1 College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China;
liuyaxing@tyut.edu.cn (Y.L.); liulixin0213@link.tyut.edu.cn (L.L.); chengqian0064@link.tyut.edu.cn (Q.C.);
2023520039@link.tyut.edu.cn (H.H.); zhangzehua0684@link.tyut.edu.cn (Z.Z.)
2 Engineering Research Center of Advanced Metal Composites Forming Technology and Equipment,
Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
3 National Key Laboratory of Metal Forming Technology and Heavy Equipment, Taiyuan University of
Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
4 Hai’an & Taiyuan University of Technology Advanced Manufacturing and Intelligent Equipment Industrial
Research Institute, Nantong 226600, China
* Correspondence: renzhongkai@link.tyut.edu.cn
Abstract: In this study, to investigate the problem of contact fatigue and the damage mechanism of
an AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll, rolling contact fatigue tests were conducted using specimens
cut from the periphery of a roll ring. These specimens were characterized under different contact
stresses using SEM, a profile system, an optical microscope, and a Vickers hardness tester. The results
indicates that the main forms of fatigue damage of an AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll are peeling,
pitting corrosion, and plowing. Moreover, the surface of the roll exhibits delamination and plastic
deformation characteristics under high contact stress. Meanwhile, the size and depth of peeling, as
well as the amount of pitting corrosion, increase with the contact stress. Peeling is mainly caused by
a crack that originates at the edge of the specimen surface and propagates along the pearlite structure
and the interface between pearlite and cementite. High contact stress can lead to an increase in the
crack propagation depth and angle, resulting in the formation of larger peeling. Under cyclic loading,
the near-surface microstructure of the specimen hardens due to grain refinement and dislocation
strengthening, and the depth of the hardened layer increases with the increase in contact stress. When
the contact stress reaches 1400 MPa, the near surface structure of the specimen changes from pearlite
to troostite.
Keywords: AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll; contact stress; rolling contact fatigue; damage
morphology; organizational change
1. Introduction
A roll is a wear-resistant foundry product that combines casting and processing, and
occupies a significant position in the rolling industry. The carbon content of an AD180
high-carbon semi-steel roll is about 1.8%, and its performance is between that of cast steel
and cast iron. It is used in high-load and harsh working environments due to its good
strength, wear resistance, and impact resistance, and it has become the main material
for manufacturing cast steel rolls. The roll is also a key working component of a rolling
mill and an important consumable in the rolling industry, with its main type of failure
being rolling contact fatigue [1]. There are many factors that affect the rolling contact
fatigue of materials, and many scholars have studied the influencing factors of material
fatigue damage from different perspectives. For example, Gao et al. [2] found that the
hardness of the bainite segregation zone is greater than that of the matrix. In addition, the
combination of soft and hard structures inside the steel induces local uneven deformation
under cyclic loading, which leads to the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks at the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
Metals 2024, 14, 548 2 of 15

bainite–pearlite interface. Chunpeng Liu et al. [3] found that an increase in the slip rate
leads to an increase in the frictional force on the contact surface of D2 wheel steel, thereby
accelerating the generation of fatigue cracks on the contact surface. Zhuofan Xia et al. [4]
found that the rolling contact fatigue life of bearing steel increases with a decrease in the
surface roughness of the specimen. The life of the initial low-surface-roughness specimen
is four times that of the initial high-surface-roughness specimen. Yanru Liu et al. [5] found
that the structural stability of 20Mn2SiMoCuV bainite wheel steel is reduced due to the
high temperature effect during braking, resulting in the decomposition of residual austenite
into brittle troostite and the precipitation of cementite along grain boundaries and flat
noodle boundaries, thus providing conditions for crack initiation and propagation.
Studies have shown [6] that the stress interaction between rolls is also an important
cause of roll failure. Through macroscopic and microscopic analysis of a composite roll,
Debao Wang et al. [7] found that roll fracture is caused by stress. Peiyun Hou [8] believes
that the excessive stress caused by sustained peak stress during the roll’s service process
is the main reason for the early roll failure. Xing Chen et al. [9] found that the surface
peeling on a roll is mainly caused by high local stress and cracks are the results of factors
such as thermal cycling stress and plastic strain. Fractures are mostly caused by stress
concentration at the neck of the roll or near-surface defects inside the roll under large
external loads. Chengshuang Zhou et al. [10] found that rolls can also experience oblique
fracture under contact stress. Lengaauer et al. [11] found that cracks in silicon nitride rolls
used for wire hot rolling are mainly caused by stress and that high stress is sufficient to
enhance subcritical crack propagation, leading to the development of macroscopic cracks.
Xiangji Zhao et al. [12] found that with an increase in the slip ratio and contact stress,
the wear amount and average crack length both increase and that the surface damage
characteristics change from simple attachment spots to obvious fatigue crack aggregation.
Shuyue Zhang et al. [13] found that the depth of cracks increases with increasing contact
stress. Jiajie Kang et al. [14] found that the shear stress and delamination probability of
the specimen increase with the contact stress. From the above literature, it can be seen
that stress seriously affects the rolling contact fatigue of materials, and different levels
of stress can lead to different types of damage. The AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll
has been widely used in the rolling industry, but at present, the research focuses more on
whether the centrifugal casting semi-steel roll has segregation, an unreasonable casting
temperature, and so on, and there is no research on the impact of contact stress on its
damage [15,16]. This article investigates the effect of contact stress on the fatigue damage of
the AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll, and the damage mechanism and rule are explored
and revealed, providing a scientific basis for the rational use of this roll and improvement
of its service life.

2. Experimental Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Materials
The experimental materials came from the outer ring of a roll cast via the centrifugal
process [17], made of AD180 high-carbon semi-steel, while the inner layer of the roll was
made of 120 graphite steel. The research object of this experiment was AD180 high-carbon
semi-steel roll. In order to ensure that the performance of the specimen was consistent with
the actual roll, specimens were directly cut from the periphery of the outer ring of the roll.
The yield strength and tensile strength of AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll are 164 MPa
and 633 Mpa, respectively, and its chemical composition is shown in Table 1. The actual
values were determined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

Table 1. Chemical composition of AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll (Wt%).

Elements C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo
Actual chemical
2.2 0.5 0.9 <0.035 <0.03 1.7 1.4 0.5
composition content
 Table 1. Chemical composition of AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll (Wt%).

Elements C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo
Metals 2024, 14,
Actual 548
chemicalcomposition content 2.2 0.5 0.9 <0.035 <0.03 1.7 1.4 0.53 of 15

2.2. Experimental Methods

2.2. Experimental Methods
A rolling contact fatigue test was conducted on the GPM-30 rolling contact fatigue
A rolling
testing machinecontact fatigueCorporation,
(Shimadzu test was conducted
Kyoto,on the GPM-30
Japan), rollingstresses
with contact contactsetfatigue test-
at 1300
ing
Mpa,machine (Shimadzu
1400 Mpa, and 1500 Corporation,
Mpa; the speedKyoto, setJapan),
at 1500with contact
r/min; stresses
and the set at
slip rate set1300 Mpa,
at 10%.
1400 Mpa, and 1500
Oil lubrication Mpa; the
was used. Thespeed set atwas
test stress 1500 r/min; andwith
determined the slip rate set at 10%.
a combination Oil lubri-
of simulated
cation
working wasconditions
used. Theandteststandard
stress was determined
fatigue testingwith a combination
(lifting method), and of the
simulated
remainingworking
pa-
conditions and standard fatigue testing (lifting method), and the remaining
rameters were determined with the “rolling contact fatigue Test Method for Metal mate- parameters
were
rials”.determined with the “rolling contact fatigue Test Method for Metal materials”.
The
The experimental process is
experimental process is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure1.1.Firstly,
Firstly,aacylindrical
cylindricalbar bar(Figure
(Figure1b) 1b)
was
was cut
cut from
from the
the outer
outer circle of the AD180
AD180 high-carbon
high-carbon semi-steel
semi-steelrollroll(Figure
(Figure1a) 1a)via
via
DK7740
DK7740 electric
electric discharge wire cutting.
cutting. Then,
Then, thethemain
mainspecimen
specimenand andthetheaccompanying
accompanying
specimen
specimen (Figure
(Figure1c)1c)were
wereprepared
preparedusingusinga aCNCCNCmachining
machining center
centerin in
accordance
accordance with
withthe
“Rolling Contact
the “Rolling Fatigue
Contact TestTest
Fatigue Method
Methodfor Metal
for MetalMaterials”. TheThe
Materials”. dimensions
dimensions and andaccuracy
accu-
requirements
racy requirementsof specimens are shown
of specimens in Figure
are shown 1d. Finally,
in Figure the testthe
1d. Finally, was
testconducted using a
was conducted
rolling contact fatigue testing machine (GPM-30) at room temperature
using a rolling contact fatigue testing machine (GPM-30) at room temperature with the with the assembly
method
assembly shown
methodin Figure
shown 1e.in Figure 1e.

Figure1.1. Schematic
Figure Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the
the test
test process:
process: (a)
(a) AD180
AD180 high-carbon
high-carbon semi-steel
semi-steel roll,
roll, (b)
(b) cylindrical
cylindri-
cal bar, (c) standard specimens, (d) size and accuracy, and (e) specimen assembly.
bar, (c) standard specimens, (d) size and accuracy, and (e) specimen assembly.

After the
After the experiment,
experiment, thethe failed
failed specimen
specimenwas wassampled
sampledandandanalyzed,
analyzed,and andthe
thesam-
sam-
pling location is shown in Figure 2. To prevent contamination of the damaged surfaceofof
pling location is shown in Figure 2. To prevent contamination of the damaged surface
the main
the main specimen
specimen during
during the
the sampling
sampling process,
process,ititwas
wasnecessary
necessarytotowrap
wrapititwith
withcopper
copper
foil tape
foil tape before
before cutting.
cutting.Then,
Then,the
thespecimen
specimen waswasembedded,
embedded,andandafterafter
the embedding
the embedding so-
lution cooled
solution cooledand solidified,
and thethe
solidified, surface of the
surface of specimen
the specimenwas was
subjected to rough
subjected and fine
to rough and
grinding using 400 #–2000 # sandpaper. The specimen was then polished
fine grinding using 400 #–2000 # sandpaper. The specimen was then polished to a mirror to a mirror sur-
face using
surface a 3aμm
using 3 µmdiamond
diamond polishing
polishing agent
agentononananautomatic
automaticpolishing
polishingmachine
machine(Struers
(Struers
GmbH, Willich, Germany) and then polished for 3.5 h using a vibration polishingmachine
GmbH, Willich, Germany) and then polished for 3.5 h using a vibration polishing machine
(Buehler,Lake
(Buehler, Lake Bluff,
Bluff, IL,
IL, USA).
USA). Finally,
Finally, the
the specimen
specimen was wasultrasonically
ultrasonicallycleaned
cleanedininalcohol
alcohol
for 5 min.
for 5 min.
The following tests and analysis were performed on the processed specimens:
(a) We observed the damage morphology of the specified test surfaces of fatigue test
specimen 1 and test specimen 2 using SEM, and we performed EBSD characterization
on test specimen 2.
(b) AztecCrystal software (2.1.2) was used to analyze and process the test data, and the
grain map was imported into AztecCrystal software. Then, the grain sizes of the sam-
ple under different conditions were calculated from the maximum Frater diameter.
(c) We tested the cross-sectional hardness of the specimen using a Vickers hardness tester.
Metals 2024, 14, 548 Figure2.2.Sampling
Figure Samplinglocations
locationsfor
fortopographical
topographicalobservations.
observations. 4 of 15

Thefollowing
The followingteststestsand
andanalysis
analysiswere
wereperformed
performedononthe theprocessed
processedspecimens:
specimens:
(d) We
(a) We captured
Weobserved
observedthe the morphology
thedamage of the peeling
damagemorphology
morphology pits on the contact surface usingtesta
(a) ofofthethespecified
specified test
test surfaces
surfaces ofoffatigue
fatigue test
contour
specimen morphology
1 and test system 2and
specimen analyzed
using SEM, andandwe processed
performed them
EBSD using multi-file
characterization
specimen 1 and test specimen 2 using SEM, and we performed EBSD characterization
analysis software 2.
onontest
testspecimen
specimen 2.
(e)
(b) We observed
AztecCrystal the metallographic
software (2.1.2)was
wasstructure of
usedtotoanalyzespecimen
analyze 2process
after polishing
andprocess thetest and etching
testdata,
data, and the
Metals 2024, 14, 548 (b) AztecCrystal software (2.1.2) used and the and4 ofthe
15
with
grain a 4%
map “NITAL”
was using
imported an
into optical microscope
AztecCrystal (Leica
software. Microsystems
Then, the grain GmbH,
sizes of Wetzlar,
the sam-
grain map was imported into AztecCrystal software. Then, the grain sizes of the sam-
Germany)
pleunder and
underdifferent analyzed
different the changes
conditions in its structure
werecalculated
calculated fromtheand crack
themaximum
maximum propagation.
Fraterdiameter.
diameter.
ple conditions were from Frater
(c) We tested the cross-sectional hardness of the specimen
(c) We tested the cross-sectional hardness of the specimen using a Vickers hardness using a Vickers hardness
tester.
tester.
(d)
(d) We Wecaptured
capturedthe themorphology
morphologyofofthe thepeeling
peelingpits pitsononthe
thecontact
contactsurface
surfaceusing
usinga acon-
con-
tour morphology system and analyzed and processed them
tour morphology system and analyzed and processed them using multi-file analysis using multi-file analysis
software
software
(e)
(e) We Weobserved
observedthe themetallographic
metallographicstructure
structureofofspecimen
specimen2 2after afterpolishing
polishingand andetching
etching
with a 4% “NITAL” using an optical microscope (Leica Microsystems
with a 4% “NITAL” using an optical microscope (Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, GmbH, Wetzlar,
Germany)and
Germany) andanalyzed
analyzedthethechanges
changesininitsitsstructure
structureand andcrack
crackpropagation.
propagation.

Figure Sampling locations

2. Sampling locations for topographical observations.
3.3.Experimental
Experimental Results
Results andAnalysis
and Analysis
3.3.1.
Experimental Results
AnalysisofofSurface and
SurfaceDamage Analysis
DamageofofSpecimens
Specimens
3.1. Analysis
The following tests and analysis were performed on the processed specimens:
3.1. Analysis
The of Surface
macroscopic Damage of
morphology Specimens
of therolling
rollingcontact
contactfatigue
fatiguefailure
failurespecimen
specimenisisshown
shown
(a) The We macroscopic
observed themorphology of the
damage morphology of the specified test surfaces of fatigue test
in The macroscopic
Figure 3, and its morphology
main damage of the rolling
includes contact
pitting fatigue
corrosion and failure specimen
peeling. The is shown
morphology
in Figure 3, and1its
specimen andmain
test damage
specimenincludes
2 using pitting
SEM, and corrosion and peeling.
we performed EBSDThe morphology
characterization
in Figure 3, and pits
its main damage
failed includes
specimenpitting
undercorrosion
differentand peeling. The is
morphology of
ofofthe
thepeeling
peeling pits ofofthe
on test specimen
the contact stresses shown in Fig-
2. failed specimen under different contact stresses is shown in Fig-
the
ure peeling
4. pits of the failed specimen under different contact stresses is shown in Figure 4.
ure
(b) 4.AztecCrystal software (2.1.2) was used to analyze and process the test data, and the
grain map was imported into AztecCrystal software. Then, the grain sizes of the sam-
ple under different conditions were calculated from the maximum Frater diameter.
(c) We tested the cross-sectional hardness of the specimen using a Vickers hardness
tester.
(d) We captured the morphology of the peeling pits on the contact surface using a con-
tour morphology system and analyzed and processed them using multi-file analysis
software
(e) We observed the metallographic structure of specimen 2 after polishing and etching
with a 4% “NITAL” using an optical microscope (Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar,
FigureGermany) and analyzed
3. Macroscopic morphologythe changes in its
of the failed structure and crack propagation.
specimen.
Figure 3.
Figure Macroscopic morphology
3. Macroscopic morphology of
of the
the failed
failed specimen.
specimen.

3. Experimental Results and Analysis

3.1. Analysis of Surface Damage of Specimens
The macroscopic morphology of the rolling contact fatigue failure specimen is shown
in Figure 3, and its main damage includes pitting corrosion and peeling. The morphology
of the peeling pits of the failed specimen under different contact stresses is shown in Fig-
ure 4.

Figure 4. Peelingpit
Figure pitmorphology
morphologyunder
underdifferent
differentstresses:
stresses:(a)(a)1300
1300MPa,
MPa, (b)1400
1400MPa,
MPa,and
and(c)(c)1500
1500
Figure4.4.Peeling
Peeling pit morphology under different stresses: (a) 1300 (b)
MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, and
MPa.
MPa.
(c) 1500 MPa.

From Figure 4, it can be seen that under contact stresses of 1300 MPa and 1400 MPa,
the peeling pit is located on one side of the contact surface of the specimen, with peeling
areas of approximately 4.57 mm2 and 5.79 mm2 , respectively. However, under contact
stress of 1500 MPa, the peeling pit runs through the entire contact surface of the specimen,
with a peeling area of approximately 9.94 mm2 .
This
Figure indicates that
3. Macroscopic during the
morphology rolling
of the contact
failed fatigue test, stress concentration tends to
specimen.
occur on both sides of the contact surface, which accelerates the damage of the specimen.
Moreover, the area of peeling pits on the contact surface of the fatigue specimen increases
with the contact stress. Furthermore, the depth data of peeling pits on the surfaces of
specimens under different contact stresses are summarized in Table 2. The average depths
 From Figure 4, it can be seen that under contact stresses of 1300 MPa and 1400 MPa,
the peeling pit is located on one side of the contact surface of the specimen, with peeling
areas of approximately 4.57 mm2 and 5.79 mm2, respectively. However, under contact
stress of 1500 MPa, the peeling pit runs through the entire contact surface of the specimen,
Metals 2024, 14, 548 with a peeling area of approximately 9.94 mm2.
5 of 15
This indicates that during the rolling contact fatigue test, stress concentration tends
to occur on both sides of the contact surface, which accelerates the damage of the speci-
men. Moreover, the area of peeling pits on the contact surface of the fatigue specimen
of increases
peeling pits
with under contact
the contact stress
stress. values ofthe
Furthermore, 1300
depthMPa,
data1400 MPa, pits
of peeling andon 1500
the MPa
sur- were
298.83
faces µm, 319.67 µm,
of specimens and
under 387.83 contact
different µm, respectively, which indicates
stresses are summarized that
in Table 2. the
Theaverage
average depth
of depths
peelingofpits alsopits
peeling increases with the
under contact contact
stress stress.
values of 1300 MPa, 1400 MPa, and 1500 MPa
were 298.83 μm, 319.67 μm, and 387.83 μm, respectively, which indicates that the average
depth
Table of peeling
2. Depths pits alsopits
of peeling increases with of
on surfaces thespecimens
contact stress.
under different contact stresses.

Table 2. Depths of peeling pits on surfaces

Depth Data ofofEach
specimens
Groupunder
[µm]different contact stresses.
Contact Stress
[MPa] 1 2 3 4 of Each Group
Depth Data 5 [μm] 6 Average Depth
Contact Stress [MPa]
1300 305 1311 2 247 3 4
327 5 396 6 207 Average Depth
298.83
1400 1300 339 305
280 311 357 247 327
460 396246 207 236 298.83 319.67
1500 1400 545 404
339 280 420 357 362
460 246233 236 363 319.67 387.83
1500 545 404 420 362 233 363 387.83
The surface morphology at the non-peeling position of the specimens under different
contactThe surfaceismorphology
stresses at the non-peeling
shown in Figure positionby
5, characterized of approximately
the specimens under different
circular (diameter
contact stresses is shown in Figure 5, characterized by approximately circular (diameter
between 20 µm and 80 µm) pitting corrosion (marked by red spots). The proportions
between 20 μm and 80 μm) pitting corrosion (marked by red spots). The proportions of
of the pitting area under contact stresses of 1300 MPa, 1400 MPa, and 1500 MPa were
the pitting area under contact stresses of 1300 MPa, 1400 MPa, and 1500 MPa were approx-
approximately 0.918%, 1.473%, and 2.506%, respectively, which indicates that the amount
imately 0.918%, 1.473%, and 2.506%, respectively, which indicates that the amount of pit-
of ting
pitting corrosion
corrosion increases
increases with
with the the contact
contact stress. stress.

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Morphologyof
Morphology ofpitting
pitting corrosion
corrosion under
underdifferent
differentcontact
contactstresses: (a)(a)
stresses: 1300 MPa,
1300 (b) 1400
MPa, (b) 1400 MPa,
MPa, and (c) 1500 MPa.
and (c) 1500 MPa.
The SEM microstructures on the surfaces of the fatigue specimens under contact
The SEM microstructures on the surfaces of the fatigue specimens under contact
stresses of 1300 MPa and 1500 MPa are shown in Figure 6. It can be seen that the contact
stresses of 1300 MPa and 1500 MPa are shown in Figure 6. It can be seen that the contact
surface of the fatigue specimen will undergo plow grooves under cyclic loading, and the
surface of the fatigue specimen will undergo plow grooves under cyclic loading, and the
plow grooves will weaken under high contact stress, but delamination characteristics will
plow
appear on thewill
grooves weaken
surface of theunder highTherefore,
specimen. contact stress, but delamination
the surface damage of an characteristics
AD180 high- will
appear on the surface of the specimen. Therefore, the surface damage of an AD180
carbon semi-steel roll under low contact stress comprises mainly peeling, pitting corro- high-
carbon semi-steel roll under low contact stress comprises mainly peeling, pitting
sion, and plowing. In addition to the above-mentioned defects, the surface damage under corrosion,
Metals 2024, 14, 548 and plowing.
high In addition
contact stress to thedelamination
also exhibits above-mentioned defects,
and plastic the surface
deformation damage under
characteristics. 6 high
of 15
contact stress also exhibits delamination and plastic deformation characteristics.

Figure 6. Surface microstructure of fatigue specimens: (a) 1300 MPa and (b) 1500 MPa.
Figure 6. Surface microstructure of fatigue specimens: (a) 1300 MPa and (b) 1500 MPa.

Subsequently, further observation of the fatigue specimen surface under different con-
tact stresses revealed the presence of features as shown in Figure 7. From Figure 7a,b, it can
be seen that there are obvious friction traces and a large number of transverse cracks on the
Metals 2024, 14, 548 6 of 15

Figure 6. Surface microstructure of fatigue specimens: (a) 1300 MPa and (b) 1500 MPa.
Subsequently, further observation of the fatigue specimen surface under different
Subsequently,
contact furtherthe
stresses revealed observation
presence of offeatures
the fatigue specimen
as shown surface7.under
in Figure Fromdifferent con-it
Figure 7a,b,
canstresses
tact be seenrevealed
that there theare obviousoffriction
presence featurestraces and ainlarge
as shown Figurenumber
7. From ofFigure
transverse
7a,b, cracks
it can
onseen
be the surface
that thereof are
the obvious
specimen. Figure
friction 7c,dand
traces show locally
a large enlarged
number images ofcracks
of transverse “A” and on “B”,
the
respectively.
surface of the As shown in
specimen. Figure
Figure 7c,show
7c,d the crack originates
locally enlargedatimages
the edge of of
“A”the contact
and surface
“B”, respec-
of theAs
tively. specimen
shown in and propagates
Figure alongoriginates
7c, the crack the axial atdirection
the edgeofofthetheroll towards
contact theofother
surface the
side. As shown
specimen in Figurealong
and propagates 7d, the thecrack
axialextends
directionalong theroll
of the axial direction
towards of theside.
the other roll and
As
also radially
shown under
in Figure 7d, cyclic loading,
the crack extends butalong
the transverse crack is significantly
the axial direction of the roll andlonger than the
also radially
radialcyclic
under crack.loading,
It can bebutinferred that thecrack
the transverse edgeisof the contactlonger
significantly surface of the
than the roll is prone
radial to
crack. It
stress
can concentration,
be inferred that theleading
edge ofto thethe generation
contact surfaceofof
cracks, and
the roll the propagation
is prone speed of the
to stress concentration,
transverse
leading crack
to the is higherofthan
generation that and
cracks, of the
theradial crack, thereby
propagation speed of accelerating the failure
the transverse crack isof
the specimen.
higher than that of the radial crack, thereby accelerating the failure of the specimen.

Figure
Figure7.7.Surface
Surfacecrack
crackmorphology
morphologyofoffatigue
fatiguespecimens:
specimens:(a)
(a)friction
frictiontrace,
trace,(b)
(b)friction
frictiontrace
traceand
and
transverse crack, (c) locally enlarged images of “A”, and (d) locally enlarged images of “B”.
transverse crack, (c) locally enlarged images of “A”, and (d) locally enlarged images of “B”.

The
The surface roughness values
surface roughness valuesofofspecimens
specimens under
under different
different contact
contact stresses
stresses werewere
mea-
measured and analyzed using a contour morphology system and multi-file
sured and analyzed using a contour morphology system and multi-file analysis software. analysis soft-
ware. The measurement
The measurement methodmethod is as follows.
is as follows. First,First,
take atake a point
point at theatsurface
the surface position
position of
of each
each specimen.
specimen. Then,Then, starting
starting fromfrom
this this point,
point, taketake straight
straight paths
paths withwith lengths
lengths of 400
of 400 µm μmand
and
50005000 μm (width
µm (width of contact
of contact surface)surface) along
along the the tangential
tangential and axialand axial directions
directions of the
of the specimen,
specimen,
and take tenandstraight
take tenlines
straight lines
equally equally
spaced onspaced on both
both sides sidestwo
of these of these tworoughness
lines for lines for
roughness measurement. Finally, calculate the average surface roughness
measurement. Finally, calculate the average surface roughness of six groups of specimensof six groups of
specimens under different stresses. The measurement results, which are
under different stresses. The measurement results, which are shown in Table 3, indicate shown in Table
3,that
indicate that the
the surface surface roughness
roughness of the tangential
of the tangential and axial and axial directions
directions of the
of the fatigue fatigue
specimen
specimen
increases increases with the
with the contact contact stress.
stress.

Surfaceroughness
Table3.3.Surface
Table roughnessof
offatigue
fatiguespecimens.
specimens.

Contact
Contact Stress
Stress [MPa]
[MPa] 1 1 2 2 33 44 55 66 Average
Average Value
Value [μm]
[µm]
1300 3.215 3.427 3.620 4.210 3.746 3.998 3.703
1300 3.215 3.427 3.620 4.210 3.746 3.998 3.703
Tangential roughness 1400 4.785 4.875 4.595 4.120 4.280 4.657 4.552
Tangential roughness 1400 4.785 4.875 4.595 4.120 4.280 4.657 4.552
1500 15005.5135.513 4.810
4.810 5.029
5.029 4.941
4.941 5.755
5.755 4.577
4.577 5.104
5.104
1300 13005.5375.537 4.525
4.525 4.508
4.508 4.753
4.753 4.741
4.741 4.596
4.596 4.777
4.777
AxialAxial roughness
roughness 1400 14005.9525.952 6.600
6.600 5.130
5.130 4.286
4.286 4.706
4.706 5.546 5.370
5.370
1500 15005.9975.997 5.530
5.530 6.685
6.685 6.876
6.876 8.058
8.058 6.519 6.611
6.611

The surface roughness of the axial directions of the fatigue specimen was further
measured and analyzed, and surface roughness curves under different contact stresses
were obtained as shown in Figure 8. It can be seen that the surface roughness of the contact
surface of the fatigue specimen exhibits a phenomenon of “small in the middle and large
on both sides”. Based on the analysis results in Table 3, it can be seen that the stress on the
surface of the specimen shows a trend of “small in the middle and large on both sides”,
further proving that stress concentration tends to occur on both sides of the contact surface.
 measured
measuredand andanalyzed,
analyzed,andand surface
surface roughness curvesunder
roughness curves underdifferent
differentcontact
contact stresses
stresses
were obtained as shown in Figure 8. It can be seen that the surface roughness
were obtained as shown in Figure 8. It can be seen that the surface roughness of the contact of the contact
surface
surfaceofofthe
thefatigue
fatiguespecimen
specimenexhibits
exhibits a phenomenonofof“small
a phenomenon “smallininthe
themiddle
middle and
and large
large
onon
both sides”.
both sides”.Based
Basedononthe
theanalysis
analysis results inin Table
Table3,3,ititcan
canbe
beseen
seenthatthat the
the stress
stress ononthethe
Metals 2024, 14, 548
surface
surfaceofofthe
thespecimen
specimenshows
shows aa trend
trend of “small
“small inin the
themiddle
middleandandlarge
largeonon both
both sides”,
sides”,
7 of 15
further proving
further provingthat thatstress
stressconcentration tends to
concentration tends to occur
occuron onboth
bothsides
sidesofofthe
the contact
contact sur-
sur-
face.
face.

Figure 8. Surface roughness curves of the specimen along the axial direction.
Figure
Figure8.8. Surface roughnesscurves
Surface roughness curvesofofthe
thespecimen
specimenalong
along
thethe axial
axial direction.
direction.
3.2.3.2. AnalysisofofRadial
Analysis RadialCross-Section
Cross-Section Damage
DamageofofSpecimens
Specimens
3.2. Analysis
The of Radial Cross-Section
morphology of the
the crack Damage of Specimens
The morphology of crackoriginating
originating from
fromthethe
surface to the
surface to inside of theof
the inside main
the main
The morphology of the crack
specimen under different contact stresses originating from theas
was analyzed, surface
shownto in the inside
Figure of the
9, and yellow main
specimen under different contact stresses was analyzed, as shown in Figure 9, and yellow
specimen under different contact stresses was analyzed, as shown in Figure 9, and yellow
dashed line with arrow crack propagation direction. The cracks in Figure 9a–c propagate
dashed line with arrow crack propagation direction. The cracks in Figure 9a–c propagate
downwards
dashed line withat angles
arrowofcrack approximately
propagation 25°,direction.
30°, ◦and 35°
Thetocracks
the surface,
in Figurerespectively. This
9a–c propagate
downwards
indicates at angles
that the angleofofapproximately
crack 25◦ increases
propagation , 30 , andwith 35◦the
to the surface,
contact stress. respectively.
Continuing This
downwards at angles of approximately 25°, 30°, and 35° to the surface, respectively. This
indicates that
to observe the angle of crack propagation increases with the contact stress. Continuing
indicates thatthethepropagation
angle of crack of cracks under different
propagation increases contact
withstresses,
the contactwe found
stress.that cracks
Continuing
to
to observe the propagation of cracks under different contact stresses, we found thatthat
observe
originatingthe propagation
from the surface of cracks
exhibitedunder different
similar contact
propagation stresses,
patterns we
(Figure found
9d). Firstly, cracks
cracks
originating
cracks from
propagate the surface
towards theexhibited
interior ofsimilar
the propagation
specimen at a patterns
certain
originating from the surface exhibited similar propagation patterns (Figure 9d). Firstly, angle (Figure
to the 9d).
surface, Firstly,
cracks
then propagate
cracks propagate towards
propagateintowards a directionthealmost
the interior
interior ofofthe
paralleltheto specimen at at
the surface
specimen and a finally
certain
a certain angle
turn
angle to to the
to propagate
the surface,
surface,
obliquely
then propagate upwards.
in a This indicates
direction thatparallel
almost cracks originating
to the from the
surface and surface
finally can lead
turn to topropagate
the
then propagate in a direction almost parallel to the surface and finally turn to propagate
formation of peeling
obliquely pits.indicates that cracks originating from the surface can lead to the
obliquely upwards.
upwards. This This indicates that cracks originating from the surface can lead to the
formation of peeling
formation of peeling pits. pits.

Figure 9. Morphology of cracks originating from the surface of the specimen under different contact
stresses: (a) 1300 MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, (c) 1500 MPa, and (d) crack propagation path.
Figure 9. Morphology of cracks originating from the surface of the specimen under different contact
Morphology
Figure 9.The morphologyof cracks originating fromfrom
of cracks the surface of the specimen under different
undercontact
stresses: (a) 1300 MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, originating
(c) 1500 MPa, and the subsurface
(d) crack of thepath.
propagation specimen
stresses: (a) 1300 MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, (c) 1500 MPa, and (d) crack propagation path.
different contact stresses is shown in Figure 10. These cracks are located 101–384 μm away
from
Thethemorphology
surface of the ofspecimen. Unlike thefrom
propagation of cracksoforiginating fromunder
the
The
surface morphology
of the specimen, of cracks
cracks
these
originating
originating
cracks propagatefrom the subsurface
alongthea subsurface
straight line
the specimen
of
and the
are specimen
wide in the under
different contact stresses is shown in Figure 10. These cracks are located 101–384 μm away
different
middle contact stresses
and thinof at the is shown
bothspecimen.
ends withoutin Figure 10.
extending These cracks
to the surface are located 101–384 µm away
from the surface Unlike the propagation of of the specimen.
cracks This
originating fromindi-the
from the surface
cates that cracks of the specimen.
that originate Unlike the
on thepropagate propagation
subsurfacealong
of the aspecimenof cracks originating from the
surface of the specimen, these cracks straight dolinenot have
and arethe
wideability
in the
surface of peeling
to form the specimen, these
pits, or that cracks
their propagate
propagation rate along
is lower a than
straight
that line and are
of cracks that wide
origi- in the
middle and thin at both ends without extending to the surface of the specimen. This indi-
middle and
nate on thethin at of
surface both
the ends without extending to the surface of the specimen. This
specimen.
cates that cracks that originate on the subsurface of the specimen do not have the ability
indicates that cracks that originate on the subsurface of the specimen do not have the ability
to form peeling pits, or that their propagation rate is lower than that of cracks that origi-
Metals 2024, 14, 548 to form peeling pits, or that their propagation rate is lower than that of cracks that8 originate
of 15
nate on the surface of the specimen.
on the surface of the specimen.

Figure
Figure 10.
10.Morphology
Morphologyofofcracks
cracks originating from
originating thethe
from subsurface of the
subsurface specimen
of the under
specimen different
under different
contact stresses: (a) 1300 MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, and (c) 1500 MPa.
contact stresses: (a) 1300 MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, and (c) 1500 MPa.

The cross-sectional morphology of the peeling pits on the fatigue specimen was ana-
lyzed and is shown in Figure 11, and the yellow dashed line is a partial enlarged image.
From this, it can be seen that there are cracks at the bottoms of the peeling pits under
different contact stresses, and these cracks propagate in a relatively disorderly manner,
different from the crack propagation mode that occurs on the surface and subsurface of
Metals 2024, 14, 548 8 of 15
Figure 10.
Figure 10.Morphology
Morphologyofofcracks
cracksoriginating
originatingfrom
fromthe thesubsurface
subsurfaceofofthe
the specimen
specimen under
under different
different
contactstresses:
contact stresses:(a)
(a)1300
1300MPa,
MPa,(b)
(b)1400
1400MPa,
MPa,andand(c)(c)1500
1500MPa.
MPa.

The
The cross-sectional
Thecross-sectional
cross-sectionalmorphologymorphology
morphology ofofof
the
the the peeling
peeling
peeling pits
pits
pits on
ononthe the
thefatigue fatigue
fatigue specimen
specimen
specimen was was was
ana-
ana-
analyzed
lyzed and
lyzed and
andisisshownis shown
shownin in Figure
inFigure
Figure11, 11,
11,and and
andthe the yellow
theyellow
yellowdasheddashed
dashedline line is a partial
lineisisa apartial
partial enlarged
enlarged
enlarged image.
image.
image.
From this,
From this,
From itit can
this, it can
canbe be seen
beseen that
seenthat there
thatthere are
thereare cracks
cracksatat
arecracks the
atthe bottoms
bottomsofof
thebottoms the
ofthe peeling
thepeeling
peeling pits
pits
pits under
under
under
different contact
different contact
different stresses,
contactstresses, and
stresses,and these
andthese cracks
thesecracks propagate
crackspropagate in a relatively
propagateinina arelatively disorderly
relativelydisorderly
disorderly manner,
manner,
manner,
different
different from
different from
fromthe the crack
thecrack propagation
crackpropagation
propagationmode mode
modethat that occurs
thatoccurs
occurson on the
onthe surface
thesurface
surfaceand and
and subsurface
subsurface
subsurface ofof
of
the specimen.
the specimen.
the specimen.In In addition,
Inaddition, a large
addition,aalarge number
largenumber of secondary
numberofofsecondary cracks
secondarycrackscracksare are generated
aregenerated
generated during
during
during the
thethe
propagation
propagationprocess,
propagation process, indicating
process,indicating
indicatingthatthat the
thatthe depth
depthofof
thedepth the
ofthe peeling
thepeeling
peelingpit pit will
pitwill
will continue
continue
continue toto
to increase
increase
increase
with the
withthe
with continued
thecontinued
continuedaction action of cyclic
actionofofcyclic load.
cyclicload.
load.

Figure
Figure 11.
Figure 11.Cross-sectional
11. Cross-sectionalmorphology
Cross-sectional morphologyofof
morphology ofthe
thepeeling
the peelingpits
peeling pitson
pits onthe
on thefatigue
the fatiguespecimen
fatigue under
specimen
specimen different
under
under different
different
contact
contactstresses:
stresses:(a)
(a)1300
1300MPa,
MPa,(b)
(b)1400
1400MPa,
MPa,and
and(c)(c)1500
1500MPa.
MPa.
contact stresses: (a) 1300 MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, and (c) 1500 MPa.

As
As shown
Asshown
shownin in Figure
inFigure 12,
Figure12, the
12,the further
further
the further magnification
magnification
magnification ofofthe
ofthe local
local
the crack
crack
local reveals
reveals
crack the
revealsthe pres-
presence
the pres-
ence
of of
many many
small small granular
granular pieces pieces
of of
debrisdebris
insideinside
the the
crack, crack,
and aand a closure
closure phenomenon
phenomenon
ence of many small granular pieces of debris inside the crack, and a closure phenomenon can be
can be
observed observed during
during the
can be observed the
crack
during crack propagation
propagation
the process
process at
crack propagation at
location
process location
1
at location ➀. This indicates
➀. This indicates
⃝. This indicates that
that there is
that
there
thereisismutual
mutual mutualfriction
friction frictionbetween
between the crack
between the crack
cracksurfaces
surfaces
the in the in
surfaces inthe
therolling
rolling rollingcontact
contact fatigue
contactfatigue specimen
specimen
fatigue under
specimen
under
cyclic cyclic
cyclicloading.
underloading. loading.

Figure 12. Morphology of internal cracks.

Figure12.
Figure 12. Morphology
Morphology of
of internal
internal cracks.
cracks.
The metallographic structure of the specimen corroded with a 4% nitric acid alcohol
Thewas
The
solution metallographic
metallographic
observed understructure
structure of the
of
an optical the specimen corroded
specimen
microscope, corroded with
as shownwith aa 4%
in Figure4%13.nitric
nitric acid
acid
It can alcohol
bealcohol
seen
solution
solution was
was observed
observed under
under an
an optical
optical microscope,
microscope, as
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure
that the microstructure of the roll is mainly composed of pearlite and cementite distrib- 13.
13. It
It can
can be
be seen
seen
that
that the
the microstructure
microstructure ofof the
the roll
roll is is mainly
mainly composed
composed of of pearlite
pearlite and and cementite
cementite
uted in phases. The pearlite structure is fine-lamellar in nature while the cementite struc- distrib-
distributed
in phases.
uted
ture The strip
in phases.
has a fine pearlite structure
Theshape.
pearlite is fine-lamellar
structure in nature
is fine-lamellar while the
in nature cementite
while structure
the cementite has
struc-
ature
finehasstrip shape.
a fine strip shape.
The cross-section of the failed specimen under contact stresses of 1300 MPa and
1500 MPa was subjected to corrosion treatment, as shown in Figure 14. In Figure 14a, cracks
generated under low cyclic load mainly propagate along the pearlite and the interface
between pearlite and cementite. In Figure 14b, under high cyclic load, in addition to cracks
at the metallographic interface, a large number of small cracks are also distributed on the
cementite structure. This indicates that when the contact stress reaches a certain level, the
crack will propagate through the cementite structure in addition to spreading along the
metallographic interface.
Metals 2024,14,
Metals2024, 14,548
548 99 of
of 15
15

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Metallographic
Metallographic structure
structure of
of AD180
AD180 high-carbon
high-carbonsemi-steel
semi-steelroll.
roll.

Thecross-section
The cross-section of
of the
the failed
failed specimen
specimenunder
undercontact
contactstresses
stressesofof1300
1300MPa
MPaandand1500
1500MPa
MPa
was subjected to corrosion treatment, as shown in Figure 14. In Figure 14a, cracks
was subjected to corrosion treatment, as shown in Figure 14. In Figure 14a, cracks generated generated
under low cyclic load mainly propagate along the pearlite and the interface between pearlite
under low cyclic load mainly propagate along the pearlite and the interface between pearlite
and cementite. In Figure 14b, under high cyclic load, in addition to cracks at the metallo-
and cementite. In Figure 14b, under high cyclic load, in addition to cracks at the metallo-
graphic interface, a large number of small cracks are also distributed on the cementite struc-
graphic interface, a large number of small cracks are also distributed on the cementite struc-
ture. This indicates that when the contact stress reaches a certain level, the crack will propagate
ture. This indicates that when the contact stress reaches a certain level, the crack will propagate
Figure13.
through 13.
theMetallographic structure
cementite structure
Metallographic structure ofAD180
in of AD180to
addition high-carbon
spreading semi-steel
high-carbon roll.
along theroll.
metallographic interface.
Figure
through the cementite structure in addition to spreadingsemi-steel
along the metallographic interface.
The cross-section of the failed specimen under contact stresses of 1300 MPa and 1500 MPa
was subjected to corrosion treatment, as shown in Figure 14. In Figure 14a, cracks generated
under low cyclic load mainly propagate along the pearlite and the interface between pearlite
and cementite. In Figure 14b, under high cyclic load, in addition to cracks at the metallo-
graphic interface, a large number of small cracks are also distributed on the cementite struc-
ture. This indicates that when the contact stress reaches a certain level, the crack will propagate
through the cementite structure in addition to spreading along the metallographic interface.

Figure Metallographicstructure
14. Metallographic
Figure 14. structureofof the
the cross-section
cross-section of the
of the failed
failed specimen:
specimen: (a) 1300
(a) 1300 MPa MPa and
and (b)
Figure
(b)
1500 14.
1500 Metallographic structure of the cross-section of the failed specimen: (a) 1300 MPa and (b)
MPa.
MPa.
1500 MPa.
Figure
Figure 15 shows the
15 shows the SEM
SEMmorphology
morphologyof ofthe
thecross-sectional
cross-sectionalstructure
structureunderunderdifferent
different
contactFigure
contact 15 shows
stresses.
stresses. Fromthe
From SEM15b,c,
Figure
Figure morphology
15b,c, itit can
canbe beof thethat
seen
seen cross-sectional
that thepearlite
the structure
pearlitearea
areacloser
closerunder
totothe
thedifferent
surface
surface
of
of the specimen is darker compared to the interior while there is no significant change inin
the
contact specimen
stresses. is
Fromdarker compared
Figure 15b,c, it to
can the
be interior
seen while
that the there is
pearlite no
area significant
closer to change
the surface
the
of cementite
thethe specimen
cementite area. From Figure
is darker
area. From Figure
compared15a,b,
15a,b, toitit
thecan
can beseen
seen
interior
be thatthe
while
that thenear-surface
therenear-surface
is no significantstructure
structure ofofthe
change the
in
specimen
specimen will not change under contact stress less than 1300 MPa but will change when it
the cementitewill not
area. change
From under
Figure contact
15a,b, it stress
can beless
seenthanthat 1300
the MPa but
near-surfacewill change
structure when
of the
reaches
specimen
it reaches1400 MPa.
will
1400 not
MPa.In In
addition,
change under
addition,when
contact
when thethecontact
stress stress
less
contact than values
stress 1300 are
MPa
values 1400
arebut MPa
1400will
MPaand
change15001500
and MPa,
when
Figure
the 14. Metallographic
distances structure of the cross-section of the failed specimen: (a) 1300 MPa and (b)
it reaches
MPa, 1400between
the distances Inthe
MPa.between near-surface
addition, whenchange
the near-surface tissuestress
the contact
change and the
tissue andspecimen
valuestheare 1400
specimensurface
MPa are
andabout
surface 1500
are
1500 MPa.
50
MPa, µmthe
about and
50 65and
distances
μm respectively.
µm,65between This Thisindicates
the near-surface
μm, respectively. that that
change
indicates the
tissuedepth
theand of
depththechange
ofspecimen
change tissue near
surface
tissue near the
are
surface
about 50ofμm
the surface the
of specimen
and
the 65 μm,increases
specimen with
respectively.
increases the the
This
with contact
indicates
contactstress.
that the depth of change tissue near
stress.
Figure 15 shows the SEM morphology of the cross-sectional structure under different
the surface of the specimen increases with the contact stress.
contact stresses. From Figure 15b,c, it can be seen that the pearlite area closer to the surface
of the specimen is darker compared to the interior while there is no significant change in
the cementite area. From Figure 15a,b, it can be seen that the near-surface structure of the
specimen will not change under contact stress less than 1300 MPa but will change when
it reaches 1400 MPa. In addition, when the contact stress values are 1400 MPa and 1500
MPa, the distances between the near-surface change tissue and the specimen surface are
about 50 μm and 65 μm, respectively. This indicates that the depth of change tissue near
the surface of the specimen increases with the contact stress.
Figure 15.
Figure 15.SEM
SEMmorphology
morphologyofofcross-sectional
cross-sectional structure
structure under
under different
different contact
contact stresses:
stresses: (a) 1300
(a) 1300 MPa,
MPa,
Figure(b) 1400 MPa, and (c) 1500 MPa.
(b) 140015. SEM
MPa, morphology
and of cross-sectional structure under different contact stresses: (a) 1300
(c) 1500 MPa.
MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, and (c) 1500 MPa.
4. Discussion
4.1. Influence of Contact Stress on the Damage of Fatigue Specimens
At present, there are two viewpoints on the location of crack initiation. The first is that
cracks originate on the surfaces of parts, represented by the “ratchet effect”. Most experts
and scholars believe that the ratchet effect causes the plastic deformation of materials,
leading to the generation of cracks, and friction is the main reason for the ratchet effect.
Figure 15. SEM morphology of cross-sectional structure under different contact stresses: (a) 1300
Under the action of friction, shear stress is generated on the surface of the material, and
MPa, (b) 1400 MPa, and (c) 1500 MPa.
Metals 2024, 14, 548 10 of 15

the material eventually forms cracks under the repeated action of shear stress [18,19].
The second viewpoint believes that the initial cracks form on the subsurface, and its
representative theory is that the internal structure of the material is uneven, with defects
and inclusions present [20,21]. Ekberg’s [22] study showed that subsurface defects are
the main causes of subsurface cracks mainly located 3–5 mm away from the material
surface. When the material surface is subjected to tangential forces, a shear strain stress
field is formed on the surface and inside the material. When the internal deformation of
the material reaches the toughness limit, voids will appear, resulting in the formation of
internal cracks. Both of these viewpoints are reflected in Figures 9 and 10, but it should be
pointed out that the distance between the subsurface crack initiation and the surface of the
specimen was only 101–384 µm, which was much less than 3–5 mm.
As can be seen from the above, although cracks originate on both the surface and
subsurface of the specimen, the peeling pits are mainly caused by the propagation of
surface cracks. In addition, the main role of cementite is to improve the wear resistance
and hardness of the material, but it will also increase the brittleness of the material [23],
and compared with cementite, pearlite is relatively soft, with low hardness and strength.
Therefore, under cyclic loading, the deformation of pearlite and cementite is inconsistent
due to the difference in performance, and cracks can easily spread along the interface of
pearlite and cementite. Furthermore, due to the tendency of stress concentration on both
sides of the contact surface of the specimen, cracks are more likely to initiate at the edge of
the contact surface (Figure 7), resulting in peeling pits (Figure 4).
The macroscopic damages on the surface of the fatigue specimen of an AD180 high-
carbon semi-steel roll are peeling pits and pitting corrosion, and the area and depth of
peeling pits, as well as the amount of pitting corrosion, increase with the contact stress.
For peeling, this is because an increase in contact stress will lead to an increase in shear
stress and compressive stress, and an increase in shear stress will promote the occurrence
of peeling, and an increase in compressive stress will lead to an increase in the crack
initiation angle. Therefore, high contact stress will increase the depth and angle of crack
propagation in rolling contact fatigue specimens, leading to the formation of larger peeling
pits. For pitting corrosion, this is due to the small cracks generated on the surface of the
material under pressure, and the increase in friction force will promote the generation of
small cracks.
The elastic deformation between the contact surfaces of components will increase
with the load [24], leading to an increase in the contact area between components and
an increase in frictional force, resulting in the generation and development of pitting
corrosion. It should be noted that the microdamage to the contact surface under low
stress mainly manifests as plow grooves while under high stress, it manifests as plow
grooves and delamination, but the plowing is not obvious. This is because the friction
between the contact surfaces of the fatigue specimens generates abrasive particles. When
the two specimens maintain relative motion, the abrasive particles are plowed into the
softer material to form a plow groove. As the contact stress increases, the abrasive particles
are carried away, resulting in less obvious plow groove damage but intensifying wear, and
the surface undergoes plastic deformation (Figure 6b), making the contact surface of the
sample rougher.
Based on a rolling contact fatigue failure analysis of non-carbide bainitic high-carbon
steel, Qiu Lining et al. [25] pointed out that when the experimental stress changed from a
low contact stress of 1.8 GPa to a high contact stress of 2.6 GPa, the surface roughness of the
sample increased, and the results in Section 3.1 above also show that the surface roughness
increased with the contact stress; thus, the two results are consistent. The roughness curves
(Figure 8) show that both sides of the fatigue sample have high roughness, and studies have
shown that the increase in roughness can easily cause stress concentration on the surface
of the components [26], thus reducing the fatigue life of the components and proving that
both sides of the sample are more prone to damage under the effect of stress concentration.
 ness increased with the contact stress; thus, the two results are consistent. The roughness
curves (Figure 8) show that both sides of the fatigue sample have high roughness, and
studies have shown that the increase in roughness can easily cause stress concentration
on the surface of the components [26], thus reducing the fatigue life of the components
Metals 2024, 14, 548 11 of of
15
and proving that both sides of the sample are more prone to damage under the effect
stress concentration.

4.2. Influence of
4.2. Influence of Contact
Contact Stress
Stress on
on the
the Surface
Surface Structure
Structure of of Fatigue
Fatigue Specimens
Specimens
The
The near-surface
near-surfacepearlite
pearlitestructure
structureofofthe
thefatigue
fatiguespecimen
specimen experiences
experiences changes
changesunder
un-
cyclic loading,
der cyclic resulting
loading, in darker
resulting areasareas
in darker wherewherethe structure is called
the structure troostite
is called or extremely
troostite or ex-
fine pearlite
tremely fine[27–29].
pearlite According to the above
[27–29]. According results,
to the abovethe near-surface
results, structure of
the near-surface an AD180
structure of
high-carbon
an AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll will undergo structural changes when the reaches
semi-steel roll will undergo structural changes when the contact stress contact
1400
stressMPa,
reachesthat1400
is, from
MPa,pearlite to troostite.
that is, from pearlite This indicates
to troostite. that
This troostite
indicates will
that only form
troostite will
when the contact stress reaches a certain level, which means that
only form when the contact stress reaches a certain level, which means that pearlite pearlite will be refined
will
under cyclic
be refined loading.
under cyclic loading.
At the same
At the same depth
depth near
near the
the surface
surface of
of fatigue
fatigue specimens,
specimens, the the grain
grain morphology
morphology and and
dislocation
dislocation density were analyzed under different contact stresses, as shown in
density were analyzed under different contact stresses, as shown in Figure
Figure 16.
16.

Figure 16. Grain morphology and grain size bar chart of fatigue specimens under different contact
Figure 16. Grain morphology and grain size bar chart of fatigue specimens under different contact
stresses: (a) 1300 MPa and (b) 1400 MPa.
stresses: (a) 1300 MPa and (b) 1400 MPa.

According to
According toFigure
Figure16,16,the
theaverage
average grain
grain sizes
sizes under
under contact
contact stresses
stresses of 1300
of 1300 MpaMpaand
and 1400
1400 Mpa Mpa werewere 6.83and
6.83 µm μm6.10andµm,
6.10respectively,
μm, respectively,
whichwhich confirms
confirms thethat
the rule rulethe
that the
grain
grain refinement
refinement becomes becomes more pronounced
more pronounced with
with the the increase
increase in contact
in contact stress.
stress. The The dis-
dislocation
locationof
density density of the subsurface
the subsurface structurestructure of the specimen
of the specimen changeschanges underloading.
under cyclic cyclic loading.
Under
contact stresses of 1300 Mpa and 1400 Mpa, the average dislocation densities densities
Under contact stresses of 1300 Mpa and 1400 Mpa, the average dislocation of
of ferrite in
ferrite in pearlite were 2.77
14 ×
2 10 14/m2 and 4.33
14 × 10
2 14/m2, respectively, and the average dis-
pearlite were 2.77 × 10 /m and 4.33 × 10 /m , respectively, and the average dislocation
location densities
densities of cementite
of cementite in pearliteinandpearlite and were
cementite cementite
0.74 × were
10140.74
/m2 ×and10140.82
/m2 ×and 0.82
1014 /m2×.
10 /mthe
14
Thus, 2 . Thus, the dislocation
dislocation density on density on the secondary
the secondary surface ofsurface of the
the fatigue fatigue specimen
specimen increases
increases
with with the
the contact contact
stress. Some stress. Some
studies havestudies
shownhave shown
that the that thecaused
dislocation dislocation caused by
by deformation
increases the possibility of crack initiation, so the high fault density caused by high stress
will accelerate the fatigue damage of the sample [30].
At different subsurfaces of the specimens, the grain morphology and dislocation
density were analyzed under same contact stress, as shown in Figure 17. Among them,
the subsurface depth of the analyzed fatigue specimen in Figure 17a was smaller than
that in Figure 17b. By comparing the two, it can be seen that the subsurface closer to
the specimen surface had more fine grains and smaller grain sizes. In Figure 17a,b, the
average dislocation densities of ferrite in pearlite are 2.78 × 1014 /m2 and 1.93 × 1014 /m2 ,
respectively, and the average dislocation densities of cementite in pearlite and cementite
are 0.52 × 1014 /m2 and 0.43 × 1014 /m2 , which indicates that the dislocation density on
 sity were analyzed under same contact stress, as shown in Figure 17. Among them, the
subsurface depth of the analyzed fatigue specimen in Figure 17a was smaller than that in
Figure 17b. By comparing the two, it can be seen that the subsurface closer to the specimen
surface had more fine grains and smaller grain sizes. In Figure 17a,b, the average disloca-
Metals 2024, 14, 548 tion densities of ferrite in pearlite are 2.78 × 1014/m2 and 1.93 × 1014/m2, respectively, 12 and
of 15
the average dislocation densities of cementite in pearlite and cementite are 0.52 × 1014/m2
and 0.43 × 1014/m2, which indicates that the dislocation density on the subsurface of the
fatigue specimen
the subsurface ofdecreases
the fatigue with increasing
specimen depth. with
decreases Because grain refinement
increasing means grain
depth. Because a de-
crease in grain
refinement size,aan
means increasein
decrease ingrain
grain size,
boundary area, and
an increase in an increase
grain in grain
boundary boundary
area, and an
energy,
increase itin has
graina boundary
strengthening
energy,effect
it hasand promotes aneffect
a strengthening increase in specimen
and promotes hardness
an increase in
specimen
[31,32], andhardness [31,32],inand
the increase the increase
dislocation in dislocation
density can hinderdensity can hinder of
the movement thesubsequent
movement
of subsequentthereby
dislocations, dislocations,
producingthereby producing
dislocation dislocationeffects
strengthening strengthening effects
[33]. It can [33]. It
be inferred
can be inferred that the hardness of the specimen cross-section gradually
that the hardness of the specimen cross-section gradually decreases with increasing cross- decreases with
increasingdepth,
sectional cross-sectional depth,size
and the grain andat thethe
grain
samesize at the same
distance fromdistance from the
the specimen specimen
surface de-
surface with
creases decreases with increasing
increasing contact stress.
contact stress.

Figure
Figure 17.
17. Grain
Grain morphology
morphology and
and grain
grain size
size bar
bar charts
charts of
of fatigue
fatiguespecimens
specimens at
atdifferent
differentsubsurfaces:
subsurfaces:
(a) subsurface depth 1 and (b) subsurface depth
(a) subsurface depth 1 and (b) subsurface depth 2.2.

The hardness
hardnessofofthe
thespecimen
specimencross-section
cross-section was measured
was measured every 50 μm
every fromfrom
50 µm the sur-
the
face using a Vickers hardness tester, and the hardness curve shown in Figure
surface using a Vickers hardness tester, and the hardness curve shown in Figure 18 was 18 was ob-
tained.
obtained.ByBy
observing thethe
observing variation pattern
variation patternofofthe
thehardness
hardnessofofthe
thespecimen
specimencross-section,
cross-section,
we found that the surface hardness of the specimen increases with the contact stress while
the hardness of the subsurface layer gradually decreases with the increase in depth and
finally tends to be consistent. This
This result
result indicates
indicates that the
the rolling
rolling contact
contact fatigue
fatigue specimen
of an AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll undergoes hardening under cyclic loading. The
depths of the hardened layer at 1300 MPa, 1400 MPa, and 1500 MPa were approximately
550 µm, 650 µm, and 680 µm, respectively. This indicates that as the contact stress increases,
the depth of the hardened layer of the specimen gradually increases. In addition, as shown
in Figure 18, the near-surface hardness of the specimen increased with the contact stress,
which was consistent with the above results.
 550 μm, 650 μm, and 680 μm, respectively. This indicates that as the contact stress in-
creases, the depth of the hardened layer of the specimen gradually increases. In addition,
Metals 2024, 14, 548 13 of 15
as shown in Figure 18, the near-surface hardness of the specimen increased with the con-
tact stress, which was consistent with the above results.

Figure18.
Figure 18.Hardness
Hardnesscurve
curveofofspecimen
specimencross-section.
cross-section.

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
This
Thisstudy
studyused
usedAD180
AD180high-carbon
high-carbonsemi-steel-roll
semi-steel-rollsteel
steelasasaatest
testmaterial
materialtotocarry
carryout
out
aarolling contact fatigue test under different contact stresses and compare
rolling contact fatigue test under different contact stresses and compare the resulting the resulting
pitting
pittingcorrosion,
corrosion,spalling
spallingpits,
pits,and
andother
othertypes
typesofofdamage
damagetotosamples.
samples.The Theinfluence
influenceofof
contact
contactstress
stressononthe
thedamage
damagetotofatigue
fatiguesamples
samplesand andthe
thesurface
surfacestructures
structuresofofsamples
sampleswas was
discussed.
discussed.ThisThisresearch
researchisishelpful
helpfultotofurther
furtherunderstand
understandthe thefatigue
fatiguebehavior
behaviorofofrolls.
rolls.The
The
research
researchconclusions
conclusionsare areasasfollows:
follows:
(1)
(1) The
Themain
mainforms
formsofoffatigue
fatiguedamage
damage ofofananAD180
AD180 high-carbon
high-carbon semi-steel
semi-steelrollroll
are are
peeling,
peel-
pitting corrosion, and plowing while the surface of the roll also exhibits
ing, pitting corrosion, and plowing while the surface of the roll also exhibits delami- delamination
and plastic
nation and deformation characteristics
plastic deformation under high
characteristics undercontact stress. Among
high contact these,
stress. Among
peeling causes the most severe damage to the specimen and is
these, peeling causes the most severe damage to the specimen and is the main form the main form of
specimen failure.
of specimen failure.
(2)
(2) The
The surface
surfaceroughness
roughness(axial(axialand
andtangential)
tangential)of ofthe
therolling
rollingcontact
contactfatigue
fatiguespecimen
specimen
and the area and depth of the peeling pits increase with the contact
and the area and depth of the peeling pits increase with the contact stress. stress.
(3)
(3) The
Thecrack
crackinitiation
initiationat atthe
thesurface
surfaceedge
edgeof ofthe
therolling
rollingcontact
contactfatigue
fatiguespecimen
specimenisisthe the
main
main reason for the formation and distribution of peeling pits on bothsides
reason for the formation and distribution of peeling pits on both sidesof ofthe
the
contact
contact surface.
surface. Under
Under lowlow cyclic
cyclic load,
load, cracks
cracks mainly
mainlypropagate
propagatealong alongthe thepearlite
pearlite
and at the interface between pearlite and cementite. Under high cyclic loads, cracks
and at the interface between pearlite and cementite. Under high cyclic loads, cracks
will also propagate along the cementite.
will also propagate along the cementite.
(4) Repeated cyclic loading can refine the grain size of the specimen, increase the disloca-
(4) Repeated cyclic loading can refine the grain size of the specimen, increase the dislo-
tion density, and thus increase the surface hardness. The cross-sectional hardness of
cation density, and thus increase the surface hardness. The cross-sectional hardness
the specimen decreases with an increasing depth and gradually stabilizes.
of the specimen decreases with an increasing depth and gradually stabilizes.
On the basis of the above research, the relationship between the microstructure and
On the basis of the above research, the relationship between the microstructure and
roll damage of the AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll can be further studied to provide new
roll damage of the AD180 high-carbon semi-steel roll can be further studied to provide
possible approaches to improving the roll’s service life.
new possible approaches to improving the roll’s service life.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.L. and Z.R.; data curation, L.L. and Q.C.; formal analysis,
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.L. and Z.R.; data curation, L.L. and Q.C.; formal anal-
Y.L. and H.H.; methodology, Z.R.; validation, Z.Z. and Y.L.; writing—original draft, Y.L.; writing—
ysis, Y.L. and H.H.; methodology, Z.R.; validation, Z.Z. and Y.L.; writing—original draft, Y.L.; writ-
review and editing, L.L., Q.C. and H.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
ing—review and editing, L.L., Q.C. and H.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published
the manuscript.
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program Project (2021YFB3401002),
Funding: This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program Project (2021YFB3401002),
National Natural Science Foundation of China Projects (U23B2099, 52305406), Shanxi Province Science
National Natural Science Foundation of China Projects (U23B2099, 52305406), Shanxi Province
and Technology Innovation Talent Team Special Project (202304051001025), Open Research Fund from
the Hai’an & Taiyuan University of Technology Advanced Manufacturing and Intelligent Equipment
Industrial Research Institute (2023HA-TYUTKFYF037), Open Research Fund from National Key
Laboratory of Metal Forming Technology and Heavy Equipment (S2308100.W15), Natural Science
Metals 2024, 14, 548 14 of 15

Foundation of Shanxi Province (202303021212046), and Funding Project of Central Guiding for Local
Science and Technology Development (236Z1024G).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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